Communication & Internet

Technologies
1 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Data Transmission
2 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Data Packets

• Data sent over long distance is broken up into data packets

(datagrams).
• Data packets are small, 64KiB(Kilobytes).
• Why 64KiB? Easier to control than long continuous stream of
data.
• Splitting up data into small data packets to be sent over long
distances along different routes to its destination is to control
the stream of data.
• The split data packets will be reassembled when it reaches its
destination.

3 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Packet Structure
Packet Structure – Packet is split up into:
A packet header
• IP address of the source device (SENDER)
• IP address of the destination device (DESTINATION)
• Sequence number of the packet (allowing correct reassembly)
• Size of the packet (in bytes)

The payload
• The actual data in the packets(~64KiB)

A trailer
• Method of identifying the end of the packet
• Some form of error checking to ensure packet arrives error-free Sudha Vaitheeswaran
4
 For each packet, the packet header consists of:
• IP address of the sending device
• IP address of the receiving device
• Sequence number of the packet – to ensure that all the packets can be
reassembled into correct order once they reach the destination.
• Packet size – to ensure the receiving station can check if all the packets
arrived are intact.
• Header also contains value of total packets for the transmission.

For each packet, the payload consists of

• Actual data being sent in the packet (~ 64KiB)

5 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:
• Identifying the end of the packet.
❖(Why is it essential to identify the end of the packet?) Essential
because each packet is separated from each other as they travel from
source to destination(sending to receiving station)

• An error checking method – Cyclic redundancy checks(CRCs) are used

to check the data packets:
1. The sending computer adds up all the 1-bits in the payload, store this
a hex value in the trailer before it can send the data.
2. Once the packet arrives at the destination, the receiving computer
recalculates the number of 1-bts in the payload.
3. The computer then checks this value against the value sent in the
trailer.
4. If the both the values match, then no transmission errors have
6
occurred, otherwise the packet needs to be re-sent. Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Packet Switching

• A data transmission method in which a message is broken up

into a number of packets.
• Each packet can then be sent independently from start point
to end point.
• At the destination, the packets will be reassembled into their
correct order using the information in the header.
• At each stage in the transmission, there are nodes that
contain a router.
• Each router will determine which route the packet needs to
take to reach its destination. The destination IP address is
used in this process.
7 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Benefits Of Packet Switching

• There is no need to tie up a single communication line

• Possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty lines by simply re-
routing packets.
• Relatively easy to expand package usage.
• High data transmission is possible.

Drawbacks Of Packet Switching

• Packets can be lost and need to be re-sent.

• More prone to errors with real-time streaming (e.g. live sporting
event transmitted over internet)
• Delay at the destination whilst the packets are being re-ordered.
8 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Describe how the router will route the data packets to its destination.
• Each packet will follow its own path (route).
• Routers will determine the route of each packet
• Routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be
processed at each node.
• It selects the shortest possible path(path with less congestion)
available. This is not possible always as certain parts of the route may
be too busy or unsuitable.
• Packets reach the destination in a different order from the source IP
address.
• Then, the packets are reassembled into the original sequence at the
destination.

9 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Hopping – Read through – not in syllabus

• The data packets may get lost, they keep bouncing around from
router to router and never reach their destination.
• Network will halt at some point of time as the number of lost
packets mount up and clog the system. To overcome this Hopping
method is used.
• Hop number is added to the header of each packet, this number is
reduced by 1 every time it leaves the router.
• Each packet has a maximum hop number to start with. Once the
hop number reaches zero, and the packet did not reach the
destination, then the packet is deleted when it reaches the next
router.
• The missing packets will then be flagged by the receiving computer
and the request will be made to re-send these packets.
10 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
• Purpose of encryption
• When data is transmitted over public network
• there is a risk of interception by a hacker.
• Hacker is a.k.a eavesdropper.
• Using encryption minimizes risk.
• Encrption
• Converting the data into a scrambled/unreadable format which
appears meaningless to the user during data transmission.
• The receiver /recipient will have a decryption key/software to convert
it into a meaningful format.

11 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Encryption process
• Original data – plain text.
• After encryption algorithm produces ciphertext
(scrambled/unreadable format).
• After decryption algorithm produces plaintext

Plain Text
Plain Text Cipher Text Cipher Text
DECRYPTION PLAIN
PLAIN ENCRYPTION INTERNET
ALGORITHM TEXT
TEXT ALGORITHM

 
Encryption Decryption
key key
12 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Symmetric Encryption
Means – uses same Encoding →
Uses SINGLE key to encrypt and converting the
encryption key. decrypt the information into a
encoded message. particular form.

Modern computers could crack this encryption key. So, we now use 25bit binary
encryption keys 2256

Encryption key needs to be sent in an email /text message which can be

intercepted.

Disadvantages → security issue as single encryption key is used by both sender

and recipient.
13 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Asymmetric Encryption
Private Key → only
Uses TWO
encryption keys – Public key → made known to the user
available to (recipient→ the
public key and
everybody person who
private key.
receives it)

14 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Explanation of how asymmetric encryption works.
The recipient (receiver) uses an algorithm to RECEIVER
SENDER Jane sends Tom
generate a matching pair of keys (private & Jane
Tom
public) Public key
Public key public key
Private key

Matching pairs of keys are mathematically

linked but cannot be derived from each other.
RECEIVER
SENDER Tom sends Jane
Jane
Sender uses public key to encrypt the Tom
Public key
document to be sent to the receiver. Sends Public key an encrypted
the cipher text to receiver. Private key
document

Receiver /recipient uses matching private key

to unlock the document using the decryption
key .

Public key is used to encrypt the document and

private key is used to decrypt it. Bothe keys are
generated by the receiver/recipient computer.
15 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Data Transmission
Data transmission refers to the process of
transferring data between two or more digital
devices.
• Over short distance – e.g. from computer to printer.
• Over long distance – e.g. over a telephone network.

Three factors to be considered during data

transmission:
• Direction → one direction or both direction (bi-direction)
• Transmission Method → how many bits are sent at the
same time.
• Synchronization Method between two devices. Sudha Vaitheeswaran
16
Simplex, Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex Data Transmission
Direction / Modes of data transmission
Simplex
• ONE direction only, from sender → receiver
• E.g. data transmitted from computer to printer or scanner to computer.

Half-Duplex
• BOTH directions but NOT at the SAME TIME, data can be sent from A to B or B
to A along the same channel, but not at the same time.
• E.g. Walkiie talkie conversation where only one persons speaks at a time.

Full-Duplex
• BOTH directions SIMULTANEOUSLY, data can be sent from A to B or B to A
along the same channel, both at the same time.
• E.g. telephone conversation, broadband connection on a phone line.
17 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Examples
Simplex

• Keyboard to monitor / computer connections Simplex – Real life

• Scanner / Mouse / joystick to computer
• Computer to printer
• Radio broadcasting
• Television broadcasting
• Prime Minister or
• Loudspeaker
• Fire Alarm system
president addressing to
• Television and remote the nation
• Signal broadcasting(Basic Transceiver System to nodes)
• Rain
Half-Duplex

• Walkie-Talkies
• Internet Surfing(whenever your search something, you have to wait for the
response).
Half-Duplex
• USB 1.0 (You can either send or receive data but not the same time).

Full-Duplex • Discussion between the

• Telephone / mobile network students and teacher
• Broadband connection on a phone line
• Instant chat room • Conference
• Remote Desktop Connection
• Share it. (for exchange of data)
18 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Method of transmission - Serial & Parallel

In Serial and Parallel data transmission

Bits can be
Two methods used to transmit data between
transmitted as digital devices:
 simplex or
Serial transmission Parallel transmission
 half-duplex
or Serial data transmission sends Parallel data transmission
data bits one after another sends multiple data bits at the
 full-duplex over a single channel / stream. same time over multiple
channels.
19 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Serial Data Transmission
Serial Transmission
• One bit at a time, over a single wire/channel.
• Data transmitted at slower rate.
• Works well for long distance(in single channel data
received will always be in sync).
• Eg. Data sent from computer to modem for
transmission over telephone line.
• USB cable uses serial data transmission.

Parallel Transmission
• Several bits of data (usually 1 byte), over several wires / channels
at the same time, one wire for each bit of data.
• Data transmitted at faster rate.
• Works well over short distance. For long distance → data is
skewed / will not sync.
• E.g. send data from computer to printer using ribbon connector.
• Internal components, integrated circuits and buses of the computer
uses parallel data transmission for high speed data transfer.
20 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Synchronization Methods - Asynchronous &
Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Data Transmission Advantages: Disadvantage:
• Data transmits in a agreed bit pattern. • no synchronization is • data transmission
required between can be slower.
• Data sent in discrete groups. the transmitter and
• Data packets (1s & 0s) are grouped together receiver devices.
using control bits. • cost effective
• Start bit, stop bit and control bit is used to method.
synchronize the sender and the receiver.

Synchronous Data Transmission

• start bits, stop bits, and are not used since
data transmitter and receiver both operate Advantage: Disadvantages:
using a internal clock to synchronize the • data moves faster • data accuracy is
timing signals between them.
and timing errors are highly dependent on
• The receiver counts the bits (1s & 0s) sent, less frequent. E.g. timing being synced
reassembles them into bytes of data.
network between devices.
• Data bits transmitted in continuous stream. communication. • Expensive method.
• No control bits used, it uses internal clock
for timing signals.
21 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• Computer auto-
detects the device
(due to small voltage
change on the data
signal wires)
• New device is
recognized→

When
appropriate device
driver software is
loaded → computer &
plugged the device
communicates.
in: • If appropriate device
driver is unavailable,
the user is prompted
Key Points to download the
• Asynchronous serial data appropriate software.
transmission
USB consists of:
• Standard method for transferring • Four-wire shielded cable
data. • Two wires →power & earth
• Two types of standards – USB 2.0 & • Two wires → data
USB 3.0(identified in blue color transmission
which is high speed port compared
to USB2.0)
22 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Benefits & Drawbacks - USB
Benefits
• Auto detects the device
• Device drivers loaded automatically
• Connectors fits one way (prevents incorrect connections)
• Become industry standard method (support available for users)
• Several data transmission rates supported (USB 2.0, USB 3.0, microUSB)
• Newer USB standards are backward compatible (interoperability with earlier
versions) with older USB standards

Drawbacks
• Maximum cable length – 5metres
• Present transmission rate limited to 480 or 500Mbps
(Mega bits per second)
• Older USB standard(e.g 1.1) may not be supported in
future.
23 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Error-Checking Methods

Data corruption Due to disturbance in Transmission over

when transmitting
data transmission short or long
or errors occur and storing data
channel distances

Errors leads to Data inaccuracies Unreliable data

To avoid errors Use error detection Error correction

Error checking / 2. Automatic

1. Parity 4. Echo
Error detection Checking
Repeat Request 3. Checksum
Checking
methods (ARQ)

24 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Error Detection Methods
AUTOMATIC REPEAT
CHECKSUM CHECKDIGIT
REQUEST (ARQ)
• Simple method of detection. • Used in identifying barcodes, ISBNs, ID • Is a set of rules for error control during data transmission.

• When data is sent in blocks, an additional cards, equipment checking systems & • When the receiving device detects error in a data packet,

value checksum is also sent at the end of bank account numbers. it automatically sends a request to the transmitting
device to resend the packet.
data block. • Detects human errors when entering
• The resend request is repeated until error free data
• How it works ? Bits transmitted is counted these numbers.
packets are received or a limited amount of resend
up and this numeric count( check sum value) • Calculation done using the digits in these requests is reached.
is transmitted along with the data. The number and check digit at the end of • Uses ACKNOWLEDGEMENT → message sent by the
receiver checks and matches, if the same these numbers. receiver when the data is received correctly.

number of bits are transmitted to verify if • Computer will match the calculation & • TIMEOUT → time allowed to elapse before an

the data is error free. acknowledgment is received.

compare the check digit result to verify if
• If an acknowledgement isn’t sent back to the sender
• Checksum is also known as hashsum. the number is correct.
before timeout occurs, then the message is automatically
resent.

25 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Check Digit

26 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 ARQ

Method

• The sending computer transmits a block

of data
• The sending computer waits a period of
time to see if the receiving computer
acknowledges receipt of the data
• After a set period of time, a timeout
occurs which triggers the data to be
automatically resent by the sending
computer
• This will continue until the receiving
computer acknowledges the data has
been received

27 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Error Detection Methods
Parity check is used to check whether data has been changed or corrupted during data
transmission from one device / medium to another.

PARITY CHECK - is a check bit added to a

ECHO CHECK
string of binary code

• Parity check uses PARITY BIT to send data accurately. • Oldest means of error check.

• Data sent in bytes (usually 8 bits). • The receiving devices echoes the data received to the

• First 7 bits of the byte → for data. transmitting device.

• Last 1 bit of the byte → parity bit. • The transmitter /sender compares the two sets of data (data

• Even parity → uses even number of 1-bits. sent & received) to check if any errors occurred during the
transmission process.
• Odd parity → uses odd number of 1-bits.
• Slow method because characters are transmitted one at a
• Even or odd parity will be agreed & allocated before data
time in asynchronous mode.
transmission.
• Unreliable because error detection & correction is manually
• PARITY BLOCKS are used to detect which bit is in error. In this
done.
method, the number of bits are totaled in both horizontal and
vertical directions. • Contemporary data communication seldom uses this method.
28 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Even Parity

29 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Security Aspects
30 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Security Aspects

Network • Malware - A malicious software designed to damage /

disrupt the computer.

Issues • Hacking - Act of gaining unauthorized access to a

computer or network.

Network • Firewall
• Encryption
Security • Authentication Techniques – Digital certificates,
biometrics, username & password
Methods • Security Protocols – SSL, TLS

31 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Malware - A malicious software designed to damage / disrupt the computer.

• Is a malicious self-copying program that replicates itself & damage its target computer by corrupting data,
Virus reformatting your hard disk, or completely shutting down your system. They can also be used to steal
information, harm computers and networks, create botnets(internet-connected devices), steal money, render
advertisements, and more.

• Spread over computer networks by exploiting operating system vulnerabilities. It’s a standalone program that
replicates itself to infect other computers, without requiring action from anyone. It can spread fast, worms
Worm are often used to execute a payload – a piece of code that can cause damage / infect to a system like steal
data / delete files on a host system, encrypt data for a ransomware attack, steal information, delete files, and
create botnets.

• Enters your system as a normal, harmless file or program to trick users into downloading and installing
Trojan malware. As soon as you install a Trojan, you are giving cyber criminals access to your system to steal data,
install more malware, modify files, monitor user activity, destroy data, steal financial information, conduct
Horse denial of service (DoS) attacks on targeted web addresses, and more. Trojan malware cannot replicate by
itself, however, if combined with a worm, the damage Trojans can have on users and systems is endless.
32 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Malware - A malicious software designed to damage / disrupt the computer.

• Installed on your computer without your knowledge, spyware is designed to track your browsing habits
and internet activity. Spying capabilities can include activity monitoring, collecting keystrokes, data
Spyware
harvesting of account information, logins, and financial data, and more. Spyware can spread by
exploiting software vulnerabilities, bundling with legitimate software, or in Trojans.

• Ransomware is a type of malware that hold your data captive and demands payment to release the data
back to you. It restricts user access to the computer by either encrypting files on the hard drive or
Ransomware locking down the system and displaying messages that are intended to force the user to pay the attacker
to release the restrictions and regain access to the computer. Once the attacker is paid, your system and
data will be back to its original state.

Botnet → infected computers. Bot means individual computer. Botnet is network of computers
/ internet connected devices which is running one or more bots infected by malware. Botnets
can be used to perform Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks, steal data, send spam,
33 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
and allow the attacker to access the device and its connection.
 Internet Technologies

Internet
Internet
Service Web Browsers Web Servers URL HMTL Internet Terms
Protocol (IP)
Provider (ISP)

• company that • set of rules for • software which • A computer that • Uniform resource • Structural Layer – • HTTP – Hyper text
provides internet network allows a user to hosts a website. locator is a address content layer where transfer protocol is a
access to the users. communication display a web page of the website. we write html mark set of rules that
• IP Address on their computer ups / tags. must be obeyed
• MAC Address screen. • Presentation layers when transferring
(Media Access – creating styles for web pages and data
Control) the webpage using across the internet.
CSS (Cascading Style • FTP – File transfer
Sheets) protocol is a
network protocol
used for transferring
files from one
computer to
another over the
internet.

34 Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 March 2019 -12
Describe
how a • Sending device creates value from
calculation on data // By example
checksum • Numerical value is transmitted with the
block of data.
detects • Receiving device performs same calculation
• Values are compared after transmission. If
errors. values do not match an error is detected

35 Sudha Vaitheeswaran