Sensors and Actuators

for Automation
(EE 5210)

Lecture : 5

Logeeshan V. (Ph.D.)
Senior Lecturer

1
 Signal Conditioning in LVDT
• Signal conditioning associated with differential transformers includes filtering and
amplification.

• Filtering is needed to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the output signal.

• Amplification is necessary to increase the signal strength for data acquisition,

transmission, and processing.

• The secondary signal of an LVDT is an amplitude-

modulated signal, where the signal component at
the carrier frequency is modulated by the lower-
frequency transient signal produced as a result of
the core motion .

3
 Signal Conditioning in LVDT
• Two methods are
commonly used to
interrupt the crude output
signal from a differential
transformer:

 Rectification

 Demodulation

4
 Example
• Figure shows a schematic diagram of a simplified signal-condition system for an LVDT.
The system variables and parameters are as indicated in the figure. In particular,

5
 Example
• The resistances , , and , and the capacitance are as marked. In addition, we may
introduce a transformer parameter for the LVDT, as required.
I. Explain the functions of the various components of the system shown in Figure bellow.
II. Write equations for the amplifier and filter circuits and, using them, give expressions
for the voltage signals and which are marked in figure. Note that the
excitation in the primary coil is 𝒑 𝒄
III. Suppose that the carrier frequency is and the filter resistance
. If no more than of the carrier component should pass through the
filter, estimate the required value of the filter capacitance . Also, What is the useful
frequency range (measurement bandwidth) of the measuring device in radians per
second, with these parameter values?
IV. If the displacement is linearly increasing, sketch the signals , , , and
as functions of time.
6
I. Explain the functions of the various components of the system shown in Figure bellow.
I. Write equations for the amplifier and filter circuits and, using them, give expressions for
the voltage signals and which are marked in figure. Note that the excitation
in the primary coil is 𝒑 𝒄
I. Suppose that the carrier frequency is and the filter resistance .
If no more than of the carrier component should pass through the filter, estimate the
required value of the filter capacitance . Also, What is the useful frequency range
(measurement bandwidth) of the measuring device in radians per second, with these
parameter values?
 Advantages of the LVDT
• It is essentially a noncontracting device with no frictional resistance. Near ideal
electromechanical energy conversion and lightweight core will result in very small
resistive forces. Hysteresis is negligible.

• It has low output impedance, typically in the order of 100Ω.

• Directional measurements are provided by it.

• It is available in small sizes.

• It has a simple and robust construction.

• Fine resolutions are possible.

14
 Rotary-Variable Differential Transformer
• RVDT operates using the
same principle as the
LVDT except that in
RVDT a rotating
ferromagnetic core is
used.

• The linear range is

typically with a
nonlinearity error less
than of full
scale.

15
 Rotary-Variable Differential Transformer
• For the same displacement value the transducer reading depends on the velocity of the
measured object at the displacement.

• This error is known as the rate error , which increases with the ratio

• The rate error can be reduced by increasing carrier frequency.

16
 Mutual Induction Proximity Sensor

• It is particularly suitable for measuring transverse displacements or proximities of moving

objects.
18
 Application of the MIPS
• Measurement and control of the gap between a robotic welding torch head and the work
surface.

• Gaging the thickness of metal plates in manufacturing operations.

• Detecting surface irregularities in machined parts.

• Angular speed measurement at steady state by counting the number of rotations per unit
time.

• Measurement of vibration in rotating machinery and structures.

• Level detection.

• Monitoring of bearing assembly process. 19

 Self-Induction Transducer
• This device can be used as a displacement sensor for
transverse displacements.

20
 Resolver
• It is particularly suitable for measuring transverse
displacements or proximities of moving objects.

• The induced voltage in this pair of windings is

given by:

• The induced voltage in the other pair of windings

is given by:

• The constant parameter depends

primarily on geometric and material
characteristics of the device.

23
Demodulation

24
 Advantages and Limitations of Resolver
• Fine resolution and high accuracy.

• Low output impedance

• Small size

• Direct availability of the sin and cos functions of the measured angles.

• Limitations: Nonlinear output signals

Bandwidth limited by supply frequency
Sliprings and brushes would be needed if complete and multiple rotations have
to be measured.

25
 Synchro Transformer

• This can be used to measure relative displacements between two rotating objects.
27
 Permanent-Magnet Transducers
• They have permanent magnet to generate a uniform and steady magnetic field.

• A relative motion between the magnetic field and an electrical conductor induces a voltage,
which is proportional to the speed at which the conductor crosses the magnetic field.

• This transducers are not variable reluctance devices in general.

28
 DC Tachometer
• This is a permanent magnet dc velocity sensor in which the principle of electromagnetic
induction in a conducting coil due to variations in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet
is used.

• Depending on the configuration, either rectilinear speeds or angular speeds can be

measured.

• This is a passive transducers, because the

energy for the output signal is derived
from the motion enclosed in a steel casing to
shield it from ambient magnetic fields.

29
 DC Tachometer
• The core is attached to the moving object whose
velocity must be measured. This velocity is
proportional to the induced voltage

• A moving magnet and a fixed coil also may be

used as a velocity transducers in some places.

• According to Faraday’s law, the induced voltage is

proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linkage.

𝟎 𝒄 𝒄

30
 Example
• A DC tachometer is shown schematically in the figure below. The field windings are
powered by DC voltage . The across variable at the input port is the measured angular
speed

• Obtained a transfer-function model for this device? Discuss the assumptions needed to
decouple this result into a practical input-output model for a tachometer. What are the
corresponding design implications? Discuss the significance of the mechanical time
constant and the electrical time constant of the tachometer? 31
 Permanent Magnet AC Tachometer
• This device has a permanent magnet rotor and two separate sets of stator windings as
schematically shown in Figure below.

• When the rotor is stationary or moving in a

quasi-static manner, the output voltage is a
constant amplitude signal much like the
reference voltage as in an electrical
transformer.

• As the rotor moves at a finite speed, an additional induced voltage, which is proportional to
the rotor speed is generated in the secondary coil.

• The direction of velocity is determined from the phase angle of the modulated signal
respect to the carrier signal.
34
 AC Induction Tachometer
• The rotor has windings, which are shorted and not energized by an external source as shown
in the figure below.

• The main advantage of AC

tachometers over their
conventional DC counterparts is the
absence of slip-ring and brush
devices, since the output is
obtained from the stator.

• It is known that at high speeds the output from an ac tachometer is somewhat non-linear.

• Signal demodulation is necessary, particularly for measuring transient speeds.

35
Eddy Current Transducers

36
 Eddy Current Transducers
• If a conducting medium is subjected to a fluctuating magnetic field, eddy currents are
generated in the medium.

• The strength of eddy currents increases with

the:
 Strength of the magnetic field
 Frequency of the magnetic flux

• Eddy current sensors may be used as either

 dimensional gaging devices
 displacement sensors.

37
Eddy Current Transducers

38
 Eddy Current Transducers
• For large displacements, the output is not linearly related to the displacement.

• The sensitivity of an eddy current probe

depends nonlinearity on the nature of the
conducting medium and resistivity.

• The gage factor is usually expressed in volts per

millimeter.

• These sensors can be also used to measure resistivity and surface hardness, which affects
resistivity in metals.

• Sensitivity is in the order of 5V/mm.

39
Eddy Current Transducers

40
 Variable-Capacitance Transducers
• Variable-inductance devices and variable-capacitance devices are variable-reluctance
devices.

•
•
•

• A change in any one of the three parameters may be used in

the sensing process.

• Small transverse displacements, large rotations, and fluid levels can be measured using this
sensor. 41
 Variable-Capacitance Transducers
• A popular method
is to use a
capacitance bridge
circuit to measure
the change in
capacitance

• An alternative method is to make the capacitor

a part of an inductance-capacitance
oscillator circuit.

• The natural frequency of the

oscillator measures the
capacitance 42
 Capacitive Rotation Sensor

•
•

• The sensitivity of this angular displacement

sensor is.

• Which is constant throughout the

measurement.
43
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor

•
•

• The sensitivity of this

angular displacement sensor
is.

• Which is constant throughout the measurement.

44
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor

• The sensitivity of the device

can be increased by
increasing and

• The reference voltage may be either dc or ac with

frequency as high as 25 kHz

45
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor

• The sensitivity of the device

can be increased by
increasing and

• The reference voltage may be either dc or ac with

frequency as high as 25 kHz

46
 Example
• Consider the circuit shown in Figure below. Examine how this arrangement could be
used to measure displacements.

47