UNIT - 1 ELECTRONICS 3.1 Diode / Today we live in an era of electronics. i of science and engineering which deals wt ; through semiconductors. It deals with e ectronic semiconductor diodes, transistors, ete and their i electronic devices can perform as rectifiers, ampli ers, etc. These devices are smaller in size, cheaper in co t efficient in performance than the bulky vacuum tub they have effectively replaced the vacuum tubes fro electronics. Semiconductor Substances like germanium, silicon, selenium: : good conductors like copper nor insulators like glass. 7 of these materials lies in between conductors and i substances are called semiconductors. Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor A semiconductor in a pure form without impu called an intrinsic Semiconductor. The intrinsic little current conduction capability at room temp. The electrical Properties of a pure semicondu to a great extent by adding a small amount of suita The semiconductor with such an impurity is Semiconductor, The Process of adding impuritiesOo it is known as N ~ type semiconductor. P — type semiconductor When a small amount of trivalent impurity (say boron or aluminum or gallium or indium) is added to a pure germanium semiconductor, it is known as P — type semiconductor. PN Junction When a P — type semiconductor is suitably joined to a N ~ type semiconductor, the contact surface is called PN junction. The device is called PN junction device. The diode is symbolically represented by an arrow head P meeting a bar N (Fig 3.1) The arrow head shows the direction of the current flow in the diode. Fig 3.1 Biasing of PN Junction The external voltage applied to the PN junction is called biasing. There are two types of biasing. They are (i) Forward biasing and (ii) Reverse biasing. i) Forward biasing APN junction is forward biased if the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P — side and the negative terminal to the N — side. A forward biasing circuit is given in Fig 3.2- Since positive terminal of the battery is connected ty thea side it repels the holes in the P — side and pushes them towary , 2 is ae ive terminal of the batt Se junction. Similarly the negative a ery repels 1, electrons in the N - side and pushes them towards the junction 7), ition region. The electrons and holes n,. in turn will remove the dep! egion i can cross the junction in opposite directions. As such an electric cur, t is known as forward curren, flows across the junction. This curren! When the battery voltage V is increased, the forward current | als, increases. ii) Reverse biasing j ‘A PN junction is reverse biased if the positive terminal of th battery is connected to the N — side and the negative terminal to the P — side. A reverse biasing circuit is represented in Fig. 3.3 Here, the negative terminal of the battery attracts the holes in the P — side and positive terminal of the battery attracts the electrons in the N — side. This makes the depletion region wider. Therefore no charge can flow across the junction and the junction current is zero This is for an ideal diode. However, in practical diodes, there is a very small reverse current (order of micro ampere) passes through the diode. This current is due to movement of minority carriers across 4 the junction. When the reverse bias is increased, the current reaches a small maximum value. For any further increase of reverse bias, the reverse current remains constant and is known as reverse saturation42 Volt ampere characteristics ofa -N junction diode Forward bias characte: visties R ‘ Fig. 3.4 ram to study the a forward bias characteristic is shown in above figure, The P-N diode is forward biased by connecting the P ~ terminal to the POSitive side of the battery and N-terminal to ‘the negative side of the battery. The voltage applied across the diode is varied using the rheostat and the voltage is measured using the voltmeter V, and the current through the diode is measured using the milliammeter. The theostat is adjusted to change the voltmeter readings and thee wresponding ammeter readings (1) are noted. The graph is plotted by AG Vorward bias voltage (V) along X-axis and current (I) along ‘fhe yoxis. The curve obtained is shown in Fig.3.5, The Portion OR in ‘the ge iph shows the forward bias characterist rThe forward voltage at which the current through the junetig, Starts increases rapidly is known as knee voltage. This oe be fon by extrapolating the graph from linear portion to moet the volta, axis. The forward resistance can be found by taking slope at c™ linear portion of the curve. Then forward resistance, | _ AB slope BC } Reverse bias characteristics The P-N junction diode is reverse biased by connecting the » terminal to the positive side of the battery and p-terminal to the negating side of the battery, Then by adjusting rheostat the voltmeter reading, are varied. Then for various voltmeter readings the current value Then the curve is plotted between (1) are noted from the ammeter. Vand I.Forward bias Bee Reverse bias Ir The zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the & diode is heavily doped, it has a lower breakdown voltage. On the & iherhand, a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. A properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages Ne ranging from 2 volts to a few hundred volts are available, The American scientist C.Zener gave an explanation for the {© rapid current increase at the zener breakdown voltage. The applied i@ reverse voltage to the PN junction will accelerate the elec’ fe (minority carries) in the diode. When the applied voltage increases th these electrons will be accelerated to high velocities. At Zener voltage tw these high velocity electrons produce other free electrons by ionization by collisions with atoms in the diode, These electrons are again _ accelerated by the field and in turn cause other ionizations. This _ avalanche process leads to very large current and the junction is said to have suffered a breakdown. In ordinary diodes, these breakdown will destroy the diodes use of overheating due to large current. If diodes are made to such large breakdown currents, then such diodes can be in the breakdown region. These diodes are called zener a Fig. 3.73.7 shows the symbol of a zener diode. It MAY be s Figo” ary diode except that the bar is turneg ¢ like an ordina as it is ius the iiodes are used to stabilize the output Voltage shape. Zene' supplies. f Mo 2 Y iy volt-ampere characterist 3.4 Experiment to draw volt-amp' ‘5 Of ad diode prward bias characteristics F d bias characteris a) Fo R Fig. 3.8 The circuit diagram for drawing forward bias cheracteristies shown above (Fig 3 8). The current through Zener . ode 's meisi with a milliammeter (mA) and the voltage across it using a volin V. The rheostat is adjusted for V = 0, 0.1, 0.2. 0.3 V ete. and in case the current I is measured. The readings are tabulated. A gi is drawn by taking the forward bias voltage (Vi along the X- vis current (I) along the Y- ) is. The curve obtained ss as Siow. in 3.9. The forward characteristics is similar to ordinary P-N janet diode. phe Ata given point P, the Static resistance PR resistance r, of the diode can be found out He as folion Forward static resistance R= ak Forward dynamic Tesistauce at P,Lin mA V in volts > Fig 3.9 b) Reverse bias characteristics Fig. 3.10 for drawing reverse bias characteristics 1s the rheostat so that the voltmeter reads 1 illiammeter (mA). Increase the in cach case the milliammeter ted. Draw 4 voltag' curve, it is fou reverse voltage called ZenerTo control the sudden surge of current, a suitable Timig, resistance R has to be used. From the curve the Zener breakagg® voltage Vz is found as OS. In the breakdown region and at a Bivey operating point T, the reverse static resistance and the TeVerse dynamic resistance are found out as follows: : OR' Reverse static resistance R, = 0g — BC Reverse dynamic resistance r' a= AB Uses of Zener diodes 1, Ca Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulatoy) A Voltage regulator provides a constant output voltage and it is indeper of (i) change in the supply voltage and (ii) change in the effective load resistance, which will produce change in the load curren 2. It is used as a protection device against sudden increase of current, 3. (1 is used in clipping circuits different wave shapes, 4. (Zener di voltmeters. clippers are devices to produc is also used for biasing the circuit and for calibratin 3.5 Transistors 5 Transistor isan electronic device capable of amplifying the we: signals. It is a combination of two junction diodes. It consists of eithe a thin layer of P- i N-type semicentral layer is known s base and the other wo regions s collector and emitter. The ¢ are called # pransistor Symbol The Symbols used for npn and pnp transistors are shown in Fig. 3.12 . Note the emitter is shown by an arrow which indicates the tion of conventional current flow with forward bj actin, it is clear that conventional current flows out of the emitter - indicated by the outgoing arrow. Simi! larly, for Php connection, the aventional current flows into the emitter as indicated by inward arrow. ias. For npn EMITTER COLLECTOR ~~ EMITTER COLLECTOR Ip BASE Fig. 3.12 3.6 Transistor Action Consider the emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector base junction is reverse biased. Since the collector base junction is reverse biased Practically no current flows the emitter base junction is forward S cntirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the current in Circuit depends upon the emitter current. If the emitter qi 's zero, collector current is also zero. If the emitter current isWorking of npn transistor — i! Vea Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.13 shows the npn transistor with the emitter base j forward biased and the collector base junction reverse biased, forward bias causes the electron to flow from n-type emitter to type base. This gives the emitter current I,. As these electron through the base, they recombine with the holes. Since the base lightly doped and very thin, only few electrons (less than 5%) combi with the holes to constitute the base current I,, the remaining ct (95%) cross over the collector region and constitute the coll current |. Thus the entire emitter current flows in the collector It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base current .1.€ eral tg 3.7 Static Characteristics of a Transistor The relationship between the current in transistor electrode # the voltage applied to these electrode is known as static character! Common-emitter mode ‘The impo ‘characteristics of this configuration 2 ‘ics. The characteristics of a CE © the circuit as shown in fig. 3.14. 58Fig. 3.14 » Input characteristics It gives the relation between base current I,, and base emitter voltage Vie at constant collector-emitter voltage V_, . Experimentally it is found by Keeping V., constant (say 1 V), the base current is noted for various values of Vi ,: This gives the input characteristics for Voge =! V. In the similar manner, by keeping values of V_.. = 2, 3,4,V etc, the base current is noted for various values of V,,. Then agraph is drawn by taking V,,. along X-axis and I, along Y-axis. We get a family of input characteristics curves as shown in fig. 3.15. From the curves, the input resistance can be calculated. It is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage AV,,, to the change in base current Al, at constant V,,. ve, " AV pe Input Resistance, r, = “Al, * constant V.,. The value of input resistant for CE mode is of the order of a few hundred ohms. Ip (HA) Vase (Volts)by) Output characteristics relation betwee! Itage V_, at constant base current J,,. This o; Keeping the base current constant (say § 1 J, for various values of V,,. This ¢4 (say 10pA, 15pA ete) It gives the n collector current 1. ang collector-emitter vo! found experimentally by note the collector curren repeated for various fixed values of I, Then graph is drawn by taking 1, along Y-axis and V,_ X-axis, We geta family of output characteristics Curves as sh 7 Fig. 3.16. From the curves the output resistance can be calculated the ratio of change in collector — emitter voltage (V_,) to the é in collector current (1,,) at constant I,. ie., AVer Output resistance r, = a sta | 7 Al, at constant I,. The val output resistance is of the order of 50 Kilo ohms. Ic Ip = 20pA Ig = 15 pA Tp = 10pA Ig = SpAitis a straight line. The slope of this line gives transistor beta c : _ —£ at consta: ie BS ate nt V,, tis the current gain and it is a dimensionless quantity. Ic(mA) Alc Alp In(A) Fig.3.17 Example Ina common emitter circuit, base current I, = 99 HA, collector current I= 0.9 mA. Find the value of emitter current. Collector current i, 0.9mA. base Current i, = 991A = 0.099 mA. I, zs 1, z I, = 0.099+0.9 I = 0.999 mA. A transistor has B = 150. Calculate the approximate base and “collector currents for an emitter current of 1SmA. = I5mA= IB I, ~ +I, . ‘ go) Substituting equation (1) in (2) I, ~ BI, + I, = I, (B+1) I, _ I pti ® 15 bo 150-41 le = 0.099 mA co. 151 i I = 5-1, =15- 0.099 is 14.01 mA a A transistor has B = 100. If the collector current J. mA, calculate the base current. I = 40mA Ae 100 II 100 p I, 50 200 0.5+ 100 I, 100.5 mA 38 Digital Electronics The digital circuits function on the basis of only two states 0 and I. That means the output of these circuits is either high voltage or low voltage. The exact value of the voltage need not be known. It js enough if we distinguish high voltage from low voltage. The other voltages are not permitted. The method of representing the low voltage as 0 and high voltage as | is called positive logic system. The method of representing the high voltage as 0 and low voltage as | is called the negative logic system. In digital circuits, the diodes and the transistors are used as switches to change from one state to the other state. The switch can be closed or opened. Like this, two states can be represented by ON state and OFF state. In positive logic system, the | state is ON the 0 state is OFF. In negative logic system, the | state is OFF and 0 state is ON. 3.9 Decimal System The normal method of counting involves the use of ten digits — a system with a base (or radix) of ten. So this number system is called decimal number system. Our ordinary system of numbers (also called Arabic numerals), has 10 symbols starting from 0, 1, 2, - - - to 9. After attaining the 9" decimal number (9), to write a number greater 9 we combine the decimal digits to get the desired number. The ieee "© © tember afer point called the decimal point has a multiplying , hundreds, etc. Similarly on the factors are called as tenths,1x 10'+8x 10° 1. The number 18 = 1x ten+ 8 x unit 2. The number 219.15 =2 x 102 +1 x 10'+9x 10°+1x10'+5 x 192 =200+ 10 +9 + 1/10 + 5/100 3.10 Binary system Binary system is another way of counting. As the decimal sys; has a base or radix of ten, the binary system has a base of two, The two numbers or symbols or codes used in this system are “Q” “]>, In the binary system with its two digits 0 and 1, counting j proceeded in the same manner as in the decimal system. Any deci) number can be represented in the binary system by a string of 0 and 1’s. In the binary system the individual digit represents the efficient of 2. The digit position of a binary number h: i i aa. 8 inary er has the following dec Thus the binary number (1101), which i i ‘ ich decimal number 13 can be expressed a all a ang (1101), = Ix2+1x24+0x2'4+1x 20 = 1X8+1+44+0x2+1x] = 844404] = 13 can be expressed as XB+OXP+Ox M4] x 704 Px 24+1x2? OxX8+0x4+0x2+1 x14 44% 6416+1+.5+4.25 17.75 inary equivalent of decimal numbers Binary Decimal ser | fer | Nie | ee Each Binary digit is called BIT. Byte is a string of 8 bits such | as 1101 1110, 11111001 etc. Nibble is a string of 4 bits such as 1101, Ji1I etc. A group of bits is called a word or code. 3.11 Decimal to binary conversion A decimal number can be converted into a binary number by double dabble method. It is also known as “divide by two” method. In this method, the given decimal number is divided by 2 progressively and the remainders are written by the side. These remainders taken from the bottom to the top gives the number in the binary form : 1 Convert (23),, into its equivalent binary formuivalent binary number : 2C (0.72),9 into ed Example : 2 Conver case each number 1S = ths sin The carries taken from top '0 the bottom dir is taken as y ey give the required number in binary form. = 1,44 = 0.44 with carry 1 = 0,88 = 0.88 with carry 0 0.88 x2 = 1.76 = 0.76 with carry | 0.76 x2 = 1.52 = 0.52 with carry 1 0.52 x 2 = 1.04 = 0.04 with carry 1 It goes on like this. As the positional values become insi, hereafter they may be ignored. ©. (0.72),9= (0.10111), nearly If more accuracy is needed, continue multiplying by 2 many digits as required are obtained. Example : 3 Convert (17.75), into binary number Here we first split the number 17.75 into an integer 1 fraction 0.75. We apply double dabble method to the integer multiply by 2 for the fraction. 210e 218 remainder - 1 214 remainder - 0 2]2 reat 6 1 remainder — 0 (17),9 = (10001), For fractional part 0.75 x2 =1.50 = 0.50 with carry |FY pinary ©° decimal conversion 12 - 4 vert the binary number into its equivalent decimal numbers given number is written in row and directly under First, the yp bit, the respective positional values are given as 1, 2, 4, 8, ac! right to left. Leaving the terms containing zero values, add To all a values to get the decimal equivalent example : 1 Convert (11011), into decimal equivalent (i101), - : ; 5 ! | 16 8 4 2 1 = 16+8+0+2+1 (11011), QD, Example : 2 Convert (10101.101), into decimal equivalent (10101.101), = 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 16 8 4 2 | 5 25 125 = 16+04+44+04+14+.5+0+ 125 (10101.101), = (21.625), 3.13 Binary addition | ‘Addition of two binary number can be done by the same procedure followed in decimal system. To execute binary addition, the following four rules are used. 0+0=0 Oe = 1 1O= 1 1+ 1 = 10 (the sum 0 and carry 1) imple : I Add (10), with (11), 10 First column is | + 0 = 1, with no carry 1 Second column is (1 + 1) = 10, sum 0 with carry | ae it in the next higher column (third column) -(11), > (101); 67Example: 3 Add DAELOT) with (DEO nr —¢DOEL.OT), ~ (1OOL1T), = (10001 Gy, 3.14 13 and P's compiemeat method+ complement of A= Atl 2's complement of the number 101 is for example 2 1=oll o1od’s complement) + ats Us complement method of subtraction steps Take 1's complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahand). Add the 1's complement of subtrahand with the given first number. 3, __ If we get carry (the last carry is known as end-around carry), then add this carry with the final answer. If there is no end- around carry, the answer is the 1’s complement of the added result obtained and prefix minus sign to it. Thus the answer of subtraction is negative. Example : 1 Find (01001), — (00110), using 1’s complement A= 01001 B= 00110 i) Take I’s complement of B, that is B= 11001 Then we add B with A 01001 + 11001 00010 to the number 00010 69The answer is (00011), iv) tive. The carry is there so the number 18 POSIIV® Example : 2 g |’: Subtract (1010100), from (1000100), using *® comple method. ol 1 Take 1° complement of 1010100 a8 0101 soon 2. Add this 1’s complement with the first number 1000100 is 1000100 + 0101011 Mould 3, There is no carry. So to get the answer, take 1’s complement of the result obtained. 1’s complement is 0010000 4. The answer is negative of the 1’s complement obtained. Answer ; (0010000), 3.16. 2’s Complement method of subtraction Steps 1. 2: Get 2’s complement of the number to be subtracted (Subtrahand) Add the 2’s complement of subtrahand with the given first number (minuend). If we get carry in the final result then the subtracted number is Positive. Drop that carry and write the remaining as the answer. 4. If we don’t get carry in the final addition, find the 2’s c a omplement of the result obtained and prefix minus sign to it. Thus the answer of subtraction is negative. Example : 1 Find (11011), ~ (1 1001), using 2’s complement i) — Weget 2’s complement of 11001 as 00110 +1= 00111 ii) Adding 11011 + 00111 701 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 carry >1 0 0 0 1 0 ii) The carry is there. So the number is positive. T! $1 (00010), e. The result is Example : 2 Subtract (010.111), from (111.01), i) We get 2’s complement of 010.111 as 101.001 i) Adding (111.01), + (101.001), ® ® 1 1 1 | 1 0 1 0 1 ® 1 0 0 0 1 1 The number is positive. The answer is (100.011), +3 Subtract (11011), from (11001), We get 2’s complement of 11011 as 00101 _ Add 11001 + 00101 is negative. 11110. It is 00010 The answer is 1Example : 4 Subtract (HHLOL), from (110.44) i) The 2's complement of HIEOL = 000,10 + I 000.11 ii) Adding 110.11 + 000.11 oO MO | \ 0 \ \ 0 0 0 I 1 | 1 | 1 0 ii) ‘The answer has no carry. The result is negative, iv) To get the answer, we get the 2’s complement of Mn, 000.10. The answer is (000 10), 3.17 Basic Logic gates After the development of the transistor and integrated i calculator, computer, digital watches are a few examples. The gi are called digital signals, The ignals given to the digital systems 's or levels, They are called “HIGH and levels or ON and OFF’, The signal will always be any one of two levels. Of the two discrete levels, if the lower of these two has been named as “LOW” and the higher as “HIGH”, th System is said to be ‘positive logic’. On the other hand if the hi the two levels has been named as ‘LOW’ and lower as ‘HI then it is called “negative logic’. The exact value of the output vol is unimportant if the voltage is distinguishable as ‘LOW or il Inthe positive logic System, any voltage of certain high range i and certain low range is taken as 1S an electronic circuit which makes its have one or more inputs and only only for certain combinations of 72The logic gates are the basic building blocks for most o} pst By connecting these logic gates in different ways, fo perform arithmetic and other functions. These logic gates perf simple Jogic operations in binary signals. The basic logic ee NoT, OR and AND gates. are The logic gates can be constructed even with simple components like bulb, resistors, batteries, etc. imple electrical |] 5.18 OR gate ‘An OR gate constructed with electrical components, with the gymbol is shown (Figure 3.18). An OR gate has two or more inputs put only one output. The output of OR gate is 1, when either one of the inputs or both are 1. A B A Y B Figure 3.18 The output occurs when any one or all the inputs are present. The lamp will glow, if any one of the switch or both A and B are closed. The output will be zero (Low), if both inputs are absent. The Boolean equation for the OR gate is Y = A+B. The truth table for the OR gate is given below. f the digital itis possible with the help of diodes is shown a aHere it under forward bias biased condition, The two diodes are connected output Y, Wl Figure 3.19 A resistance R is connected between the points where the two cathodes are joined and the ground. The two anodes are the two input terminals A and B, “I level corresponds to 5V and ‘0° level corresponds to 0 volt, Action Case (i) When the negative terminal of the batteries are connected toA and B (A= B = 0), the diodes are reverse biased, They do not conduct current and hence there is no current through R. The output is 0 ie. Y=0 “0+0=0 Case (ii) is given SV and A 0 a p.d. of 5V is 74 V, diode D, condud across R.when A=Oand B= I, Y=] “OFL=] case GY) when both A and B are given SV, both D, and p 2 through R. The output Y = | conduct current when A=B=1,Y=1 “1+1=1 OR circuit minimises the interaction between and B and hence it is referred to as buffer circuit, ae 3.19 AND gate AnAND gate has two or more inputs and only one output. An AND gate constructed with electrical components, with the symbol js shown (Fig.3.20). A B es ree, A ee Mi B Figure 3.20 The output of the AND gate is 1, when only both A and B are 1. The output is 0 when any one of the input or both are 0. That is why, an AND is also known as a coincidence circuit. The Boolean ation for the AND gate is Y = A.B. The truth table for it is given with diodes is show (Fig.3.21) ed in parallel across the output Y. 75nected between the points Where the 4, ve terminal of the power Supply " +5V A resistance R is con i anodes are joined and the postt? Ya, Figure 3.21 Output is measured at the anode with respect to the grou The inputs are given to the cathode of the diodes. Action Case (i) When the —ve voltages are given to both A and B, the diodes are forward biased and conduct current. No voltage is drop) across the diodes and the voltage at the output is zero. .. When A = B = 0, Y=0. Case (ii) When A is given a SV and B is given 0 V, the diode D, condut the current. The supply voltage of 5V drops across R and the outp IS Zero. «When A= 1 and B= 0, Y= 0, Case (iii) Similarly when B is given a SV and Ais given 0 V, the diode D; conducts and there is no voltage drop at the di the output is zero. P at the diode D,. Now also .. When A = 0 and B = 1, Y = 0. 76" : : case ww poth the inputs A and B are given +S, both diodes D do not conduct current and so there is no current through R and D; ply voltage appears at the output. . the SUP! So "when A> p=1,Y=1. a0 NOT Bale The NOT gate has only one input and one output. It’s function plement the input. It is also called the inverter. If «toinvert OF to com a input is 1, the output is 0 and vice versa. The truth table and ymbol of NOT gate are given below. Y= A ‘The Boolean equation for the NOT gate is ¥ = A mplementation of NOT gate using transistor ANOT gate circuit is given in Fig. 3.22. The transistor is in the CE mode. R, is the base resistance and input is applied through R,,. R, is the collector resistance and the put is measured at the collector.he chosen values Of Bang D wy |, fort je collector bee Ct, Me ! The output at th in given at the input the ba Hector current. (Ie = fJ c™ 5 When the input ! rated pand, 0 volt no co) transistor gets pale On the other Hi o and hence there 18 iy 20 mes cul The transistor becor off and the output becorn a So When A LYeA 0 and AW0,Y* Aq! The NOT gate operation ig somes 4.22 NOR gate When a NOT gate is connect combination is called NOR gate. The symbol for the NOR gate is sho A eel an 7 > MB” y= A+B =m B B Fig. 3.23 imes called negation ted to the output of OR gate, wn in Fig. 3.23. ‘The truth table is shown below ‘The opi Aen Lo ae ey © state. dR i ah equation for 78‘AND gate a NOT gate 1s connected to the o el uty Wheto called NAND gate, PULOFAND pate, the jnation 1S ca he symbol for the NAND gate is shown in Fig. 324 As A ABI” ving atally Ses B Y=AB B Fig. 3.24 The Boolean equation for NAND gate is Y = ple is shown below. AB. The truth he output is | when any input goes to 0. The output is 0 when all the | Pputs are in | state. 4 EX - OR gate or XOR gate For a two input EX-OR gate, the output is high (1) only when of the input is high (1). The truth table for a two input EX-OR ite is given below ate is given in Fig. 3.25 79 |A -Y=Awy B Vig. 3.25 The Boolean expression 1 Y= ABtAB Also Y "A@B and read as A EX-OR B. 3.25 De Morgan’s theorem The complement of the sum of two or ¢ complements of the variabj Theorem 1: variables is equal to the product of th Let A and B are the variables. A+ B=A. A+B +C..2 ABC... Theorem 2: The complement of the product of lwo or b variables is equal to the sum of the complements of the variables AB=A+B ABC..2A+B+C+ Proof: ‘The variable A and B can have values 0 or 1. The values of and B may be in the following combinations. i.c. A=0 Bed An0 Bel Bro Bel ove into account, we can prove De Morgit!’ tables, 80z BASIC RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBI