Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230

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Review article

Seed germination and sprouts production of Moringa oleifera: A potential

functional food?
José A. Núñez-Gastélum a,1,⇑, Aldo A. Arguijo-Sustaita a,1, José A. López-Díaz a, Ángel G. Díaz-Sánchez a,
Claudia C. Hernández-Peña a, Keni Cota-Ruiz a,b
a
Departamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua 32315, Mexico
b
MSU DOE-Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Moringa oleifera is a plant valued for its properties and applications in Ethnomedicine. It is cultivated in
Received 25 August 2022 India, tropical Africa, and America; some regions use their different tissues as food supplements.
Revised 6 December 2022 Although germination can increase seedlings’ phytochemical content, few studies have described the
Accepted 11 December 2022
phytochemical content of moringa seedlings during early growth. This study aimed to investigate and
Available online 21 December 2022
discuss the limited information dealing with moringa seed germination, sprout production, and seed-
lings’ chemical composition. This bibliographical research was systematically and thoroughly conducted
Keywords:
using some of the most internationally-recognized databases. M. oleifera plants are characterized by their
Functional foods
Nutrients
ability to grow under adverse environmental conditions. Although they generally germinate at rates
Glucosinolates greater than 70%, this response depends on the altitude, light periods, temperature, and nutrient avail-
Phenolic compounds ability. Pre-germination treatments have also been reported to help improve germination yields; the
Isothiocyanates most common is soaking exposure. The production of M. oleifera sprouts is a viable option for obtaining
functional food as this process can increase the content of nutrients (e.g. lipids, proteins) and phytochem-
icals (glucosinolates and phenolic compounds). Also, sprouts can be used as additives to enrich conven-
tional foods. It is concluded that there is little scientific information describing the germination process
and the chemical composition of both moringa seeds and moringa sprouts. Therefore, it is a niche oppor-
tunity to build new research that helps fill the informational gaps mentioned above. Meanwhile, it is
envisioned that biotic or abiotic agents might modulate the germination process and their chemical
compounds.
Ó 2022 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.1. Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2. Moringa seedlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.1. Moringa seeds composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.2. Glucosinolates in moringa seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3. Seedling germination process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.1. M. oleifera seed germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jose.nunez@uacj.mx (J.A. Núñez-Gastélum).
1
First two authors contributed equally to this work.
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Production and hosting by Elsevier

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2022.12.002
1658-077X/Ó 2022 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230

3.2. Pre-germinative treatments on M. oleifera seed germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

3.3. Use of plant elicitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4. Moringa sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.1. Moringa sprouts production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.2. Moringa sprouts chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.3. Components of moringa sprouts related with antinutritional functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5. Moringa sprouts: What is next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7. Financial support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

1. Introduction tics are mainly associated with the flavonoids and/or

Moringa oleifera (moringa) belongs to the Moringaceae family
that includes 13 species native to India, some zones within the
Red Sea, and Madagascar (Paliwal et al., 2011). It is a fast-
growing deciduous tree with thick roots; it has light green leaves
and its dark seeds are encapsulated in the fruit (Fig. 1). It is native
to North India, so it grows in tropical climates. However, its culti-
vation has spread to North Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central and
North America. It is resistant to drought, and its ideal growth tem-
perature ranges from 25 to 35 °C (Egea et al., 2015). It performs
well in adequatley-drained sandy or loamy soils, with a pH
between 4.5 and 8 at an altitude of up to 2,000 m above sea level
(Nouman et al., 2014).
In South Asia, mainly India, moringa is known as ‘‘mama’s tree”
since it is used as a source of ingredients for the cuisine of that
region. The leaves, flowers, immature pods, and roots are edible.
Due to the flavor of its root, it is also known as the ‘‘horseradish
tree”. When the pod is ripe, it turns brown and may contain 10
to 12 seeds which, when fried, taste like peanuts. The tender pods,
chopped or cooked, can be used in different delicious dishes. The
green leaves and seeds taste similar to asparagus; in some parts
of the world, they are eaten as fresh vegetables and can be frozen
or canned. Combined with curry, the plant parts are commonly
prepared with chicken or seafood as a soup (Sánchez-Machado
et al., 2010). In addition, several parts of the plant have been added
to various food products to enhance the nutritional quality
(Cardines et al., 2018; Doménech et al., 2017).
On the other hand, the plant has aroused significant interest in
the scientific community as some studies have shown that it con-
tains compounds with antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
analgesic, antimicrobial, cardiovascular, neuroprotective, hypo-
glycemic, and blood lipid-lowering properties. These characteris-
glucosinolates (GLS) that the plant contains (Makita et al., 2016).
Leaf extracts have shown activity against Salmonella typhi, Pseu-
domonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae (Abalaka
et al., 2012); while extracts from the root and bark have shown
antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, Neurospora crassa, Rhi-
zopus stolonifer and Microsporum gypseum (Jha et al., 2009; Vinoth
et al., 2012). Also, the flowers have alkaloids and phenols, and they
are used to treat infections (Doménech et al., 2017). In addition, the
plant’s roots are immersed in water or alcohol to obtain drinks and
infusions as remedies for toothaches or as anthelmintics to treat
inflammation and muscular diseases (Leone et al., 2016).
1.1. Objective
Due to the increase in food demand, hunger problems and mal-
nutrition in developing countries, and the need to find new phar-
macological agents capable of combating current ailments, it is
necessary to search for and develop unconventional foods and
explore new sources of bioactive compounds. The authors of this
work hypothesize that moringa sprouts possess the necessary
characteristics to be considered an unconventional food, in addi-
tion to a high content of glucosinolates and other phytochemicals
that make them a potential source of nutraceuticals. For the above,
the objective of this review is to analyze the scarce scientific evi-
dence regarding the development and production of moringa
sprouts.
2. Moringa seedlings
M. oleifera is a dicotyledonous shrubby plant; its seeds are tri-
valves with longitudinal wings (Fig. 1C). Sowing moringa requires

Fig. 1. Chemical structure of glucosinolates (A) and isothiocyanates (B).

224
José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230

good-quality seeds and once germinated they can be transplanted.

The seeds usually germinate in two weeks at a depth of 2 cm and in
the nursery, the seedlings can be transplanted when they reach
30 cm (Ojiako et al., 2011). The tree is an excellent seed producer,
generating between 3,000 and 9,000 seeds per kilogram. For the
production of new plants, seeds are recommended to be stored
above 3 °C and with up to 8% humidity. Seed viability has been
reported to decrease at room temperature and high humidity
(Doria, 2010).

2.1. Moringa seeds composition

Moringa seeds contain a high proportion of lipids that can be

extracted as oil, being its main component oleic acid (Dhakad
et al., 2019). In addition, they are a source of protein, molecules
that represent up to 32% of their dry mass, accounting for the sec-
ond major constituent in proportion. However, the protein compo-
sition of the seeds can only cover the requirements of limited
essential amino acids, such as histidine, threonine, leucine, isoleu-
cine, and phenylalanine (Bridgemohan et al., 2014).

2.2. Glucosinolates in moringa seeds

As mentioned before, glucosinolates are characteristic com-

pounds of the Moringaceae family, and are distributed in different
parts of the plant, with the seeds having higher concentrations
than the leaves. Glucosinolates characteristic structure is a thiogly-
cosylated sulfated oxime (Fig. 1A). According to the side chain, they
are classified as aliphatic, indolic, and aromatic; owing their
nomenclature to the precursor amino acids methionine, trypto-
phan and phenylalanine, respectively (Lopez-Rodriguez et al.,
2020). For example, glucotropaeolin is characteristic of roots;
while glucomoringin is commonly found in flowers, leaves, and
seeds (Bennett et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2019). Glucosinolates are
precursors of isothiocyanates; these are made up of a thiocyanate
group (AN@C@S) (Fig. 1B). The formation of isothiocyanates comes
from the hydrolytic degradation of glycosylated glucosinolates,
preferably at neutral pH, by the action of the enzyme myrosinase
(Bertóti et al., 2019).
In the Moringaceae family, the concentration of isothiocyanates
in intact plant tissue is very low or undetectable. However, after
suffering stress or some mechanical damage, isothiocyanates are
formed from their precursors (Rincón et al., 2013). It has been
shown that glucosinolates can be converted to isothiocyanates by
the metabolism of some microorganisms of the human bacterial
flora. This finding promotes the search for sources rich in glucosi-
nolates that can be used as functional foods or raw materials to
obtain nutraceuticals and/or phytopharmaceuticals (Martín et al.,
2013).
3. Seedling germination process
The germination process begins with the rupture of the tegu-
ment and the appearance of a primary root, indicating that the root
development in the seed is with positive geotropism. The primary
root is thick and yellowish white, and the secondary roots are usu-
ally thinner and easily distinguishable. Germination generally
begins between 5 and 7 days after sowing; at 13 days, the first
eophylls can be observed and some additional leaves appear on
day 15 following germination (Fig. 2) (Ramos et al., 2010).
The embryo must transform into a seedling through metabolic
and morphogenetic mechanisms to allow the seed to germinate.
The germination process consists of several phases: a) Absorption
of water by the seed; b) Activation of the metabolism and breath-
ing process, protein synthesis, and mobilization of reserve sub-
225
Fig. 2. Diagram showing the different tissues developed during germination. Root
with positive geotropism (A), epicotyl (B) and first leaves (C).
stances; and, c) Elongation of the embryo and rupture of the
testa through which the exit of the radicle is observed. Both inter-
nal and external factors influence the process. Among the internal
factors is the viability of the embryo, the quantity and quality of
the reserve tissue and the different types of dormancy. Some exter-
nal factors that regulate the process are the testa’s thickness, water
availability, temperature, and types of light. The study of seeds’
biology and physiology is vital for agricultural production, since
most cultivated species such as cereals are propagated from sexual
seeds. The germination process is influenced by both internal and
external factors, in the internal factors is the viability of the
embryo, the quantity and quality of the reserve tissue and the fac-
tors are the thickness of the testa, availability of water, tempera-
ture and types of light. The study of seed germination is of great
importance to man, since most cultivated species are propagated
from sexual seeds (Russo et al., 2010).
3.1. M. oleifera seed germination
Generally, the germination percentage ranges between 50 and
90%. The seeds can be planted in soil or prepared substrates in con-
tainers and germinate within 4–10 days, both in the laboratory,
greenhouse and field conditions (Onyekwelu & Olabiwonnu,
2010; Mubvuma et al., 2013; Abdulhamid et al., 2016; Korsor
et al., 2016; Hassanein et al., 2017).
In addition to the age of the seeds, several factors impact their
germination. For example, it has been reported that viability
decreases if the planting height area is greater than 1,200 m above
sea level. The search for optimal germination conditions includes
periods of light, temperature, and substrate; however, these vary
according to geographic location (Navarro et al., 2016;
Mohapatra et al., 2017). Also, it has been reported that moringa
seeds with greater weight and size generate taller shoots and more
abundant roots in sandy substrates, vermiculite, and sterilized soil
added with earthworm humus or coconut shell (Bezerra et al.,
2004; Neves et al. al., 2007; Valdés-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Also,
José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al.
it has been seen that there are variabilities between the parame-
ters during the germination of M. oleifera seeds due to their posi-
tion in the pod and their agroclimatic origin (Bayé-Niwah &
Mapongmetsem, 2014; Dao et al., 2017).
Regarding the effect of temperature, Hassanein et al. (2017)
found that under laboratory conditions at 20 °C, a germination
yield of around 90% is obtained. They mention that no germination
was obtained below 10 °C and at 40 °C. Regarding light, Akinyemi
et al. (2015) report that there were no significant differences in the
percentage of germination in light and darkness; however, this
parameter decreased when the seeds were subjected to water
stress.
3.2. Pre-germinative treatments on M. oleifera seed germination
Pre-germinative treatments allow breaking the dormant period
in moringa seeds to promote rapid emergence and uniform seed-
lings. Exposure to soaking has been one of the few technologies
tested; the results indicate that it facilitates germination and even
promotes plant tolerance to stress. Padilla et al. (2012), Barraza
(2017) and Montilla-Mota et al. (2017) report that soaking seeds
in water for 24 h before sowing accelerates the germination of
moringa seeds. The absorption of water by the seed (imbibition)
activates metabolic processes, mobilization of storage compounds
that subsequently lead to the expansion of the embryo, and pene-
tration of the radicle and other organs through the surrounding tis-
sue (Tesfay et al., 2016). The water potential facilitates the
activation of growth regulators, such as gibberellic acid and kine-
tin, which induce enzymes responsible for starch hydrolysis. This
triggers glucose metabolism, allowing ATP to be released for root
protrusion (Nicasio-Arzeta et al., 2011; Amador-Alférez et al.,
2013; Cardona-Ayala et al., 2014). El-Absy et al. (2019), obtained
a 65% germination percentage in seeds soaked for 48 h. It is worth
mentioning that Yerima et al. (2016) recommend avoiding pro-
longed soaking because they noted that treatment of more than
four days could negatively affect its emergence and initial
development.
Scarification treatments, which in the case of moringa seed are
focused on removing the testa or ‘‘husk”, do not have conclusive
results. Luna (2019), mentioned that the removal of the testa accel-
erates the germination process in liquid basal media. On the con-
trary, Montilla et al. (2017), found that the partial and/or
complete removal (manual scarification) of the testa (distal, prox-
imal and lateral) did not show a significant effect on germination in
sandy substrate. Partial two-sided scarification has also been
reported to improve seedlings’ number of petioles, height, and
density (Ubaidillah et al., 2020).
Treatment fusions have also been explored; Candelaria-
Martínez et al. (2019) mention that soaking for 24 h and cracking
the seed coat did not improve germination in 6-month-harvested
seeds. In this case, storage time played a determining role.
Barrios-Gómez et al. (2022) evaluated the effect of storing moringa
seeds under atmospheric conditions and refrigeration (6 °C) on
germination rate. They found that, regardless of the type of storage,
the seeds of 2 and 3 months presented the best germination per-
centages. For this reason, using new seeds with a storage period
of up to three months under ambient conditions is recommended.
After that time, viability decreases due to biochemical processes
that degrade the membrane and various components of plant cells
(Mubvuma et al., 2013).
3.3. Use of plant elicitors
On the other hand, various studies exposing moringa seeds to
stressors during germination have been conducted. For example,
Lopéz et al. (2018) found that concentrations of 35 ppm and
226
Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230
75 ppm of gibberellic acid did not affect the germination percent-
age of moringa seeds. In addition, Silva et al. (2021) report that M.
oleifera is tolerant to the effect of salinity during the germination
phases; however, seed vigor is reduced as a function of increasing
salinity as this condition reduces water uptake in seeds. Moreover,
once it emerges, the seedling maintains optimal growth in salinity
concentrations lower than 3.5 dS m 1 (Ferreira et al., 2011; Farooq
et al., 2022).
In addition, various microorganisms can positively affect the
germination of moringa seeds. This has been observed when seeds
are germinated in media with strains of rhizobia and Azotobacter sp
(Bécquer et al., 2018; Barela, 2019). New technologies also con-
tribute to the germinative processes. It was recently found that
the pretreatment of M. oleifera seeds with laser increased the agro-
nomic parameters, including the germination percentage (Bibi
et al., 2017).
4. Moringa sprouts
The moringa seed has great nutritional value and health-
promoting properties. However, their potential as a functional food
has not yet been fully explored due to their limitations as a food
component, the most crucial being; bitterness, astringency, hard-
ness and fibrous consistency. In cereals, the germination process
makes the seeds more flavorful and tender, and it has been sug-
gested that the sprouts provide a higher nutritional value and func-
tionality than the seeds. This process activates the metabolic
enzymatic pathways, which makes the seeds easier to digest,
increases the bioavailability of proteins, hydrolyzes starch,
enhances vitamin content, and the concentration of secondary
metabolites can increase or decrease depending on the conditions
(Lemmens et al., 2019).
4.1. Moringa sprouts production
Regarding the chemical and/or nutritional characterization of
moringa sprouts, few studies have been reported, and we were
able to find five in the literature (Ijarotimi et al., 2013; Tesfay
et al., 2016; Servín de la Mora-López et al., 2018; León-López
et al., 2019; Coello et al., 2020). Table 1 shows the various germi-
nation conditions used in the investigations mentioned above. It
should be noted that in three of the studies, the sprouts were pro-
duced in the dark.
4.2. Moringa sprouts chemical composition
Table 2 summarizes the data obtained from the chemical char-
acterization performed on the sprouts. The data obtained by Tesfay
et al. (2016) are not presented in Table 2 because few parameters
fit with those evaluated by the rest of the authors. For example,
they report that for their best treatments, a phenol content of
122.5 mg GAE 100 g 1 and more than 2,000 lmol FeSO4
7H2O
g 1 of antioxidant activity by the FRAP method. For the rest of
the study, the authors focused on the determination of enzymatic
and non-enzymatic antioxidants and the quantification of
monosaccharides. Regarding the proportion of macronutrients, a
predominance of carbohydrates is observed, followed by proteins.
In general, the profiles of amino acids and fatty acids show some
parity between the data of the two authors who report them. As
previously noted, the leading causes of the differences observed
are attributable to the different germination conditions used, as
well as the origin of the seeds. Mainly, moringa sprouts are postu-
lated as an alternative source of amino acids to meet the require-
ments established by the 2007 WHO/FAO/UNU.
José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230

Table 1
Germination conditions of the reported studies on obtaining moringa sprouts.

Parameter Reference
Ijarotimi et al., 2013 Tesfay et al., 2016 Servín de la Mora-López et al., 2018 León-López et al., 2019 Coello et al., 2020
Soak time (h) 9h NU* NU 24 h 18 h
Germination substrate Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper
Fotoperiode Darkness Darkness 50% Darkness NE**
Temperature 30 °C 20–30 °C 25–40 °C 25–40 °C 28–36 °C
Humidity Ambient Ambient 80–90% 80–90% 95%
Germination time (days) 4 1–56 1–15 1–15 1–8
*
Not used.
**
Not specified.

Table 2
Comparison between the chemical characterizations of different moringa sprouts.

Parameter Reference
Ijarotimi et al., 2013* Servín de la Mora-López et al., 2018** León-López et al., 2019* Coello et al., 2020**
Macronutrients (%)
Protein 23.69 41.54 24.32 32.21
Lipids 14.62 32.72 17.39 33.39
Ash 4.34 NR 3.09 3.20
Carbohydrates 53.00 NR 55.20 35.01
Aminoacids profile (g 100 g 1 of protein)
Alanine 5.42 5.27 NR NR
Aspartic acid 18.13 1.10 NR NR
Serine 3.17 3.61 NR NR
Glutamic acid 20.23 7.74 NR NR
Proline 2.68 9.83 NR NR
Glycine 2.63 6.62 NR NR
Arginine 8.66 16.71 NR NR
Cysteine 1.79 NR NR NR
Tyrosine 2.09 2.68 NR NR
Histidine 2.50 3.94 NR NR
Lysine 0.36 1.89 NR NR
Threonine 3.35 5.28 NR NR
Valine 1.25 2.88 NR NR
Methionine 0.35 2.13 NR NR
Isoleucine 4.69 2.88 NR NR
Leucine 4.08 2.73 NR NR
Phenylalanine 3.57 4.55 NR NR
Fatty acids profile (% total fatty acids)
Myristic acid (C14:0) 0.42 0.17 NR NR
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 14.01 7.52 NR NR
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1n7) 0.26 1.73 NR NR
Stearic acid (C18:0) 13.57 4.69 NR NR
Oleic acid (C18:1n9) 10.25 76.62 NR NR
Linoleic acid (C18:2n6) 60.70 2.08 NR NR
Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) 0.13 1.60 NR NR
Arachidic acid (C20:0) NR 0.30 NR NR
Eicosenoic (C20:1n9) NR 2.27 NR NR
Behenic acid (C22:0) 0.13 2.95 NR NR
Phytochemicalsa (mg 100 g 1)
Phenolics 34.33 559 271.67 645.70
Flavonoids 5.50 NR NR NR
Tannins 181.67 NR 169.98 NR
Saponins 8.00 NR 681.50 NR
Phytates 40.00 NR 847.25 NR
Antioxidant activity (lmol Trolox equivalents 100 g 1
)
ORAC NR NR 10,927 9,856
ABTS NR 16,996 NR NR
DPPH NR 9,872 NR NR
*
The average value presented by the authors was taken.
**
The highest value was taken since the authors presented each treatment’s data.
a
Results may be expressed as equivalents of standard compounds. NR: Not reported.

An important point to highlight is that Ijarotimi et al. (2013)
report that the evaluated seeds and sprouts showed a percentage
of linoleic acid (60.7%) higher than that of oleic acid (10.6%). This
data contradicts the extensive scientific evidence that establishes
that the proportion of oleic acid in the seed of M. oleifera is greater
than 70% of the total fatty acids and that linolenic acid represents
less than 1% (Leone et al., 2016). Furthermore, these same authors
found that the content of phytochemicals decreases when the seed
germinates, except for terpenes. In contrast, León-López et al.
(2019) mention that tannins and saponins increased during germi-
nation. The latter obtained sprouts harvested at a longer time and
higher relative humidity with respect to Ijarotimi et al. (2013).
On the other hand, Servín de la Mora-López et al. (2018),
León-López et al. (2019), and Coello et al. (2020) obtained a higher

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José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al.
antioxidant activity, regardless of the method, in the sprouts with
respect to the seed. Previously, the importance of glucosinolates
as bioactive compounds and their presence in parts of the moringa
plant has been highlighted. Currently, only Coello et al. (2020)
determined these compounds’ content during moringa seeds’ ger-
mination. They found a behavior where on average, the glucosino-
late content decreases from 205 lmol/g in seeds to 181.3 lmol/g in
96 h sprouts. When seedlings germinate at a temperature of 32 °C,
glucosinolates decrease by 25%, while at 36 °C, the percentage is
reduced by 11%. The authors germinated the seeds on paper and
did not specify the photoperiod, they refer to previous works where
darkness conditions are reported. To maintain or increase the con-
tent of glucosinolates in moringa sprouts, with respect to seeds, it is
necessary to evaluate the use of other types of substrates on the
behavior of phytochemicals, as well as the influence of light.
Finally, some potential uses for moringa sprouts have been pro-
posed, the addition of sprout powder to enrich traditional foods
has been the most common. The fortification of fettuccine-type
pasta improves the content of protein, lipids, minerals and fiber,
in addition to increasing the amount of thiamin and riboflavin;
however, parameters such as hardness, elasticity, stickiness, and
chewiness decrease (Coello et al., 2021). The substitution of wheat
flour for moringa sprout flour increased bread’s protein, crude
fiber, iron, calcium and zinc content and decreased carbohydrates
(Chinma et al., 2014).
4.3. Components of moringa sprouts related with antinutritional
functions
It has been reported that moringa sprouts contain glucosino-
lates, phytates, tannins and saponins, to which antinutritional
functions or activities are attributed (Reddy & Sathe, 2001) and/
or positives for human beings (Harland & Morris, 1995). The cur-
rent dichotomy in the scientific literature prompts a debate about
the acceptance of foods containing these components.
Concerning phytates, their primary sources are seeds, legumes,
and whole grains. Phytate has been considered an antinutrient for
decades because it can inhibit the digestive tract’s absorption of
minerals and trace elements. However, it has recently been found
that these compounds can act as antioxidants, anticancer, preven-
tives of kidney stone formation, antidiabetics, and anticholesterol
agents (Schlemmer et al., 2009). Phytate contents similar to those
of moringa sprouts (Table 2) have been reported for rice sprouts
(0.096 g 100 g 1), corn (0.072 g 100 g 1), sorghum (0.120 g
100 g 1) and wheat (0.079 g 100 g 1) (Azeke et al., 2011). Mung
bean sprouts (Phaseolus aureus L.) are the most consumed products
of their type worldwide. Tajoddin et al. (2011) found an average of
0.26 g 100 g 1 of phytates for five varieties germinated for 48 h, a
value within the range of what moringa sprouts presented. For
phytates, a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) has not been
established, but it is estimated that the Western citizen consumes
250–800 mg of phytates per day and that these values increase for
vegetarians and developing countries whose diets mainly consist
of cereals and legumes (Frølich et al., 2011). It is noted that the
concentration of phytates in moringa sprouts is not so different
from that found in conventional cereal sprouts.
Saponins have also aroused interest due to their both harmful
and beneficial properties. Scientific evidence suggests that these
compounds stimulate the immune system against cancer, reduce
blood lipids and glucose, and inhibit caries and platelet aggregation
(Shi et al., 2004). In addition, as an antinutrient, they have been
linked to hemolysis, inhibition of digestive enzymes, and reduced
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (Samtiya et al., 2020). Saponin
concentrations of 0.008–0.680 g 100 g 1 have been reported in
moringa sprouts, while in the soybean (Glycine max), chickpea
(Cicer arietinum) and peas (Pisum sativum L.) values of 5.6, 3.6 y
228
Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230
2.5 g 100 g 1, were found, respectively (Shi et al., 2004). Similar
to phytates, there is no RDA for saponins.
Tannins are polymers of phenolic compounds that can precipi-
tate proteins, affecting their digestibility, which reduces the
absorption of essential amino acids (Raes et al., 2014). Meantime,
anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral properties have been
attributed to tannins. In addition, its intake and processing by
microbial flora generate catechins and phenolic acids, metabolites
that can exert systemic pharmacological effects once absorbed
(Fabbrini et al., 2022). For example, Tanin rates of 0.03–1.3, 0.5–
1.05 y 0.05–7.2 g 100 g 1 have been reported for bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.), peas (Pisum sativum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum vulgare),
respectively (Gilani et al., 2005). Table 2 shows that moringa
sprout values are comparable to the minimum ranges found in
other plant products.
Glucosinolates are glycosidic compounds that have sulfur and
nitrogen atoms in their structure. These metabolites are found in
cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower.
They have been related to toxic effects that can produce thyroid
gland hypertrophy and induce goiter. Likewise, they are considered
anticancer agents in their native form or once they are transformed
into isothiocyanates and indolic compounds (Di Gioia et al., 2020).
Broccoli is a conventional food that most contributes to glucosino-
lates to the diet, Rybarczyk-Plonska et al. (2016) reported that the
glucosinolates in this vegetable are around 35 lmol/g in samples
that included both shoots and stems as it is the way it is commonly
consumed.
Finally, it is essential to mention that different methodologies
are proposed to reduce the content of these compounds associated
with antinutritional functions; these include soaking, grinding,
debarking, roasting, cooking, germination, and fermentation
(Samtiya et al., 2020). For example, during the germination process,
a decrease in the content of phytates in cereals and legumes is
reported. It can be attributed to the hydrolysis of phytate com-
pounds mediated by the enzyme phytase, realising minerals assim-
ilated for seedling development (Egli et al., 2002; Elliott et al.,
2022).
5. Moringa sprouts: What is next?
The authors of this work recommend conducting studies that
examine the effect of environmental conditions on nutrients and
phytochemicals during the germination of moringa seeds, such as
photoperiod, light intensity, temperature, relative humidity, type
of substrate, among others. Also, it is suggested to analyze the
impact of different stress triggers, both endogenous and exogenous.
On the other hand, it is worth noting the importance of moni-
toring the activation of enzymes involved in the different biosyn-
thetic pathways of phytochemicals, especially glucosinolates.
Lastly, studies should be conducted where sprouts are sensorially
evaluated as non-conventional food. In addition, determine the
bioavailability and bioaccessibility of phytochemicals once the
sprouts are consumed is highly encouraged.
6. Conclusions
Many investigations discuss M. oleifera uses and potentialities,
but there is scarce literature characterizing its seeds’ germination
process. The search for non-conventional foods with important
nutritional properties and beneficial health effects is critical for
food science scientists, for which the agri-food area is highly rele-
vant. As a working group, we are focused on addressing some of
the issues described above to contribute to science by filling the
information gap in the area and the technological development
of new foods.
José A. Núñez-Gastélum, A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita, José A. López-Díaz et al. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 22 (2023) 223–230

7. Financial support scarification methods. Rev. Bio Cienc. 6. https://doi.org/10.15741/revbio.06.

e407.
Cardines, P.H., Baptista, A.T., Gomes, R.G., Bergamasco, R., Vieira, A.M., 2018.
No financial support was received to carry out this work. Moringa oleifera seed extracts as promising natural thickening agents for food
industry: Study of the thickening action in yogurt production. LWT–Food Sci.
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Declaration of Competing Interest
Cardona-Ayala, C., Jarma-Orozco, A., Araméndiz-Tatis, H., Peña-Agresott, M.,
Vergara-Córdoba, C., 2014. Respuestas fisiológicas y bioquímicas del fríjol
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- caupí (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) bajo déficit hídrico. Rev. Colomb. Cienc.
Hortic. 8 (2), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.17584/rcch.2014v8i2.3218.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
Chen, R., Wang, X.J., Zhang, Y.Y., Xing, Y., Yang, L., Ni, H., Li, H.H., 2019. Simultaneous
to influence the work reported in this paper. extraction and separation of oil, proteins, and glucosinolates from Moringa
oleifera seeds. Food Chem. 300,. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Acknowledgments j.foodchem.2019.125162 125162.
Chinma, C.E., Gbadamosi, K.B., Ogunsina, B.S., Oloyede, O.O., Salami, S.O., 2014.
Effect of addition of germinated moringa seed flour on the quality attributes of
The authors thank the Autonomous University of Ciudad Juárez wheat-based cake. J. Food Process. Preserv. 38 (4), 1737–1742. https://doi.org/
for the technical facilities to develop this bibliographic research 10.1111/jfpp.12136.
Coello, K.E., Frias, J., Martínez-Villaluenga, C., Cartea, M.E., Abilleira, R., Peñas, E.,
work. A.A. Arguijo-Sustaita thanks CONACYT for the scholarship 2020. Potential of germination in selected conditions to improve the nutritional
awarded for his postgraduate studies. and bioactive properties of moringa (Moringa oleifera L.). Foods 9 (11), 1639–
1653. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9111639.
Coello, K.E., Peñas, E., Martinez-Villaluenga, C., Cartea, M.E., Velasco, P., Frias, J.,
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