How To Read Schematics

How to Read
Schematics
Fourth Edition
Donald E. Herrington
Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc.

A Subsidiary of Macmillan, Inc.
4300 West 62nd Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268 U.S.A.
© 1962, 1967. 1975, and 1986 by Howard W. Sams & Co.
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
FOURTH EDITION
SECOND PRINTING - 1986
All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the
publisher. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the
information contained herein. While every precaution has been taken in the
preparation of this book, the publisher assumes no responsibility for errors or
omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the
use of the information contained herein.
International Standard Book Number: 0-672-22457-7

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 85-62252
Formerly titled How to Read Schematic Diagrams. Third Edition
Editing: Louis Keglovits

Illustrations: Don demons
Interior design: T. R. Emrick
Composition: ShePard Poorman Communications Corp., Indianapolis
Cover Photo: McGuire Studio, Inc., Indianapolis
Printed in the United States of A merica

Contents
1
1 Types of Electronic Diagrams 1 I
9
Schematics—Block Diagrams—Chassis Layout 9
Diagrams—Photographs and Pictorial Diagrams—
Mechanical Diagrams—Review of Fundamentals— 1
9
Review Questions 8
2 Resistors 25
What Is a Resistor?—Fixed Resistors—Resistor
Networks—Tapped and Adjustable Resistors—
Variable Resistors—Special Resistors—Review
Questions
3 Capacitors 43
What Is a Capacitor?—Capacitance—Fixed
Capacitors—Electrolytic Capacitors—Variable
Capacitors—Review Questions
4 Coils and Transformers 65

What Is a Coil?—Air-Core Coils—Powdered-Iron
Core Coils—Iron-Core Chokes—Transformers—
Review Questions
5 Electron Tubes 79
Diode Tubes—Tube Bases—Triode Tubes—Tube
Voltages—Symbols—Other Tubes—Gas-Filled
Tubes—Phototubes—Cathode-Ray Tubes—Class
% Letters—Review Questions
V
A
6 Semiconductor Diodes and
Related Devices 95
What Is a Semiconductor?—The PN Junction—
Rectifiers—Signal and Switching Diodes—
Capacitive Diodes—Photodiodes—Breakdown
Diodes—Thyristors—Tunnel Diode—Other
Devices—Review Questions
7 Transistors and Integrated

Circuits jjj
Bipolar Transistors—Field-Effect Transistors—
Unijunction Transistors—Integrated Circuits—
Review Questions
8 Switches and Relays 129

Switch Types—Wafer Switches—Push-Button
Switches Relays—Review Questions
9 Miscellaneous Components 145

Antennas—Speakers—Fuses—Circuit Breakers-
Lamps—Batteries—Crystals—Microphones—
Transducers—Headsets and Earphones—Phono
Pickups Tape Heads—Rotating Machines—
Solenoids—Meters—Other Symbols—Review
Questions
10 Connecting the Components 173

U?d ^ Common Return Symbols-
Other Methods of Denoting Connections-
Connecting Devices—Printed Circuits-
Component Combinations—Review Questions
** £ o m k' n ' n 9 *he Components 193

^DoWerTCirCUitS~r?aSiC Tube C^cuits-Basic
Bipolar Transistor Circuits—FET Circuits-
Summary—Review Questions
12 Flowcharts 207
Common Symbols—Typical Flowchart—Other
Flowchart Symbols—Summary—Review Questions
13 Digital Circuits 215

Digital Basics—Buffers and Inverters—Gates—
Review Questions
14 Reading and Interpreting

Schematic Diagrams 227
Radio Receiver Schematic Analysis—BCD to
Decimal Decoder—From Schematic to Chassis—
Other Types of Equipment—Review Questions
Appendixes
A House Wiring Symbols 239
B Appliance Symbols 243
C Answers to Questions 247
Index 252
vii
Preface
Who would think of starting on a cross-country auto
mobile trip without first consulting a road map and plot
ting the route? Schematic diagrams and road maps have a
lot in common—both show the "highways" from one
point to another. Yet many students try to embark on a
much more important trip—a career in electronics—with
out first learning how to read the "road maps" of the
trade.
A simple key to the symbols, such as that included in
the corner of a road map, is not sufficient guidance for
understanding electronic schematics. The highways, cit
ies, and rivers symbolized on the road map are familiar to
everyone—you immediately have a picture of what is
being represented. The components that make up an elec
tronic circuit are not as familiar to most people. To be
able to look at an electronic schematic and get a mental
picture of the circuit, you must first understand its various
components and their symbols. This book has been writ
ten to help you gain this knowledge.
• To understand the symbols, you must first become
familiar with the components they represent. In the
following chapters you will read about how the vari
ous components are constructed and how they oper
ate; their relation to the schematic symbols will then
become apparent. The many favorable comments on
the first three editions of this book indicate that you
agree with this approach. Little time is spent on how
ix
to draw a symbol. Instead the aim is to enable you to
read and understand the schematic.
Electronics is a continually changing science. In
the years since this book was first published, many
changes have occurred in the electronics industry.
The symbols have become more standardized, new
components have been introduced, and the use of
others has declined. This fourth edition contains
many new symbols and expanded explanations to
keep in step with the latest developments. Flow
charts, although not strictly an electronic diagram,
have wide usage in related fields, so a chapter has
been included to explain these important diagrams.
Logic diagrams are used to explain the operation of
many IC circuits and are invaluable to show the
operation of digital equipment. Therefore, a chapter
has been included to explain logic symbols.
Although this book can serve as a very basic course in
electronics, it presents only the theory considered
necessary to understand the operation of a compo
nent and the reason for the symbol chosen. Once the
purpose of a component and its construction are
understood, you will see that its symbol on a sche
matic represents the component just as a line on a
map represents a highway.
The later chapters of this book show how the compo
nents are combined to form circuits. Then, step-by-
step, you follow signals through a schematic of a
radio receiver. The function of each stage and the
meaning of the information on the schematic are ex
plained.
This book is written with the beginner or hobbyist in
mind. No prior knowledge of electronics is assumed.
However, it can also serve as a valuable reference for
the technician.
Donald E. Herrington
Dedicated to Thelma, Bryan, Linda, Lee, and ]ay—my family
xi
1
Types of Electronic
Diagrams
Many types of diagrams are needed to describe completely
the operation and construction of electronic equipment.
The most widely used, of course, is the schematic—the sub
ject of this book. A schematic is usually all that is required
for analyzing, explaining, and servicing most circuits.
But, as we shall see, the schematic cannot convey all the
information about a piece of equipment; other types of
diagrams are needed as well.
In this chapter, we will discuss the different types of dia
grams used in electronics and point out the advantages
and disadvantages of each.
SCHEMATICS
The first questions the layperson or student may ask when
confronted by a schematic are "Why use all of these sym
bols? Couldn't the same information be given without
resorting to the use of sign language? Is this just a conspir
acy among people in electronics to keep us from learning
the art?" The answer to the last two questions, as you will
see, is a definite no.
Why Schematics and Symbols?

Symbols are used in electronic diagrams because experi
ence has shown us that they are the quickest and easiest
way to convey the needed information. Simple symbols
are a form of electronic shorthand. Using symbols, a cir-
i
A
2 How TO READ SCHEMATICS
cuit can be sketched in a short time. Also, because the

symbols are standard, they can be easily interpreted by
others.
The use of symbols, or "sign language," enables all the
necessary circuit information to be given in a relatively
small drawing. Such a drawing is much easier to "read"
than either a drawing or a photo of the actual assembled
parts. Imagine the problems involved in trying to repre
sent and analyze electronic equipment and components
from true-to-life drawings! In addition, a drawing of the
outside of a component does not show the internal con
struction of the unit.
If all the information contained in a schematic for even
a simple radio were to be conveyed in written form, it
would probably fill a book this size—yet the schematic of
the radio would easily fit on one page!
No, schematics are not meant to keep you in the dark
about electronics. What the blueprint is to the architect or
machinist, what the formula is to the chemist, the sche
matic is to those working in electronics. If you are just
starting m electronics, study this book diligently. No mat
ter what branch of this broad and fascinating field you
eventually specialize in, you must first acquire a thorough
knowledge of the symbols included in this book.
Information Conveyed by Schematics
wfih a" Cassette T SChema!ic of a amplifier used

looks confns" 3Pe reco Don't be concerned if it
nT later chaPters each symbo1
wilt be explained in detail. For the present we are inter-
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC DIAGRAMS 3
Electrical measurements obtained at the various points

(and the conditions under which they were taken) are also
included in Fig. 1-1.
Component Identification
Another very important item included in Fig. 1-1 is a
means of identifying each component. Notice the circled
letter-and-number combination beside each part. The let
ter signifies the type of component, and the number
distinguishes it from all others of the same type. For
instance, instead of saying ''the 220-pF capacitor con
nected between the collector and the base of the
2SC711(G) audio amplifier," we can merely say "C412."
Other portions of the literature concerning a particular
piece of equipment will also use these same reference
letter-and-number designations. For instance, C412 may
appear in a parts list which gives the part numbers and
specifications for each component, and also on a photo
graph or drawing which shows its location. Using the
same designation in all places to identify a component
lessens the chances for error.
Unfortunately, not all manufacturers designate a given
component by the same class letters (or "code letters" or
"callouts," as they are sometimes called), but they are
fairly standard and usually only a few items will be differ
ent. The recommended letters for the more common com
ponents appear in Table 1-1. Other letters you are likely
to encounter will be discussed in later chapters.
Symbol Variations
Like the class letters, the symbols used by different com
panies also vary. When the first edition of this book was
written, there were many differences among the symbols
used by manufacturers. Some, in fact, did not even
remotely resemble the symbols used by others. Today,
there is much more standardization. There are still differ
ences, which will be pointed out in later chapters, but they
are minor compared to what was once used. In general,
"I?
n+n Denotes chassis.

* Denotes ground^ 'Voltage reference unless otherwise indicatedl
I ndicates connection used in some versions.
—Indicates connection not used in some versions
* Omitted in some versions,
e See parts list
a Z:™'XoT '"Play" Unle"
* Measured in "Record" with Audio VIVM or equivalent meter

Values shown in I I are used in some applications
Resistors are |/?w or less. 5%. unless otherwise indicated
Supply voltage maintained at rated value (or measurements
Voltage and resistance measured with VIVM or equivalent meter
no signal applied and controls ad,usted lor normaI *e rah on
Arrow on control indicates direction d advance
Numbers assigned to terminals may not be found on the unit
Transistor resistances vary widely. No res.stance mûTements taKen.
Fig. 1-1. Schematic of a

Table 1-1. Recommended Class Letters
Class
Letter Designates
B Blower, fan, motor, synchro
BT Battery, battery cell, solar cell
C Capacitor
CB Circuit breaker
CR Current regulator (semiconductor), diode
(semiconductor, all types), crystal detector, metallic
rectifier, thyristor (diode type), semiconductor switch,
semiconductor rectifier, varactor, photodiode
D (same as CR)
DL Delay line
DS Bell, buzzer, lamp (all types), photodiode (photoemissive
type)
E Antenna, lightning arrester, telephone protector,
miscellaneous electrical components
F Fuse
G Generator, oscillator, electronic chopper, ignition and
telephone magnetos
HR Heater, heating lamp, infrared lamp, heating resistor
HS Handset, operators set
HT Headset, earphone, telephone receiver, receiver
(excluding radio)
J Jack, receptacle (connector, stationary portion)
K Relay, magnetically operated contactor
L Coil (all types), inductor, reactor, electrical solenoid
LS
Horn loudspeaker, audible alarm, buzzer, telephone
sounder or ringer
M Clock, meter, instrument, timer, counter, motor
MG Dynamotor, inverter (motor-generator), motor-
\AK generator, converter (rotating machine)
MK Mtcrophone, telephone transmitter, hydrophone
PU Ma!n f1STn?,tmS device (pluS connector)
phono'pickup ^ reC°rd' P'ay)' S°Und reProdu«r.
Q JhoTotrs'ist?' thyratr°n <-miconductor type),

R Resistor, potentiometer, rheostat, instrument or relay

shunt
RT Resistance lamp, thermal or current regulating resistor,
ballast lamp, thermistor
RV Resistor (voltage sensitive), symmetrical varistor
S Switch (all types), flasher (circuit interrupter), telegraph
key, thermal cutout, telephone dial
T Transformer (all types), telephone coil
TB Terminal board, terminal strip, test block
TC Thermocouple, thermopile
TP Test point
U Microcircuit, integrated circuit package
V Electron tube, klystron, magnetron, thyratron (electron
tube), phototube, voltage regulator (electron tube)
W Wire, cable, conductor, transmission line, bus bar
X Fuseholder, lampholder, socket
Y Crystal unit
Z General network, balun
the weights of lines and other minor differences do not

change the meaning of the symbol. In fact, two symbols
can be the mirror image of each other and still have the
same meaning.
Organizations such as the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) have adopted standard sym
bols which they hope the industry will use. Likewise, there
are standards adopted by the American National Stand
ards Institute (ANSI) and the military services, which,
fortunately, are identical.
The symbols used throughout the world are fairly
standard. The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) recommends symbols to member countries through
out the world. Most ANSI and IEEE symbols agree with
the IEC recommendations. Once you master the symbols
given in this book, you should have no trouble under
standing a schematic regardless of its origin. On a foreign
schematic, some terms will be in the language of the origi
nating country, but the symbol will be the same. In fact,
Fig. 1-2. A schematic being generated on a computer terminal at
Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc.
the values for the components usually will be the same,

since there is an international agreement on the names of
units used for component values. Often, the schematics of
two U.b. manufacturers will differ more than those be
tween a S. manufacturer and a foreign manufacturer.
Most of the variations in symbols stem from differences
k° S ^ /a tm^ anC* methods ^ying out circuits,
which have little effect on the meaning. Schematics may
behand sketched, drawn with ink and a symbol guide,
produced using preprinted symbols, or even prepared
ences are ine t k5" nS deVice <FiS- F2)- Mi™r ditfe"
lems—the bTsirh n they should "°t cause prob-
lems the basic shapes will remain the same.
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
The block diagram (Fie I_Q\• ^
Even though it does not -j ° USed ln electronics.
P ovide as much information as
Fig. 1-3. Block diagram of the cassette recorder of Fig. 1-1.
the schematic, it is nevertheless useful because it is easier

to interpret for certain limited purposes.
The principal use of the block diagram is to show the
overall operation of the circuit—in other words, the inter
relationships of the various stages. To read the diagram
of Fig. 1-3, start at the block at the upper left, labeled "1st
Preamp," then follow the arrows through the 2nd Pre-
amp, the AF amplifier, the driver, the two audio outputs,
and the speaker. The microphone or the playback head is
connected to the 1st preamp by the switch. One or the
other is selected, depending on whether you wish to record
or play back a tape. During record, the signal from the
output is coupled back to the automatic recording level
stage to adjust the gain of the 2nd preamp so the proper
level signal will be applied to the record head. (Although
not shown here, the speaker is disconnected during
record.) The block labeled "Power Supply" furnishes all
the other blocks with the proper operating power.
In summary, a block diagram shows the path of the sig
nal through the circuit and the function of each stage. For
this reason, it is sometimes called a functional block diagram,
or functional diagram. The block diagram does not furnish
any information about the types of connections or compo
nents; hence, it has only limited use. For a look at the
How TO READ SCHEMATICS
overall operation and functions of a unit, the block dia

gram is the simplest and easiest to follow. In complicated
equipment, such a diagram is particularly useful to show
how the various circuits fit together to produce the desired
result.
CHASSIS LAYOUT DIAGRAMS

A third type of diagram appears in Fig. 1-4. It is often
called a placement chart because it shows the physical loca
tions of the major components. A placement chart is
extremely useful for more complicated pieces of equip
ment such as the television receiver shown here. As more
and more components are added, the task of determining
just which transistor or integrated circuit (IC) fulfills a
given function becomes more difficult. With a diagram
ike the one in Fig. 1-4, locating a certain component is
greatly simplified.
PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTORIAL

DIAGRAMS
The schematic has one important limitation—it does not
s ow t e actual physical location of the individual compo
nents. Although it correctly shows all electrical connec
tions, a particular part often is located some distance away
rom its associated components on the chassis. Such a part
ted, by tracinS through the circuit, but the
Fig 7-7 ^ ^ at 3 Ph°t0 With each Part labeled' as
the mult\77" P a r t s a r e i n c l u d e d o n t h e c h a s s i s ,
he multitude of arrows needed can make the nhoto
become very cluttered. The method pictured in Fie 1-6
eliminates this problem. Here, a grid struefnr * •
posed over the photo and the afcompanv",
the location of the parts. Called Grid Trace™ h M ^
W. Sams & Co., Inc., this method p-r ] Y Howard
location of parts. For examole c & ea«y simplifies the

p to find part R656, simply
Fig. 1-4. Chassis layout diagram of a typical television receiver.
Fig. 1-5. Photo of a portion of a chassis wi«k

identified by arrow, and component numbed,'
Fig. 1-6. Photo of a portion of a chassis with a grid structure for

component location.
find the box at the junction of rows D and 10, and the part
will be in this area.
The only disadvantage of the photograph is that some of
the connections will not be clear, and tying them all
together becomes an impossible task. In the past it was
customary to use pictorial diagrams, which are drawings
of all the components with all the connections included.
Today such diagrams are seldom used except for construc
tion projects, where it is essential to show each connection
clearly. The pictorial can show the connections more
clearly than the photo, but neither can show them as well
as the schematic. Therefore, when electrical connections
are of primary concern, the schematic is used. When only
the physical location of a given part is desired, a pictorial
or photo is of greater value.
MECHANICAL DIAGRAMS
Two important functions ignored by the diagrams dis
cussed previously are mechanical action and connections.
Let us look at two of the more common types of diagrams
used for these purposes.
Dial-Cord Stringing
Without proper instructions, replacing a dial cord on a
receiver can be most difficult. Fig. 1-7 shows a diagram
providing the necessary information to make the job com
paratively easy. Without such help, hours might be spent
trying to determine the correct stringing method, espe
cially for more elaborate arrangements.
Exploded Views
For certain pieces of electrical and electronic equipment
whose operation is largely mechanical (such as record
changers or tape recorders), the interrelationships among
the parts can best be shown on a diagram known as an
exploded view. Such a diagram is given in KIR, t R
Each part is drawn "exploded" from It. 1
Torn its normal position,
Fig. 1-7. Dial cord stringing diagram.
but the relationship of each part to the others is main

tained. The dashed lines point to its correct position
within the assembly. Each part is identified with a num
ber. The name and number for each part can be deter
mined by referring to the parts list.
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS
Although this book is not intended as a text on basic elec
tronic theory, a brief review of fundamental principles is
of value in understanding some of the terms used in later
chapters.
Electron Theory
All matter is made up of atoms. The atom is the smallest
particle which retains all the characteristics of the over 100
known elements that are combined to form all material.
The atom is, in turn, made up of smaller particles called
electrons and protons (plus some other particles not
important to our discussion here). The proton has a mi

nute positive charge and is located in the center (nucleus)
of the atom along with other particles.
The electrons, having a negative charge, orbit around
this nucleus. The nucleus could be likened to the sun, and
the electrons to the planets orbiting around it. However,
unlike the planets which each have separate orbits, more
than one of the electrons normally follows the same orbit
in the structure of the atom. For example, Fig. 1-9 com
pares a helium atom with a copper atom. Because the pro
tons have a positive charge, they are represented by the
plus sign in the center or nucleus. The electrons, with
their negative charge, are shown orbiting around the
nucleus. Note that the helium atom has two protons in the
center and two electrons in the same orbit (called shell)
around the center. The copper atom has 29 protons in the
nucleus and 29 orbiting electrons arranged in 4 orbits or
shells.
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(A) Helium. (B) Copper.
Fig. 1-9. Comparison of a helium atom and a copper atom.
Since like electrical charges repel each other and unlike

charges attract, the electrons in Fig. 1-9 are attracted to
the protons in the nucleus. However, the centrifugal force
of the orbiting electrons is sufficient to counteract the

effect of the opposing forces and prevents the electrons
from being pulled to the center. Thus, each electron stays
in place orbiting the nucleus. In an atom such as copper
(Fig. 1-9B), which has a single electron in the outer shell,
it is possible to cause this electron to move from its outer
shell to the outer shell of an adjacent atom. The outer
electron formerly in this adjacent electron is then bumped
to the next atom, and so on. This action is shown in sim
plified form in Fig. 1-10. As an electron enters at the left,
another electron moves to the center atom, and then
another electron moves to the right atom. Thus, in effect,
we have a flow of electrons through the material. An elec
tric current is nothing more than a flow of electrons. This
flow occurs at the speed of light in free space, and just
slightly slower in other materials; for all practical pur
poses, the flow is instantaneous.
NUCLEUS
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POSSIBLE PATH
OF ELECTRONS
Fig. 1-10. Simplified concept of electron flow.
all™?-,"' Th 7 Single electron in its °wer shell, readily

allows its outer electron to pass on to the next atom when
properly excited. Thus, copper is a pr»r»H j c l
trinity. The construction of some ato™ 7f 7
electrons cannot readily flow from one t" * i!
For example, our helium atom in Fin J qT.'°
trons in its outer orbit. This is the »« • °
These electrons will not be easi^^1"111111 *"°r t*"s S^'
orbit, so this material is called an tV,sL/Ped fr°m their
The flow of electrons can be com n ^ •

For example, when an electric swl k ^ Several ways-
ten m a circuit is
opened, the flow of electrons through the wire is stopped.

Electrons can be caused to do more than just flow through
a wire. The proper manipulation of the flow of the elec
tron makes possible the entire field of electricity and elec
tronics. Thus, radio, television, microcomputers, and
most of our modern conveniences are possible because we
can control the flow of this tiny negative charge in the
atom.
Alternating and Direct Current

The rate at which electrons flow is defined as current. If rel
atively few electrons flow, we have a small current; if
more electrons flow, we have a larger current, and so on.
Before any electrons can flow, however, there must be
some force to cause it. This force is called electromotive force
(abbreviated EMF), or voltage. Electromotive force can be
likened to pressure and can be produced in many ways. A
battery produces voltage through chemical action,
whereas an alternator produces voltage through mechani
cal action.
Recall that an electron has a negative charge. Thus, if a
material can be made to have more than the normal
amount of electrons, it is said to have a negative voltage.
Likewise, if a material can be made to have less than the
normal amount of electrons, it is said to have a positive
voltage. This is what happens in the flashlight cell of Fig.
1-11.Through chemical reaction, an excess of electrons is
created at the outer covering (to the right) of the cell.
Fig. 1-11. Electron flow.

Likewise, a deficiency of electrons is created at the center

terminal (to the left) of the cell. If a wire is connected
between these two points, electrons will flow through the
wire from the negative to the positive terminal. Recall that
like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Therefore, if
the two probes connected by a wire are touched to the cell
as shown, the concentration of electrons at the outer cov
ering of the cell (right side) will repel those electrons in the
wire adjacent to the cell, and a chain reaction is started
along the wire. Since the positive post at the left has a
deficiency of electrons, they are attracted to this point.
This flow of electrons (current) will continue until the two
points equalize or the connection is removed.
A circuit like that of Fig. 1-11 can serve no useful pur
pose. It will only discharge the battery. However, if we
connect some other device instead of the wire between the
two points, the electrons can be made to do work while
moving from one point to the other. For example, if a
light bulb is connected between the two terminals of the
battery, the electrons flowing through the bulb will heat
the filament and produce light as they race toward the
positive terminal.
The current produced in Fig. 1-11 is said to be direct cur-
rent (abbreviated DC) because it flows in only one direc
tion t rough the wire. Such a current is diagrammed as
s own in Fig. 1-12A. The instant the wire is touched to
he two terminals, current starts flowing; this is repre-
sente y the line rising and then extending in a straight
ne to t e right. The vertical axis—the distance from the
C^r (zero P0'"1) to the top—represents the amount of
current, and the horizontal axis represents time

wire°in FPT T I ^ tW° pr°bes on ends of the
wire in Fig. 1-11 and reversed them so thev were con
nected to the opposite terminals of the cell Th 1
would now flow in the opposite HiZ? ^ electrons
wire. If we continued to reverse the le- Z ou&b
current through the wire would flow fi ^°U ^ SCC that

and then in the other. Of conr«#> FSt *n one direction
C' th,s method of changing
21
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC DIAGRAMS
(A) Direct current. (B) Alternating current (sine wave).
(C) Varying direct current. (D) Alternating current.
Fig. 1-12. Direct ond alternating current waveforms.
the direction of electron flow (current) is not practical, but

in mechanical devices such as the alternator in an automo
bile, this is what happens. At a given terminal, the voltage
(potential) will first be negative and then positive. When it
is positive, electrons will flow toward the terminal, when it
is negative, electrons will flow away from the terminal and
toward the opposite terminal. This is alternating current
(abbreviated AC) and is diagrammed as shown in Fig.
1-12B. Here, the current builds up to a peak, then
decreases and flows in the opposite direction to a similar
peak and back to zero. Fig. 1-12B is a special type of alter
nating current waveform called a sine wave. The power
provided by the power companies is of this type, com
plete cycles occur each second, as shown.
Most of the currents encountered in electronic equip
ment do not follow either of the patterns shown in ig.
1-12A and B. Instead, they are more like the ones in hig.
1-12C and D. The waveform of Fig. M2C is direct cur
rent because it extends in only one direction from t e zero
line. The voltage is not a steady constant value, ut it is
still DC. The waveform in Fig. 1-12D is AC since it
extends above and below the zero line, but it also varies
and does not follow the sine-wave pattern.
Although the waveforms in Fig. 1-12 have been
described as current waveforms, they also represent the
voltage present at a given point. When used to represent
voltage, the portion of the wave above the zero line repre
sents a positive voltage, while the portion below the line is
a negative voltage. Thus, in Fig. 1-12A a steady positive
voltage is represented; in Fig. 1-12C the voltage is still
positive, but the value varies. In Fig. 1-12B, the voltage
first goes positive, then decreases in value to zero, then
moves on to a negative value and back to zero. The same
is true of Fig. 1-12D, except the changes follow a different
pattern and occur at a much faster rate. The shape of the
waveform will be the same whether it represents voltage or
current.
The important things to remember about the electron-
flow concept can be summarized as follows:
1. Electrons are negatively charged particles.
2. Protons are positively charged particles.
3. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
4. When a conducting path is provided, electrons will
move from an area having an excess of electrons to
one having a deficiency of electrons.
5. When electrons flow in only one direction, direct
current (DC) is .present.
6. When electrons flow in one direction and then in the
opposite direction, alternating current (AC) is
present.
7. Electronics is the science of controlling the flow of
electrons in such a manner as to produce a desired
result, usually with circuitry utilizing vacuum tubes
or semiconductor devices.
to COnCePtS in mind' « is now possible

to discuss the various components I • TU
effect each will have on the flow

and the symbols that stand for each ^ ec. ons through 11
diagrams will be presented in th#» f 11 evice on schematic
Showing chapters.
23
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC DIAGRAMS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a schematic?
2. How are the individual components on a schematic
identified?
3. What information does a block diagram convey.
4. What does a photo show that a schematic cannot?
5. What are the disadvantages of a photograph over a
pictorial diagram?
6. Why are schematics used?
7. How are record changer mechanisms usually shown
in service literature?
8. What does a chassis-layout diagram show?
9. Name two types of mechanical diagrams.
10. What is the most popular type of electronic
diagram?
2
Resistors
The resistor is the most common of all electronic compo
nents. Every radio, television receiver, or any other piece
of electronic equipment contains several resistors.
i
WHAT IS A RESISTOR?
In electronic circuits, resistors perform exactly the func
tion their name implies—they resist or oppose the flow of
electrons. In other words, a resistor might be said to intro
duce electrical friction. Every electronic component, even a
piece of ordinary wire, contains a certain amount of resis
tance, but to obtain the amount of resistance provided by
just one resistor might require several feet, or even miles,
of wire. Using resistors practically any amount of resis
tance can be contained in a small compact unit.
Resistor Ratings
Two types of ratings, or values, are specified for a resis
tor. The first is the electrical value—how much resistance
it will introduce into the circuit. This value is given in
ohms, the unit of resistance measurement. Thus, if a resis
tor has a value of 1000 ohms, it will introduce an electrical
opposition of 1000 units to the flow of electrons in the cir
cuit.
This opposition reduces the amount of current in a
given circuit. By properly selecting a resistor value it is
possible to obtain the exact amount of current require
Also, when current flows through a resistor, a voltage is

developed across it. This means that the voltage at one
end of a resistor will be lower than at the other end by an
amount proportional to the current flowing through it.
Mathematically, this is expressed as:
E = I x R
where,
E is the voltage in volts,
I is the current in amperes,
R is the resistance in ohms.
Thus, the two most important functions of a resisto
are: (1) to limit the current flow, and (2) to provide a volt
age difference.
The second value given in rating a resistor is th
wattage—how much current can flow through it withou
amaging it. The unit of measurement is the watt, and ii
general, the larger the physical size of the resistor, th«
ig er its wattage rating will be. Common ratings are $
A» ht 1, 2, and 5 watts or more. Regardless of this wattag<
rating the resistance does not change. A '/.-watt resisto:
cou e replaced with a 1-watt or even a 5-watt unit. Bu
it a 1-watt resistor were replaced by a fc-watt unit, the lat
ter might burn out.
ahh^
SCh.ematiCS' resistor valuesare often designated with
omepJTsn™ 3nd Symbols' For example, the Greek lettei
"ohm ' ThS UfU y employed in place of the word
ally written M 100,W"tinS out 100 ohms, it is usu-
nate 1000 and M ffn f"" k (for kll°) is used t0 deSlg'
Thus 100 kf2 m ! me&a} ls used to represent 1 million.
ohm; mean? ^ ^
by the capital letter ^ aFC usually ind,cated
watt unit. * r Instance, 1 W signifies a 1-
RESISTORS 27
FIXED RESISTORS
The fixed resistor is the simplest type. "Fixed" means the
unit is constructed in such a way that its ohmic value can
not be varied. Fig. 2-1 shows some examples of this type,
each having a certain value determined by the composi
tion and amount of the material from which it is con
structed. The units in Fig 2-1 are (from bottom to top)
Ir, 1-, and 2-watt units.
Many fixed resistors are made of a mixture of a clay
binder and carbon. Technically, these are called carbon
composition resistors, but they are often just called carbon
resistors. Carbon composition resistors are available in
wattages from % watt to 5 watt, and in resistances
from 1 ohm to 1 teraohm (1 million megohms or
1,000,000,000,000 ohms).
IBS-
PW""'
ft limit'!'H| I'l'i 1 j1 H [ ' T ! '
11 2
Un*
MM ICl .0, 60 TO
1 1
Fig. 2-1. Assortment of carbon composition resistors. (Courtesy
Allen-Bradley Co.)
Some resistors have a carbon film deposited on a

ceramic core. Still others have a metal (such as nichrome)
or a metal-oxide film (such as tin oxide) deposited on a
ceramic or glass core. In a Ceramet resistor, a powdered
metal or glass is mixed with an ink or paste and screened
or painted on a porous ceramic base, which is then baked
to bond the materials. Ceramet resistors can be made in a
higher resistance range and higher wattage than
nichrome.
Other resistors, especially those for high-wattage appli
cations, use a special high resistance wire, such as
nichrome or manganin, wound on a ceramic core. The
assembly is then covered with a vitreous enamel protective
covering as shown in Fig. 2-2.
Fig. 2-2. Construction of a wirewound resistor. (Courtesy Ohmi

Manufacturing Co.)
th^ *\xec* resjstor is usually marked in some way to sh<

of UG^ 1 Ûnit- ^his is most often done by a syste
for codin° K ^
1 ^ most common method us
method g Carbon resis tors is shown in Fig. 2-3A. Oth

method ofFig the^K2"^ throu®h H' In '
nate the fir«n '• ° ânds nearest the end desi
band dL jlTtU §HS °fthG °hmic value, and the thi
at the correct value "if"^ °1 t0 be added t0 ar"
(for odd values anA • • S1gnificant figure is needt

in Fig. 2-3B is used^T^1011 resistors) the method shov
f are not used^ 2"3C' 1
color coding resistors show older methods

RESISTORS 29
The colors used to signify each value are given in Fig.

2-31. Thus, in the color-band system using two significant
figures, a resistor having a yellow, a violet, and a red
band has a value of 4700 ohms. The fourth and fifth
bands may or may not be used. If a fourth band is pres
ent, it will signify how close the actual resistance is to the
indicated value. This is known as the tolerance. It is impos
sible to make each resistor have the exact resistance indi
cated by its color bands, so certain standard resistance val
ues have been adopted. All resistors which fall within the
required percentage of this standard are coded with this
value. If no fourth band is present, the resistor is within
20% of the indicated value. A silver band designates a
10% tolerance; a gold band designates a 5% tolerance.
Other tolerances, although not common, are indicated in
Fig. 2-31. The fifth band, when used, signifies the failure
rate. It is expressed as a percent of expected failures per
1000 hours usage.
Other resistors, especially the wirewound type, have
their value stamped on the side. The wattage rating will
often be included. Some resistors are so tiny that there is
no room for a complete color code. In resistors of this
type, a special code must be devised. For example, a sin
gle red dot might designate a 2200-ohm resistor.
The schematic symbols for designating fixed resistors
are shown in Fig. 2-4. The symbol at A is the most com
mon—those at B and C will seldom be encountered.
When the symbol at B is used, the resistance value will
usually be placed inside the box. This is most popular on
foreign schematics.
Like the resistance symbol, the class letter used to desig
nate a resistance is also more standardized. All American
manufacturers designate a fixed resistor by the letter R.
RESISTOR NETWORKS
Many modern electronic circuits employ units in
several resistors are combined in a single unit c e a
30
TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER J MULTIPLIER I FAILURE
/ 2ND SIGNIFICANT 2ND SIGNIFICANT

I FIGURE | FIGURE
1ST SIGNIFICANT 1ST SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE FIGURE THIRD SIGNIFICANT
1ST SIGNIFICANT F'GURE
RESISTORS WITH BLACK BODY COLOR FIGURE /

ARE COMPOSITION, NONINSULATED. \ / MULTIPLIER
RESISTORS COLORED BODIES ARE

COMPOSITION INSULATED.
l i r i M h
WIREWOUND RESISTORS HAVE THE
1ST DIGIT COLOR BAND DOUBLE / \
WIDTH. SECOND SIGNIFICANT TOLERANCE
FIGURE
(A) Color-band system (two significant

(B) Color-band system (three significant
figures).
figures).
1ST SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
h (C) Body-dot system.

/ MUL
MULTIPLIER
2ND SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER
/ / -1ST SIGNIFICANT
2ND SIGNIFICANT ,N.ci FIGURE
FIGURE 2ND SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
(D) Dot-band system.
Fig. 2-3. Resis
2-5. The'pIckaeeT Fô^ ne.tworks are pictured in F

age (abbreviated SIP1 Th u "
' 5
A ~ t>
C
aUe
d
a 3 Sg
el n
i n
i
l
e
identical to that used bv^ " ^ " Kg ' " '

2 5B Which
a dual in-line package (DIP!inL'nte^rated circuits, is call

Plug directly into sockets on » i°"S 3re desi§ned
tally, these units contain va ted clrcult board- Inte
tors. For examnle th an°us combinations of resi
tains four separate'220C-ohm °n.the left in FiS- 2'5A C01

nght ha« three separate 3300^°™' Wh'le the °nC °n ^
connections are made L ,, . resistors- Often, oth<

ernally m these units. For exan
RESISTORS 31
1ST SIGNIFICANT 1ST SIGNIFICANT

FIGURE FIGURE MULTIPLIER
MULTIPLIER
\ /
mi -Cztj-
TOLERANCE 2ND SIGNIFICANT
TOLERANCE 2ND SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
FIGURE
(E) Body-end-dot system. (F) Body-end-band system.

2ND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
1ST SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
MULTIPLIER MUTLIPLIER'\"Z*' 2ND SIGNIFICANT
1ST SIGNIFICANT FIGURE FIGURE
(G) Dash-band system. (H) Miniature resistor code.
Color Significant Figures Multiplier Tolerance Failure Rate*
Black 0 1 ± 20% —
Brown 1 10 + 1% 1.0
Red 2 100 ±2% 0.1
Orange 3 1,000 ±3% 0.01
Yellow 4 10,000 ±4% 0.001
Green 5 100,000 — —
Blue 6 1,000,000 — —
Violet 7 10,000,000 — —
Gray 8 100,000,000 — —
White Solderable*
9 —
Gold 0.1 ±5% —
Silver 0.01 ± 10% —
No Color ± 20% —
' On composition resistors indicates failures per 1000 hours. On film

resistors indicates solderable terminal.
(I) Color code.

color codes.
pie, the one in Fig. 2-5B contains thirteen 10-kilohm resis

tors, with one end of each resistor connected to a com
mon point. Thus, this common point normally wou e
connected to ground in the circuit. This type o connec
tion is called a common-bus connection. Resistor networ
available with various number of pins and resistor connec
tions to fit the need for the circuit involved. avbe
The same schematic symbols given in Fig- -..^hnls
used for resistor networks, with the indivi u
placed where convenient o n the schematic. RiR
same R number with an added letter sufhx (
—wv HZZ>
B C
Fig. 2-4. Fixed resistor symbols.
406B332
408B221
n i l Inni
©
1
8038 1 8028
TTTTT
(A) Single in-line package (SIP).
M8340101M1002GB
01121 8124
1
(B) Dual in-line package (DIP).
F,9* 2"5, Resistor networks. (Courtesy Allen-Bradley Co.)
same R number with an added letter suffix (R1A, RIB,

.i ' ftcv wi be used to designate these resistors. At
Ficr t, ma^ l°cated together as shown in
dashoH l' n t ri,f Case ' ^
t le ent ire unit may be enclosed with
St F- , :re e bo1 at A in Fi«- 2-e is f°r th<= °n
Fie 2-<iK t' and 1116 °nC at B is for 1116 unit in
shownatCand'DinFS^™3115' ^ combinations »«
TAPPED AND ADJUSTABLE

RESISTORS
point along ^he^reslstTnce1138 * connection at some
symbols used for such ™atenal. Fig. 2-7 shows the
almost exclusively and is ffie" symb°l at A is used
y and IS the same as for a fixed resistor
RESISTORS
33
Fig. 2-6. Typical resistor network symbols.
xcept for the line connected to the zigzag portion- If

re two taps, another line is added, as shown at *
i sometimes added at the point where the 1"5^°^sistance
tie regular resistor symbol as shown at • tanned
alue of the entire unit, as well as the va ue a
T
Fig. 2-7. Tapped resistor symbols.
point, is given for this type of resistor. The symbol at D i

. 1^1. ^ * s u s e d b y companies that employ the symbol at
in Fig. 2-4. 7 7
Most tapped resistors are wirewound units with a sep<

rate terminal for each tap. In some units, the tap is mad
adjustable by making it in the form of a band around th
resistor. e resistance wire is left exposed along one sid
° t e unit, and this band makes contact at the desire*
point t is then secured by tightening a screw. Once set
the value of such resistors is seldom changed.
T
B
F«g. 2-8. Symbols for adjustable resistors.
use?toTs^bt°hIS ShOWn in FiS- 2-7 are some.im,

arrowhead, however îs I^n °f adjustable resistors. A
Point, as shown in f VT^ a117 added at the connectic
the class letter always used'for ^ resistor' R
resistors. both tapped and adjustabi

RESISTORS 35
VARIABLE RESISTORS
A resistor that can be continuously varied in value is often
needed. In lighting and other power circuits, such a resis
tor is usually called a rheostat. Rheostats almost always
consist of a circular wirewound resistance element with a
sliding contact (as shown in Fig 2-9), with connections to
one end of the resistance element and to the sliding arm.
Another type of continuously variable resistor is called a
potentiometer. It usually resembles the rheostat and can
have a wirewound, carbon, or other composition resis
tance element. The potentiometer has connections to each
end of the resistance element and to the sliding arm.
When used in a circuit, however, connections may be
made to only one end of the resistance element and the
sliding arm; thus, it can be used as a rheostat. Fig. 2-10
shows some examples of potentiometers that can be ad
justed with a screwdriver to obtain the desired resistance.
The potentiometers of Fig. 2-11 are designed to be
adjusted by a knob attached to the shaft. The first two are
the type of controls used to adjust the volume, contrast,
Fig. 2-9. An assortment of rheostats. (Courtesy P. R. M a l l o r y &

Co., I n c . )
9 . An assortment of screwdriver-tuned potentiometer!

(Courtesy Clarostat Mfg. Co., Inc.)
The remain?'1'* °tber items on entertainment equipmei

10 turns ofthg "w 'S & prec's'on potentiometer requiri]
aT" ^
element to the other^ °"e ^°(t
Po-tiometemfp^rFrgTl^SmaU ^ ^
labeled r;rrn%i:atb/rreTttor s^bois are ^

exception that ™ • These are alike with tl
This does notnel^T^0" b Shown * °«<= end in ]
nections. If the third^' ^ ™ean the unit bas only two co:
terminal is not used—as is often d
37
RESISTORS
Fig. 2-11. An assortment of panel-mounted

potentiometers.(Courtesy Clarostat Mfg. Co., Inc.)
Fig. 2-12. An assortment of ^ po>*n«on,e,e,s.

9 (Courtesy Allen-Bradley Co.)
2-13. Continuously variable rheostat or potentiometer

symbols.
case it is not shown. The symbols at C and D also desig

nate either a rheostat or a potentiometer with only twc
terminals used. Here, the arrow through the symbol signi
es it is adjustable. Two ways to show the variable arrr
are at E and F. Others will also be encounterec
but the basic symbol is virtually the same on all. The sym
bols at G and H represent a preset adjustment (usually a
screw nver" adjustment). One of these symbols may be
used tor the potentiometers of Fig. 2-10. Quite often,
of variable resistor" ^ t0 rePresent th'S tyP'
that^ha^01)30^ at * Fig- 2-13 signifies a potentiometer

Some nnit ^ t0 P . *de an additional fixed connection,
ro v
will not are , made ln such a way that the sliding contact
always leaves t?""' aCCrtai" P™' the element. This

end of th resistance between the arm and one
shown at
thje
; rrrter-The symbo1 f°r ^ ** is
limit to which th, FuY" across the

symbol indicates the
The value f ™ C°ntaCt wiU traveL
stamped on the unit^Th^ reslstor maY not always be

he manufacturer's part number is
RESISTORS 39
often the only information given. To find the value, refer

to the schematic, parts list, or manufacturer's catalog.
The most popular class letter for designating a variable
resistor is R, but some manufacturers prefer the letter P
(for potentiometer) or VR (for variable resistor).
Two potentiometers are sometimes constructed as one
assembly, one unit being mounted behind the other. The
shaft for one is hollow, allowing the shaft of the other unit
to pass through it. This arrangement is quite common for
certain TV controls; the operation is the same as for two
separate units. The same class letter and number will
often designate both units, with an A and B added to dis
tinguish between them—such as R1A and RIB.
REAR
POTENTIOMETER
FRONT
POTENTIOMETER
Fig. 2-14. Exploded view of a two-section poteotiometer and on/
off switch: (Courtesy Centralab, Inc., a Nor m
A switch may also be included on the back of a Potenti

ometer. Fig. 2-14 shows an exploded vtew of such^con
trol. The outer shaft is used to vary the fron p
ter. The inner shaft, whic^ ElectricaUy, how-
SôlrSbetween the sections.

SPECIAL RESISTORS
Often there is a need for a special type of resistor which
will vary in value with changes in the conditions sur
rounding it or in the circuit. Many of these units are actu
ally semiconductor devices (to be discussed in a later chap
ter). However, since they are used to supply resistance in
a circuit, they will be mentioned in this chapter.
As the temperature of a common carbon resistor rises
because of heat from surrounding components or from its
own internal electron flow, the resistance of the resistor
increases. To forestall this change, the composition of the
resistor is altered to cause its resistance to decrease when
the temperature increases. In fact, the change in resis
tance can be made to either increase, decrease, or remain
constant, regardless of the direction of temperature
c ange (within limits, of course). These units are known
as temperature-compensating resistors, thermistors (acronym for
thermally sensitive resistor), or thermal resistors (Fig. 2-15).
t e resistance decreases as the temperature rises, they
are said to have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC); if it
increases, they have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
The abbreviation signifying the type is usually placed
esi e t e symbol. Thermistors can also be used as the
-(g)-
F 'fl. 2-15. Thermistor symbols.

RESISTORS
41
VDR
VDR
C D
^T
-fl-
(w^ ~~(^^) ^)~
\N
LDR
—VV^— 4Â^~
LDR
Fig. 2-16. Voltage- and light-dependent resistor symbols.
sensing elements of electronic thermometers. They art

available built into probes that can be immerse c in iqui s
to measure temperature, and in many other orms to
almost any application where adjustments n< < <
made due to temperature variations. n
Resistors are also available which var\ in v uc *
'ng to the current flowing through t em or t .
present in the circuit. Others vary in value when light
strikes them. Often the same symbol showr' at
Fig. 2-15 is used for these resistors, except the
nating the type is changed to V for vo tage^ diffrrcn,
or L or X for light. Various manufac urers use ^ ^ ^
symbols, however. In Fig. 2-16, symbols A thr g
for voltage-dependent resistors; those in H through 0 are

for light-dependent resistors.
The letter R is usually employed as the class letter for
voltage- , current- , temperature- , or light-dependent
resistors. However, RT may be used for temperature-
dependent resistors and RV for voltage-dependent resis
tors. In addition, D or CR is sometimes used as the class
letter for semiconductor-type resistors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the unit of measurement for resistance?
2. What are the two main purposes of resistors?
3. What is resistance?
4. What Greek letter is used as the symbol for ohm?
5. What is a potentiometer?
6. What class letter is used for resistors?
What is the value of a resistor with a red, a violet,
and an orange band?
8. What is a negative temperature coefficient resistor?
1n r!1^ thC Symbo1 for afixed resistor.
raw the symbol for a tapped potentiometer.
Capacitors
Like the resistor discussed in the previous chapter, the
capacitor is found in nearly every electronic circuit. The
term "condenser" was formerly used when referring to
this unit. That term is still heard occasionally when speak
ing of motors, but "capacitor" is now more universally
accepted.
WHAT IS A CAPACITOR?
Basically, a capacitor is a device consisting of two plates of
a conducting material separated by an insulator, called the
dielectric (Fig. 3-1). This arrangement gives it the property
WIRE LEADS
AIR SPACE
(INSULATOR)
Fig. 3-1 The basic capacitor.
release is more commonly called charge and discharge

43
Electrons do not actually flow through the insulating

material. However, when a large number of electrons are
stored on one plate, making it highly negative, the elec
trons on the opposite plate will be repelled, causing elec
trons to flow away from this plate. Therefore, if an AC
signal is connected to one plate, causing a buildup and
depletion of electrons on this plate, a similar effect will
occur on the opposite plate even though no electrons actu
ally flow through the insulating material.
If DC is connected to one plate of the capacitor, it will
act as an open circuit. After an initial surge when DC is
first applied, the number of electrons will not vary on the
plate connected to the DC; therefore, there will be no
movement of electrons to or from the second plate. The
property by which a capacitor transfers an AC signal from
one plate to another is called coupling; the property of act
ing as an open circuit to DC is called blocking.
CAPACITANCE
The property by which a capacitor is able to store elec
trons is called capacitance. The larger the plate area, the
more e ectrons can be stored, hence the larger the capaci-
ance. e unit of measure for capitance is the farad. Since
e ara is too large a capacitance for ordinary work, the
\j\\ j°ne mî°nth of a farad) is more common.
letter° am u ABBREV* D mF- (The symbol \L is the Greek
ATE
smaller • uabbreviation for one millionth.) A still

mon Tl?nit' * ^ P'c°farad (abbreviated pF) is also com-
of a far-H Unit 1S ec*ua* to one millionth of one millionth
farad, or one millionth of a microfarad.
1 pF = 0.000001 nF = 0.000000000001 farad
FIXED CAPACITORS
for rnoTuslT Capadtors'Kg' 3_1 'S "0t ^
capacitors are constructed in various sizes,
CAPACITORS 45
shapes, and materials as shown in Fig. 3-2. Practical

capacitors employ special insulating materials instead of
the air shown in Fig. 3-1, and the plates are rolled or
stacked instead of single flat plates. Such units occupy a
Fig. 3-2. An assortment of capacitors, showing »he vario^ sizes

and shapes available for different applications. (Courtesy IK
Electronics)
nuch smaller space. One type of tubular capacitor isV

ured in Fig. 3-3. This capacitor is constructed of alterna
ayers of a plastic film insulator and a metal foil conduct^
oiled into a cylindrical shape. Another type is
7ig. 3-4. I n this capacitor, ceramic i s u s e d «
ric. Alternate layers of metal electrodes an

material are fixed onto a single homogeneous ^ ^
Although not shown clearly in ig- » ^^
aietal foil strips connected to leads at opp
A0%
t0-0*
250V£C
(A) Physical appearance.
OTHER
FOIL LEAD CONNECTED
STRIP TO OTHER
ONE FOIL STRIP
FOIL
STRIP
LEAD
CONNECTED
TO THE FOIL PLASTIC FILM
STRIP DIELECTRIC
(BETWEEN EACH
LAYER OF FOIL)
(B) Construction.
3. Film wrapped tubular capacitors. (Courtesy Sprague

Electric Co.)
capacitor The
tor. This can sd f°rm the two Plates of the caPaci'
n also be seen in Fig. 3-4. There are other

CAPACITORS 47
sets £3
X
LEAD CONNECTED
TO ONE SET
OF METAL PLATES
ONE SET OF
METAL PLATES
LEAD CONNECTED
TO OTHER SET
OF METAL PLATES
CERAMIC
DIELECTRIC
(B) Construction.
Fig. 3-4. Multilayer ceramic capacitor. (Courtesy Sprague

Electric Co.)
ss of capacitors, constructed in many s^Pe jjeiec_

ig many different materials for the msulatmg d.el
trie. Treated paper, mica and plastic films such as polyes

ter, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polytetrafluorethylene,
polypropylene, and others are used as dielectrics in capac
itors. All, however, have the same basic characteristics-
conducting surfaces separated by an insulating dielectric
material.
Color Codes
Most fixed capacitors have their value stamped on them;
the rest use one of many color code schemes to indicate
value and other information. Some of these color codes
are given in Fig. 3-5. Many of these codes are no longer
used, but they are still encountered in older equipment.
One method of typographically marking capacitors is
shown in Fig. 3-5. Here the actual value and other infor
mation are given in plain English. Another popular
method incorporates a series of number and letter codes.
The method of listing may vary among manufacturers,
ut one row usually includes codes for the type, voltage,
and dielectric. The next row will show the capacitance
value and tolerance. Instead of stating the actual capaci
tance value, the first two (and sometimes three) digits give
the significant digits of the value, and the last digit gives
the multiplier or number of zeros to add to obtain the
vaue in picofarads. If an "R" is included with the digits,
in icates a decimal point. A letter following the value
indicates the tolerance, or how close to the marked value
ters h*111 Is p*aranteed to be. The significance of these let
ters is as follows:
M- ± 20% %
K — ± 10% H— ± Wo
J ~ ± 5% G~ ± 2%
piGMVrr ~20% B — ± 0 J pF
x -.wL ar" Min' Value> C ~ ± 0 25 PF
As G — — 0-5 pF
type, if 563^^8 m ^ markinSs on a capacitor of this
arked on a capacitor, it indicates a
CAPACITORS 49
(A) Molded paper capacitors.
Fig. 3-5. Capacitor color co

(B) Mica capacitors.
F|9- 3-5. Capacitor color codes (cortf).
CAPACITORS 51
55 »> I I I § I I I I I I I
•o -o
> 5
O
5
O O
O O
5° =>
o m 8
I - | oo I 7 I 7 I M II
s
+ 1 +
Q.
O
< <
LU LU
I I I I O I
1 S
T-
1 8
CO
1
I I gs I I I I < o
T- CM
8 +1 +1
£ «
3 £
— CO
O co
O) CD
° 8 § < I I I I I 5 < C £
°. LU LU "> o
O «
OT-cMco*rmcor—ooo> | |
O a
s: x:
o o <
(0 -x: co 5
ra « LU q. c u_~
CO CD Q.
6 2 <£QODLULL I I I I I I
co E o
£ £m
o-5 +
g| fJ 0 © ® 2 5 « ST -
« o "S «E; ® 3 o 2 ^ o = Q £O
mmiro>-c5co>a5oco • *
(B) Mica capacitors (cont).
Fig. 3-5. Capacitor color codes (cont).

(°) Ceramic capacitors.
F'9' 3"5- C°P«i*or color codes (cool).

CAPACITORS 53
u.
+1
a
Multiplier
+ 10
+ 100
+ 10,000
+ 1,000
-1
-10,000
-10
-100
-1,000
o
s£<=?8§8
•
>
«•) + +!+ 1
Temperature Coefficient
O
its
©
c to
© o
Significant
Figure
© LL o , omocos© . . . . °
a
0 o I r r oinstN I I I 1 q
to ~
a ©
<n E
o
high Q. Class 2
+ 150 to -1500
+ 100 to -750
Letter
ppm°C
-75
-470
-330
-150
0 -* * 5 N
0
-33
-750
-220
UJ
aa
-
u.
a
o o sS
II I. I. *'- § °o ™
© * ? ° o c
©
Class 2
o 0 3? 3« I g 5
c (0 8 I I 1 J?« 1 1 V 5 1 1 g
2 « o +> S; -H
© © U_ U. U. IL ° §
o a aa a > ® +
K o IT) + +
*- CM m o c o
(0 —
a OOCI'-
1
Over 10 pF
Tolerance"
o •H +1 -H -H
3sa? 3? 3? 1 3? 1 1 IsM 1 • g-S
O r- CM co m o « tn
- *_
^ 8
© « « « « « + *-
CD Q Q u.
m-nF or less I
_j © ,n c °
Class '1
WW*
11-
o. 11.
a. U.
Q- 'o.°-
'i ~rl*5
° -. 1 1 1 P 1 1 c3 P 1 1
NO o 07,
+1 + +1 +t +• 2 S 5
Multiplier
0.01
0.1
1,000
1
100
10
o ® "g 5
itance
— <° « V.
© _ u ©
<5 5" 8 «
^
.O re e
c
E
SL "O U]
a !« I I
) >re c 'c.
<7 o 28
Orange
Yellow
Brown
Green
Silver
White
Violet
Gold
I
Black
Gray
Blue
Red
i c
c
(C) Ceramic capacitors (cont).
Fig. 3-5. Capacitor color codes (cont).

R a t e d DC
Voltage
o | | | co to o | 10 co in
T - I I I J Q T " CM I CM CO
Multiplier
100
10
0.1
0.01
Sig. Fig.
2nd
0"-CMCOfincDSCDO) I
Sig. Fig.
1st
I T-CNJCO^TincO^-COCT) I
Orange
Yellow
Brown
Color
Green
White
Violet
Black
Gray
Pink
Blue
Red
(D) Tantalum capacitors.
F,9- 3-5. Capacitor color codes (conf).

55
CAPACITORS
56,000 pF (.056 /xF) capacitor, and this capacitor is guar

anteed to be within 20% of the indicated value.
In addition to the capacitance value, the working volt
age is usually indicated. This is the amount of voltage that
can be continuously applied across the capacitor without
its arcing and ruining the dielectric (insulating) material.
Symbols
Symbols for fixed capacitors are shown in Fig. 3-6. The
most popular is the one at A, having superseded the sym-
11 l l „ i
T T T T T T
A B C D E F
Fig. 3-6. Fixed capacitor symbols.
bol at B, which was used for many years. Symbols C

through F are for a special type of capacitor ca e a
jeedthrough. These units are either inserted throug a o e
in the chassis and soldered in place or screwe in
threaded hole. Typical feedthrough capacitors are p
tured in Fig. 3-7.
Temperature Coefficient
Another rating often included in the color code: is ^ e
perature coefficient. Like resistors, caPa^to^

h can be
in value when heated. To compensate for his tney ^ ^
manufactured so that their value will not v ry
will increase or decrease by predetermine desig-
temperature changes The
nates the amount of change P^ ^ g.gn (-)
degree Celsius (centigrade). An a P or a plus sign

indicates a decrease in capacitance,
( +), an increase.
Fig. 3-7. Feedthrough capacitors. (Courtesy Sprague Electric Co.)
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
^-«aTv!eS °f another lyPe capacitor are shown in Fig
• ese are called electrolytics, because one plate consist:
0 a moist substance called an electrolyte. Certain metals—
uminum is the most common—will have a thin oxide
1 J11 on ^leir surface when immersed in an electro-
herw ls oxide film becomes the insulation or dielectric

as 6 r?eta^ Pâte and the electrolyte, which serves
hifrh r ° *Tr P ate* Such capacitors are characterized by a

AnnfhaCltanCe ln comParison to their size,
metil r* electrolytic capacitor uses tantalum
acts as thp ^ ln aCe aûm^num- A porous tantalum slug
trolyte mh ° P SltlVe P^ and a tantalum oxide as the elec-

ate
tors, as pictured'in Fig 1

tantalum
pellet serves as ih Umt 3 Smtered T'

oxide as the dielectric 1 A P°Sltlve te"™al, a tantalum
trolyte. ' manganese dioxide as the elec-
connected in iK*. caPacitors, electrolytics must usually be

tHe COrrect Polarity. That is, the positive ter-
CAPACITORS 57
(B) Metal can type.

(Counesy Mallory Electric Co.)
Fig. 3-8. Electrolytic capacitors.
minal must go to the point with the most positive voltage,

and the other side to the most negative potential, usually
ground. Fig. 3-10 shows the symbols for designating e ec-
trolytics on schematics. The same symbol use oi r g
lar capacitors is sometimes employed. * . «•
sign (or a plus and a minus sign) is usual y a e
cate the proper polarity, as shown at A. Th^Lsy™ , tro.
removes any doubt that it is an electrolytic.Other
lytic capacitor symbols are shown at C and . -..-insed
. Often, more than one electrolytic capacitor ^losed
in the same container. The negative sides o ^ ^
connected together, but separate te™ " * exampie, the
1
provided for the positive side of each. ;tive side Qf

capacitor may have three sections, wit P
58 H o w TO READ SCHEMATICS
TANTALUM
PENTOXIDE
(DIELECTRIC)
SINTERED
TANTALUM
PELLET (ANODE)
POSITIVE LEAD
MANGANESE
DIOXIDE
(SOLID ELECTROLYTE)
NEGATIVE LEAD
(B) Construction.
antalum capacitors. (Courtesy Sprague Electric Co.)

each connected t^ ~
multisection ra • separate terminal. Sometimes, theJ
through D in are designated by the symbols J
tion. Occasional^ ^ separate symbol for each set

showing three section'°U ma^ encounter the symbol at i
59
CAPACITORS
i
T
111; ^
¥
E F
Fig. 3-10. Electrolytic capacitor symbols.
The symbol at F is preferred by some manufacturers for

a two section capacitor. Notice the small rectangle and tn
angle near two sections in symbol E. In units enclose in a
metal can and the various sections connected to terminals
at the bottom of the capacitor, small marks, such as a rec
tangle, triangle, or semicircle, are placed near t em.
These marks are stamped on the side of the can a ong wi
the respective value and voltage rating of eac sectl°"'
and they are also included alongside the sym o in
schematic. These marks may also be shown nex*to _
the other symbols in Fig. 3-10, thus serving to i en i
separate sections. , cel-
The paper and other capacitors discusse P*"^1 }
dom have a value greater than 1 micro ara ( . wip
ally be only a small fraction), whereas eec^^ ^ their
range from 1 microfarad up to 1 fara . ônv elec-
large capacitance values, electrolytics can s ore ^ varia-
trons. This makes them useful for smooth J> .Qn as
tions in voltage. They therefore ®he voltage may
filter capacitors in power supplies. » ^ same
vary over wide limits, but it wffl con-
polarity. Hence, the fact that electrolyte must^ ^
nected with the correct polarity is
60 How TO READ SCHEMATIC
trolytic capacitors are also widely used for coupling in

audio circuits that employ transistors.
In certain applications, however, a large capacitor is
needed for a circuit in which the voltage changes polarity.
Special nonpolarized, electrolytic units have been developed
for this use. Symbol G (Fig.3-10) shows one designation
for such a capacitor.
VARIABLE CAPACITORS
Just as a variable resistor is useful in some circuits, var'
able capacitors are also needed. The most familiar exam
pie is the tuning capacitor in many radios. As the tun'11
knob is rotated, the capacitor changes in value, causing "l
associated circuit to tune in the signal from the desire'
station.
Many versions of another type of variable capacity""
s own in Fig. 3-11. The dielectrics of these cap3c'l°r
range rom air to ceramics, and even sapphire. Tjul
capacitance is changed by turning the screwdriver aclj11-
men/' . ls so~called "trimmer" is usually designate' '
symbols A, B, C, or D in Fig. 3-12. The arrowheads in \

.an^p, S1Smfy that the capacitance of the unit is va*
ej . e syni at ® signifies a preset adjustment; °lU
Anf!l n0t normally adjusted except for alignment. ^

3-13 H Cr tyPC ° vana^ê capacitor is illustrated in
connected fl 1"° °f pIates' each consisting of
Air is the hT 1 ?
p i
e es of metal, mesh as the shaft is tU*11
movable set C r ^1™°' and lf the shaft is rotated so that .,(

the stationa™ f (-Called the rotor) is completely
be at maxim P *1? ^Called the stator), the capacitance

the3 stTtrrcTpacitr13"" £ ^ Extends
radios usuallv e l W be at minimum. M° j
tor, often enclo^d Y miniature versions of such a c*P*
in Fig. 3-13 better lim plastlc- However, the one pictU
The symbols for UStFateS the ConceP<-
for the unit just de & •V'1"?mer capacitor may also be 1
^ described, although the symbols shX
CAPACITORS 61
Fig. 3-11. The many types of trimmer capacitors. (Courtesy Murata

Erie North America, Inc.)
E and F in Fig. 3-12 are employed more often. The aôw

is used in various ways to designate a varia ®
tance. For example, symbol E signifies a sp i
is, the rotor plates are divided into two separate section ,
but the stator plates are not.
T ¥ ¥ ¥ D
^ L
¥ ¥ /
F
Fig. 3-12. Variable capacitor symb
The capacitor pictured in Fig. 3-13 is actually two sepa

ate units connected mechanically by a single shaft. The
- • ,er Um* tunes one section of a radio, and the smallei
canan>!0t ^ sect'on- Rotating the shaft changes
caller! °j eac*\ un*f simultaneously. This type i.'
a gauge capacitor and is usually designated by the
Fig. 3-13. A two-gang

variable capacitor.
symbol at F in Fig 3-12 Th ^ u ^ , .

arrows signifies th t u dashed line between the
nected. ate sections are mechanically con-
Class Letters
the class letter C The caPac'tors are

designated by
signify variable units C CttCr *s sometimes employed to
CAPACITORS 63
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary purpose of a capacitor?
2. Do electrons flow through a capacitor connected to
an AC voltage?
3. What is the basic unit for measuring the electrical
size (value) of a capacitor?
4. What is the insulating material between the two
plates of a capacitor called?
3. Are electrolytic capacitors generally suitable for AC
circuits?
6- What is the most common use for electrolytic
capacitors?
What does the prefix "micro" mean?
8- What is the movable portion of a tuning capacitor
called?
9- What is the most common class letter for capacitors?
10- Identify the types of capacitors signified by the
following symbols.
(A) •£ (B) -Jf (C) #

4
Coils and
Transformers
Just as any circuit or even a length of wire contains
resistance and capacitance, it also will contain induc
tance—the electrical property of a coil.
WHAT IS A COIL?
A coil, or inductor as it is sometimes called, in its simplest
form is just what its name implies—a wire wound into the
shape of a coil. To be useful, however, coils must be
wound in a certain way so that they will have the proper
inductance value.
When current flows through a conductor, magnetic
lines of force are generated and occupy the surrounding
space. As long as the current is steady, the magnetic field
remains stationary, but if the current varies, the magnetic
held will do likewise. Should the current stop suddenly (be
shut off), the lines of force will collapse.
Whenever magnetic lines of force cross a conductor, an
electric current is generated. Thus, the magnetic field pro
duced by the current flowing in one turn of a coil will cut
across other turns, setting up a current in them. This is
repeated for each turn in the coil. The overall effect, w en
the current is made to increase, decrease, or change di
rection, is that the coil tends to oppose these changes.
In other words, it tries to "smooth out" variations in
^rrent. A steady current (DC) will have no opposition
except for the small resistance of the wire itsel .
65
The electrical property of a coil is called inductance. Its

basic unit of measurement is the henry (abbreviated H)
which, like the farad, is usually measured in smaller units.
The millihenry (mH), equal to one thousandth of a henry,
and the microhenry (/xH), equal to one millionth of a hen
ry, are the more common units for specifying inductance
values.
AIR-CORE COILS
The simplest coil has an air core and is constructed by
winding a wire into a series of loops. The usual method is
to wind the wire onto a plastic, paper, or other nonmetal-
lic form. As long as this form is not capable of being mag
netized (not a conductor of magnetic lines of force), the
effect is the same as if no form were employed. The air-
core coils shown in Fig. 4-1 are wound on phenolic forms.
The symbols used for air-core coils are given in Fig. 4-
2. The loops may be shown open as in A, or closed as
depicted by the simpler symbol at B.
The coil may be molded in a plastic material so it
resembles a resistor, as in Fig. 4-3. The inset in this illus
tration shows the coil inside the molded unit. This type of
coil can also be shielded with a metal covering. When this
is the case the symbols at C and D in Fig. 4-2, with the
dashed line signifying the shield, may be used.
Air-core co.ls. (Courtesy James Millen Mfg. Co

67
COILS AND TRANSFORMERS
<o
<o!
<rx
o
.p.
C
Fig. 4-2. Air-core coil symbols.
Fig. 4-3. Molded air-core coils (Courtesy J . W. Miller Div., Bell

Industries)
Air-core coils may or may not be color coded with their

alue. I n any case, the value is usually given e i t e r °
symbol on the schematic or in the parts ist. wi
Iways be in the millihenry or microhenry range nev
I The^class letter L is practically universal for• coilsof

II types. However, the letters RFC (meaning
[uency choke) may sometimes be used.
Adjustable Air-Core Coils

t is often desirable to change ^^jîuseable. Symbols
fhis can be done by making the coil adjustao y
for this type are shown at E, F, and G in Fig. 4-2. It can

also be represented by adding the adjustable symbol to the
symbol at B. The symbol at E is often used to depict a coil
having a slider that moves along the turns to "switch in"
the desired portion. The symbol at F may be used to indi
cate a coil in which the inductance is changed by either
compressing or expanding the turns to change the spacing
between them. Both symbols are interchangeable, how
ever.
POWDERED-IRON CORE COILS

Other types of coils have cores of ferrite or powdered iron
(called iron dust in some parts of the world). Ferrites are
made by molding powdered iron or a similar substance
into the desired shape—a rod, a doughnut-shaped form
called a toroid, or some other shape. When such a core is
brought near or inserted into a coil, it offers a more con
venient path for the magnetic lines of force than does air.
Hence, more lines cut the other conductors in the coil,
increasing the inductance. The same symbols used for the
air-core type A and B in Fig. 4-4—may also be used for
powdered-iron core coils. The symbol at C is also popular.
The core may be represented by either two or three
dashed lines.
Adjustable Cores
To change the inductance of powdered-iron core coils, the
core is usually moved in or out of the unit. This is called
perrnea iity tuning; an example of a coil tuned in this man
ner isis own in Fig. 4-5. Many types of symbols are used
to indicate the adjustable core. Some are shown at D
Q, in Fig. 4-4. Notice that most follow the same
pattern of showing an arrow, but in a different manner.
r,™ lity~tUned Coils are in millihenry
the
IWk n i8 Seldom marked on the units,

the letter Lma acturers designate this type of coil by
COUAWTkAMFOMflBS
3
3
\
o<
c
<o
c
coil symbols.
Fig. 4-4. Powdered-iron core
Fig. 4-5. Permeabili*Y-tuned coiL

(Courtesy J. W. Miller Div., Bell Industries)
IRON-CORE CHOKES
Another type of coil has a core of iron or steel and is usu
ally referred to as a choke, since its function is to smooth
out ("choke") variations in the current through it.
The construction of a typical iron-core choke is illus
trated in Fig. 4-6. Instead of the core being a solid piece of
metal, it is usually constructed from a series of thin sheets,
or laminations (visible at the center of the photo). Toroid
al (doughnut-shaped) forms may also be used. Insulated
wire is wound in layers around the core, each layer being
separated by additional insulation (usually paper). These
layers may be left exposed, or the entire unit may be
enclosed in a steel shell. Coils of this type are able to pro
vide a large amount of inductance, usually in the henry
range.
Fig. 4-6. Cutaway view of an

iron-core choke. (Courtesy Merit
Coil and Transformer Corp.)
n e symbols for iron-core chokes are given at A, B, 1
otH ^ " m rFig; ^• Note that they are the same as f

J .er, ypes °. co^s except that two or three solid lines a
at D ran 1? 1Cate: *ron core. (The closed-loop symt
With open loops6) The ^ P^,the C°re ^'gn^0118 shov
units thaf symbols at F and G are for tapp<
ing permit na' Conncctlons to different points on the win
used. F 1CU aF Portlons or sections of the coil to I
71
JWWL JMin_ JWHI
jwmv _nffi]pTi_
_nnpnpn_ iwyn_
G H 1
/
JlpWL
J K
Fig. 4-7. Iron-core choke symbols.
Adjustable iron-core chokes are

U s u a l l y , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g - n — ^
taps and a switch are employed to unjt is
portion. When a continuously variable i
used, however, it may be indicated by ^^Vlon-
bols at H, 1, J, K, or L. These are signify that
ventional choke, but with an arrow added to g
the inductance can be varied. ,• t an iron-core
d£« ^ (fiber choke) is used.
TRANSFORMERS
more coils positioned in
A transformer is merely two or produced as a result
such a manner that the magne i

of current flowing through one winding will cut across the

other winding or windings. When this happens, a current
will be induced in these other windings, even though they
are not physically connected to the first.
The winding connected to the voltage source is called
the primary. Any other winding is called a secondary.
Besides causing a current flow in the secondary, the trans
former can also change the amount of voltage. If the num
ber of turns on both the primary and secondary are equal,
then the voltage across each will be the same. With more
turns on the secondary than on the primary, the second
ary voltage will be higher. Conversely, if the secondary
has fewer turns, its voltage will be lower.
Thus, the main function of a transformer is either to
transfer an AC voltage from the primary to the secondary,
or to step the voltage up or down. In either case the
current in the secondary will vary exactly in step with
the current in the primary. This phenomenon is used in
coupling, or transferring, energy from one stage to another.
dding a capacitor across the winding produces a combi
nation that will accept a particular frequency and exclude
others. Current will flow in the secondary (which may
only bC tUUed ^ 3 capacitor) at this particular frequency
Types of Transformers
C°^S' transformers may have either air, ferrite, or
one i ^ ^ shows two air-core transformers. The
interf^r C C NT
aS a meta^ shield around it to keep out any
Dacitot-61106 ote also that this transformer has two ca-
ine as ^ t0p of tJle metal "can" for tun-

in Fie 4 « Pame P reviousl y- The transformer at the right
m rig. 4-8 is unshielded.
and B inyHg°4-9°rNair"C0ê transformers are given at A

variable since thic 0rm,y> air"Core transformers are not
coils with respect t a t h ^ d ° n e b y moving one of the
symbols shown at C n ^ If thiS is d°ne' however' the

ai h>, and E are used.
73
Fig. 4-8. Air-core transformers. (Courtesy J. W. Miller Div., Bell

Industries)
£
D
Fig. 4-9. Air-core transformer symbols.
Powdered-iron core transformers a 4_io. Although

small to very large units, as shown in others will not
all these units are enclosed in a me t e toroidal core
^
have this covering. Still others may u ^ .ndudcd within
form. Capacitors for tuning "^^signate powdered-iron
the
uie can. The symbols used
ine syu«A/» -• . _. 4-11. Those at A, »
coree transformers are given in
4 QSj
MB"!
r 0jfJ
#
Fig. 4-10. Powdered-iron core transformers. (Courtesy J. W. Miller

Div., Bell Industries)
and C represent nonadjustable windings. Those at D

through L usually represent transformers in which each
winding is individually adjustable, while the symbols at M
through T usually represent transformers in which one
adjustment affects both windings. As with coils, there is
a wide variation in the method used to depict the adjust
ment.
Iron-Core Transformers
There are many types of iron-core transformers. Fig. 4-12
s ows ve popular methods of construction. The ones in
'gs- through D are power transformers and are all
°V!5 v?bs to be applied to the primary. The
J <71 lg'OQ7 2A ls enclosed in a metal shield and deliv-
in T?r A ioS dePending on the connections. The
4 12C Ig k de hvers 18 volts, and the one in Fig.

a™ ThT! C °nnectedfor
f 24 or 48 volts at the second-
directlv int^ °18 rmer * n 4-12D is designed to solder
volts. A shTlH 7nnt7d"circuit. boai"d and delivers 4 or 8
Fig. 4-12E 6 C SU 10 couplinS transformer is shown in
Tv!™orXreeeToHd0wT giVCn Fig' ^

nes may be used in the symbols at A,
COILS AND TRANSFORMERS 75
-tff A
^ M* 1*1 V
Fig. 4-11. Powdered-iron core transformer symbols.
and C to indicate the iron core. Parts A through^

w five ways of indicating a unit avin| w;th four
i. The symbol at F represents a transformer wiUi ^
dings. Such a transformer transformers may
vision receivers and radios. the primary is

found in some equipment to ay. ' Qn the right is
winding on the left, and the: b the fewer turns)
3w-voltage secondary (as sig center winding

the filaments of the rectifier tube, in The
the high-voltage portion and is cente
(E) Audio coupling
• 4 1 2 . I r o n - c o r e t r a n s f o r m e r s ( C o u r t e s y Triad-Utrad, a Div.of
MagneTmk, Inc.)
Coos AND TRANSFORMERS
Fig. 4-13. iron-core transformer symbols.
• for the filaments of all other

winding at the bottom is tor
tubes in the receiver. an auto transformer,
A special type of transformer, Qne end to the tap
U symbolized at G. The P°rtlon *°e«. coU, from one end

acts as one winding, and the complete
to the other, acts as the other winding. Such units can step
the voltage either up or down and may have additional
taps from which different voltages can be obtained.
The symbols at H and I indicate variable iron-core
transformers. Like the iron-core chokes, these types are
seldom encountered. Tapped windings are usually em
ployed instead.
The class letter T is almost universal for the designation
of iron-core transformers. The letter L will sometimes be
used, however, to indicate air- and powdered-iron core
transformers.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the electrical property of a coil called?
2. What is the unit of measurement of the property in
Question 1?
3. What effect does a coil have on steady DC flowing
through it?
4. What enables one winding of a transformer to
couple a current to another winding?
5. What is used to signify an iron core on a coil or
transformer?
6. ^hat is the more common name for an iron-core
coil?
7. What is the name of the transformer winding in
wi! mcoming current flows?
hat.do two or three rows of dashed lines between
the windings of a transformer indicate?
• What class letters are used to designate
transformers?
10.
Draw the symbol for an air-core coil.
5
Electron Tubes
The entire foundation of electronics is based on the tiny,
negatively charged particles called electrons. Electrons wi
how from a negative to a positive voltage source if a com
plete conductive path is provided. This flow constitutes an
electron current. Unless electron flow can be contro e 1
some way, however, it will serve no useful purpose.
tfon tubes are one type of device used to contro t is
Although not as common as they once were, av*n^ cjr_

'argely supplanted by solid-state devices m mo e _
cuitry, electron tubes are still used. They wer as a
device that started the electronics explosion an dec-
convenient basis for introducing the operation
tronic circuits.
DIODE TUBES
of the simplest
Tig. 5-1 shows the elementary constr^Ctr°" ecial resistance
°f electron tubes—the diode. A lengt ° ^ tê center of
wire, called the heater or filament, p ace ^rough it. This
the unit, becomes hot when current -ical e|ement en-
heat, in turn, heats the cathode, a cy ^ electron-
compassing the filament and coate electrons to
emitting material. The heated cathodeau ^ (Th
be expelled from it into the *^™the presence of
entire tube is evacuated of air, up •) Iso a
oxygen would cause the «am,^ another element, the
from the cathode by the vacu
plate (sometimes called the anode). If this plate is connected

to a positive voltage source, the electrons that "boil off"
the cathode will flow toward the plate. If the voltage on
the plate is less positive than the cathode, however, it will
not attract electrons and no current will flow.
GLASS
ENVELOPE
PLATE
•HEATER
Fig. 5-1. Construction of a
CATHODE
diode tube.
An alternating voltage (AC) placed on the plate will

cause electrons to flow only during the time the plate is
more positive than the cathode. When the plate is more
negative than the cathode, no current will flow. Here, we
have the first control action of a tube—changing an AC
voltage (on the plate) into a pulsating DC (on the cath
ode). This action is called rectification. The pulsating DC is
then smoothed out by an electrolytic capacitor.
The symbol for this type of tube is given at A in Fig.
5 2. The circle represents the glass or metal envelope, the
pointed portion at the bottom of the circle is the filament
(heater), the element directly above it is the cathode, and
t e straight horizontal bar with the vertical line extending
upward is the plate.
Fig. 5-2. Diode tube symbols.

ELECTRON TUBES
TUBE BASES
Connections are made from the elements of the tube to
pins in its base. The most popular bases for modern tubes
are the 7- and 9-pin miniature and the 8-pin octal. In the
7- and 9-pin types, the pins are merely symmetrically
spaced wires which extend through the bottom of the glass
envelope. A blank space between two of the pins serves as
a guide for inserting the tube into the socket. In an octal-
base tube, wires from the tube elements pass through the
glass envelope and are soldered to pins embedded in a
plastic or phenolic base. A keyed center post on the base
serves to guide the tube into its socket.
There are many other base arrangements. Most wil
have a blank space, locating key, or other provision or
orienting the tube in the socket. In some tubes, not
pins are connected to elements. In fact, some pins may
even be omitted from the base if a locating key is em
P^yed. . ,
Each pin is numbered for reference purposes. i
base pointed toward you, pin 1 is the first pin s a
ing clockwise from the blank space or locating *eJ,
other pins are numbered consecutively, reading co .
around the base. (If a pin is omitted, the number o
hy assigned to it is skipped, but the location o
s
"> the tube symbol, at the point where^ ^ ^ symbol
elements enter the tube envelope. diagram. By
includes pin numbers, it is known as a as ^ ^ can
referring to the numbers beside the elements, y
locate the pin connected to each element. êment wm be
In some tubes, the connection to tQ a pin on the
brought out the top to a cap instea ^ tê plate. (In
base. The cap is almost always c°nnC^ neCted to another
Pre-World War II tubes it was often mbolized by a
dement called the grid.) A cap is êre it enters the
small box around the lead, at t e p ^^
tube envelope. This is shown at b in
TRIODE TUBES
The diode tube discussed previously performed only one
control action—it converted AC to pulsating DC. The
widest function of tubes, however, is to amplify a signal
(i.e., make it greater). The diode tube cannot do this; in
fact, it actually causes a slight reduction in signal strength.
For amplification, at least one more element must be
added between the cathode and plate, as shown by the
drawing of a triode, or three-element tube in Fig. 5-3. The
added element, a cylinder made of fine wire mesh, is
called the control grid. This grid is represented by the
dashed line between the cathode and plate in symbol A of
Fig. 5-4.
in a triode tube, electrons will flow from cathode

p ate, ut they must first pass through the interveni
contro grid. Like the plate, the control grid is able to rt
ulate the electron flow from the cathode—the more po
ive e control grid, the greater the electron flow, a
!^t;ersa- . emg cl°ser to the cathode, the control gi
exerts more influence than the plate on the electron flow.
TUBE VOLTAGES
type tubes ?'ectrons> the cathode—or in Alain
bes' the min"s Side of the filament—is the re
83
ELECTRON TUBES
6[
7 3|4j
Fig. 5-4. Triode tube symbols.
e^ce point of all voltages in the tube. The cath^

connected either directly, or through a resis °êrre(j to
common reference point, which is genera y zero,
simply as ground. Hence the cathode voltage
or at most, slightly positive. . , respect to
The grid is usually a few volts nega iv ^ repel the
the cathode. Recall that a negative v ^ tube. How-
electrons as they attempt to flow t openings in the
ever, electrons will still flow throug ^ ^ ^ toQ nega-
grid structure unless the voltage app ns back to the
tive. Then, the grid repels all êtf off " As the gnd
cathode and the tube is said to be tronS are drawn
becomes less negative, however, mo jate. If the gri
through it by the positive po tential
cathode, it also will
becomes positive with respect to ^ the grid
clûlt"
attract the electrons, and they ^ the p\ate wil

As you can see, ;he electron fl°^ngevoUage, such as
nately increase and decrease These inert as
an AC signal, is applied to the gnd.
decreases in the amount of electron flow through the plate

resistor cause much larger voltage variations at the plate
than those of the grid signal which caused them.
SYMBOLS
The symbols used by most manufacturers to denote tubes
are all very similar. The principal differences lie in the
weight and shape of the symbols denoting the various ele
ments inside the envelope. Notice the symbols at B and C
in Fig. 5-4. Here the drawings of various elements differ
slightly, but they are easily recognizable. The elements
inside the envelope may be drawn tilted, backwards, up
side down, or in various other arrangements. The enve
lope may be drawn as a circle, as in A B of Fig. 5-4, or
elongated, as in C and D. It may even be eliminated
entirely. However, the basic symbol remains the same.
These variations should be kept in mind as you read the
rest of this chapter.
Another item is included with the symbols of Fig. 5-4.
Notice the numbers near the point where the symbols for
the individual elements enter the envelope. These num
bers denote the pin numbers of the base to which these
elements are connected. Here again, the method of show
ing the pin numbers will vary according to the manufac
turer.
OTHER TUBES
n Chapter 3, it was stated that a capacitive effect exi:
Tn eh661! '^4° cor'ductors when separated by an insulate
caDarita™ 6 tU e discussed earlier, a certain amount
***"le TStS tWeen the and plate. The mU
oterÎnn r ' 38 "! S Called ' is detrimental to cira

fourth element01SledPPhCati0nS' T° redUCe itS ValUe'
the erid anH 1' , 3 Smen Z '

nd can be Pêd betwet
£ symboHs h P'at<\Such a tube is called a tetrode, ar
y 1 ,S shown at A Fig. 5-5. Notice the addition
85
EUCTKM TUBES
Fig. 5-5. Other tube symbols.
lent, which looks exactly like the con r^ ^ similar,

"ing. In fact, its physical construction iQ ^ îgh. posl~
unlike the control grid, it is connec e . j by a much
: voltage. Tetrode tubes are cha£ac ? ^ than can be
her gain (provides more amp i ca
ained from a triode. ;deal since it °vcr
^he tetrode tube would seem to a triode an
ues the interelectrode caPac*lanC?-ccation. but its e e

the same time gives more aI"p enQn known as
eness is limited by another p c cathode stn
^ As the electrons^ ^ thelectron
ate, some of them bounce arealso kn° tential

ready on the surface of t e p ^ tê PoSlUV^ tân its
H these electrons are attraC ^rid receives m tended
nthe screen. Thus, t h e ^ e n ^ which As a
hare of electrons, wYul reCeives ^

evVC
rrUit (known as
lestination of the electrons,^ circuit
MA
esult, more electrons °
86
screen current) and fewer in the plate circuit (plate cur

rent).
The effect of secondary emission can be overcome by
adding another element, similar in construction to the
control and screen grids, between the screen and plate.
This element is called the suppressor grid, and the type of
tube in which it appears is called a pentode. The suppressor
is connected to either the cathode or ground. Recall that a
positive voltage exists where there is a deficiency of elec
trons, and that a negative voltage exists where there is an
excess. The suppressor grid, having far more electrons
t an the plate, repels the secondary-emission electrons
ack to the plate before they have an opportunity to reach
the screen grid.
^ T* symboI for the pentode tube is shown at B in Fig.
- . otice that it is the same as the symbol for the tet-
ro e, except for an additional grid between the plate and
screen.
Beam-Power Tubes
Another type of tube, called a beam-power tube, is often
°ug t o as being a pentode. Its operation, however, is
more like that of the tetrode. Instead of a suppressor grid,
.tW° ™eta^ vanes (called beam-forming plates) posi-
towL H! SU<1 a t0 S^'de or Focus the electrons
Way as
confml \ate'.*n addition, the wires of the screen and

thro,^ S u1-6 m ^'ne' Perm'ttmg more electrons to flow
power n 1 1S Wa^' tFe tuê can deliver much greater
the cathnHpmTr.rrn^n^ Pâtes are internally connected to

bea m r°
X te
e P de (B 5"5> bf
tetrode svmh i a \ P )Wer tube. However, sometimes the
shows thetea ^ ^ at C in FiS" 5-5 (which
also used. In eith "g elements drawn differently) are

tube manual tn H ^ lnstance, you will have to consult a
question is a beam-poe™rTypeWhether °r n°' ^
87
EUOTON TUBES
The symbol at D in Fig. 5-5 is for a pentagrid tube. It has

a total of five grids between the cathode and plate, and it
normally performs two functions. For example, the first
three elements form a local oscillator, a stage which gener
ates a high-frequency signal. The first grid acts as the
oscillator grid and the second as the plate. Electrons w
flow on through it, however, toward the conventional
plate of the tube. The third grid acts as the control grid
for the remainder of the tube. This portion is similar to a
conventional pentode and has the signal from the antenna
applied to its grid. The electron stream is already vary
ing in accordance with the oscillator frequency w en
reaches the third grid. The two signals (from the oscillator
and antenna) beat together, or heterodyne, producing a.ne^
signal which varies in the same manner as the signa

applied to the third grid, but has a frequency equa to
difference between the two signals. This action is ca
nixing. The fourth grid (connected to the secon ^

rions as the screen for the pentode section, an
functions as the suppressor.
Multifunction Tubes
Two or more tube functions are often con^!^^.
tjons are:
gle envelope. Some of the most popu ar co Qr pen_
two diodes; two triodes; two d*ode*?"

eiements for both
tode; and a triode and pentode. ^ the symbol, as
tubes are sometimes drawn side y si roueh the cen-
shown at A in Fig. 5-6. The dashed line, sections to
ter represents a shield placed ^veeQt have this shield. 11

prevent interaction. Some tubes o n ^ wq\ usually be
the two halves are in separate c*rcU* , J pne at one side
drawn as shown at B. Here, t e
Qr tê tube. Symbol
signifies that there is another sec i side left open,
C, with the dashed lines om^tte
Y may occasionally find
will sometimes be used instea • iuapSection tube wi Je
schematics in which one ha o exactly hke t e sin
completely enclosed within the
gle section tube shown previously. The parts list will usu
ally indicate that the tube is a multifunction type, or a
tube manual can be consulted.
Fig. 5-6. Multifunction tube symbols.
Another type of multifunction tube is depicted by sym-

t>° . , ere tuê is actually a dual-pentode, except
/ C same cathode, control grid, and screen grid serve
rath <~,°mmon to) ôth sections. In other tubes, only the
H shared- If so, and if each section is drawn

shown irf'h HJk ^ fCG °n t^1G scêmatic, the cathode will be
b" «* •*"» p™ —
the center6 ™^,functlon tubes, the filament is tapped in

volts. Two fil ^ H Can be. °Perated from either 6 or 12
of the tube and"6™ connect|ons will be shown in one half
half as denirt connecdon will be shown in the other
ame RWILL B D '
N
P
E ° ^ ' "
B F FI PP5 6 "AN AATA ED FIL
the filament conn'^ ^ Symbo1 C' Here , one side of

nnection is given in each secti™. The fila-
ELECTRON TUBES 89
Instead of being evacuated, certain tubes are filled with a

gas. Some tubes of this type require no filament voltage
hence they are called cold-cathode or ionically heated cathode
tubes. Symbol A in Fig. 5-7 is for a cold-cathode diode
tube. Notice that instead of a flat bar, a circle is used to
represent the cathode, and no filament is shown. Some
times this circle is replaced by a dot, as at B. In either
symbol, a smaller dot, indicating a gas-filled tube, also
appears inside the envelope. The other connection shown
inside symbol B is a wire between two pins on the tube .
base. Its purpose is to open another circuit when the tube
is removed. This protects the equipment if it should acci
dentally be turned on with the tube out of the socket.
The symbol for another type of gas-filled tube, c e a
thyratron is given at C. It is the same as the sym o or a
triode except for the dot inside the envelope. The thyra
0
tron is used in certain control applications.
C
A B
E
D
PHOTOTUBES
Symbol D in Fig. 5-7 depicts a different type of tube.
Certain materials—potassium, sodium, and cesium, for
example—give off small quantities of electrons when ex
posed to light. A curved piece of metal with a coating of
one of these photosensitive materials acts as the cathode.
The plate (anode) is a metal rod located in front of the
cathode. When light strikes the photosensitive material,
electrons are released and flow to the plate. In the symbol,
the curved portion represents the cathode, and the flat bar
(or a dot or circle) represents the plate (usually called the
anode in a phototube).
The symbol for another type of phototube, called a
photomultiplier, is shown at E in Fig. 5-7. The main cathode
is the curved element at the center, from which electrons
flow to the first element at the bottom left of the symbol.
his element, in turn, emits more electrons to the next
simi ar element. (Notice that the symbols for the elements
around the outside of the tube are a combination of the
photocathode and anode symbols.) These elements attract
the electrons, and each element, in turn, emits more elec
trons than the preceding one, until finally the electrons
reach the element to the right of the cathode lead. Here,
e conventional anode symbol is used for the element
ACCELERATING
ANODE HORIZONTAL AQUADAG
DEFLECTION COATING
FOCUSING PLATES
HEATER ANODE
\y \ 1 ' / „ ,
\--4m
CATHODE
CONTROL
ACCANNNACT,NG VERT|CAL ELECTRON
ANODE DEFLECTION FLUORESC
BEAM
PLATES GLASS SCREEI
Fia S-fi r ENVELOPE
ENVELOPE
onstruction of an electrostatically deflected cathod
ray tube.
EUCIHON TUBES
91
from which the output is taken. Because of this multiplier

action, many more electrons flow from the output than
could flow from the tube at D.
CATHODE-RAY TUBES
Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) are usually classified according
to whether they employ electrostatic or electromagnetic
deflection. Electrostatically deflected CRTs are used prin
cipally in oscilloscopes, while electromagnetically deflected
CRTs are most often used as television picture tubes.
Electrostatic Deflection
Fig- 5-8 shows the construction of a typical electrostatic
tube. The electrons leave the heated cathode, as m ot er
tubes, and are attracted by the positive voltage on t e ac
celerating anode. First, however, they must flow through
the control grid, a metal cylinder with a hole in one en .
A negative voltage on this element controls the number 01
electrons allowed to pass through. From the contro gri
the electrons pass on to the focus anode, which concen
trates them into a narrow beam. After the e ectrons
the focus anode, their velocity is increase y wo
voltage accelerating anodes. . The
The r e m a i n i n g electrodes are the deflecting plate. The
two horizontal deflection plates move t e earn j
an(
to side, and the vertical-deflection p ates mov ^ tê
down. After passing through and eing ^

deflection plates, the beam strike screen to glow,
force, causing a fluorescent coating electrons and
The brightness depends on the number ot
their velocity. . ,,=ed to depict an
Symbol A in Fig. 5-9 1S its similarity to the
electrostatic cathode-ray tub . V order in which they
tube.) The elements are shown in they are: heater,
appear in the tube. From le t to_ and accelerating
cathode, control grid, f°c^g 's are depicted by
anodes. The two sets of detle
the pointed elements that are nex
Fig. 5-9. Electrostatically deflected cathode-ray tube symbols.
At other times, the symbol for the electrostatic cathode-

ray tube resembles that of a conventional tube, as shown
at B. Notice that here the focus electrode is placed be
tween two sections of the accelerating anode. Where other
arrangements are used, the schematic symbol shows the
actual arrangement of the elements.
Electromagnetic Deflection
The most familiar type of electromagnetically deflected
cat o e ray tube is the one in your television set or com
puter monitor. It is similar to the electrostatic tube, except
that it has no deflection plates. Instead, the beam is de-
ected both horizontally and vertically by coils placed
roun t e neck of the tube. Often there are no focus-
the e ectro either; the electron beam is converged on
aroundTe nick. maSnet or an electromagnet
either *r°™a^netically deflected cathode-ray tubes employ

5-10 is fA ' P?n bases- The symbol at A in Fig.
resemble/fh havin g electrostatic focus. Note how it

the order he ***' The elements are ™ed in
cathode co t | aPPear the tube' in this case: heater,
trode The cl° ^ ' ^ St anode (screen), and focus elec-
the ,owi^rirn;:crto thrHne ^ the at

nection This m • Second ar,ode or high-voltage con-
ofthe mbT insteXf^ " T? W 3 on the S'de
the same excenf h 'ough the base. The symbol at B is
fying that it is for h C °C^ S eIectrode is omitted, signi-
a tube with external focus. The symbol
Fid. 5-10. Magnetically deflected cathode-ray tube
at C shows still another way of represe^^§^ elements are

symbol represents the tube nec , an .voltage connection
drawn as shown. In this case t e ig show where
is not shown, but a note on the schematic w
the connection is made. ^-cents a color-TV pic-
The symbol at D in Fig. 5-10 rep esents^ ^ ^
ture tube. A color-TV picture tube; is ^ has three
chrome tubes shown previous y, synibol at D, t

suns (emits three electron beams). cathode, contro
elements from top to bottom are.âte^ ^ that the
grids, screen grids, an » three guns,
focus electrode is common
/
There will be some differences in the internal makeup

of various black-and-white (monochrome) and color-TV
picture tubes. In these cases, the arrangement of elements
in the symbol will be changed to reflect the actual con
struction.
Class Letters
Manufacturers are almost unanimous in selecting the let
ter V to designate all types of tubes (vacuum or gas) on
their schematics. The letter 7" is also employed occasion-
ally, but most save it for designating transformers, as dis
cussed in a previous chapter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary purpose of all electron tubes?
2. What is the purpose of the cathode in an electron
tube?
3. What is the most common letter used to designate
tubes on schematics?
4. What is a cold-cathode tube?
5. What is the most common type of cathode-ray tube?
o. From what element of the tube is the output
normally taken?
7. How are connections made to the various elements
inside the tube?
8. Draw the symbol for a triode tube.
9. Draw a thyratron tube.
Draw a dual-section tube; one section a pentode,
and the other a triode.
6
Semiconductor
Diodes and Related
Devices
The primary purpose of semiconductors, or solid-state devices
as they are sometimes called, is to control the flow of elec
trons. They can be employed in almost any application
that a tube can, and in some where a tube cannot.
WHAT IS A SEMICONDUCTOR?
The term semiconductor refers to a group of materials that
have a resistance somewhere between that of insu ators
and conductors. Silicon, germanium, and selenium are
three of the most common semiconductor materials. A
comprehensive study of semiconductor theory is beyon
the scope of this book. However, the following brief expla
nation will aid in understanding this chapter.
The resistance of a material is largely determined by the
number of electrons in the outer shell of an aomoi the
material. Insulators have from five to eight e
this outer shell, while conductors have three o less. Sem,
* su,
conductors have four electrons in t e outer s treated
t p.,.
before it is useful. This treatm semiconductor
impurities are lntrofUCedec™ characteristics. By add-
material to produce the ncces y electrons
ing a small quantity of a material which ha,** ^ excess
in its outer shell (such as antimony ced This excess
electron will result in the mateI ? • tê semiconductor
electron can be made to move about in
96
crystal. Since the electron has a negative charge, the semi

conductor material treated in this manner is said to be n-
type material.
If a material having only three electrons in its outer
shell (such as indium, gallium, or aluminum) is combined
with the semiconductor material, a deficit of electrons will
result in the material. In other words, there will be
holes at some points in the bond between the atoms
where electrons would normally exist. Since material
doped in this manner lacks the number of electrons to
orm a perfect bond in the resulting crystal, the material is
said to be positive or p-type material.
Keep in mind that the overall number of electrons and
protons in the resulting crystal has not been changed,
lhat is, the material is electrically neutral. It has merely
een given the capacity to transfer an electric current.
en a attery is connected to the two sides of a piece of
type material, the excess electrons are attracted to the
positive terminal of the battery, and the electrons from the
negative terminal of the battery move into the material to
thf»any ° CS f CX'St material. Thus, electrons are
the current carriers in n-type material.
whirh Is Sam^ nattery is connected to p-type material,
thoiitrht 3 ue. ency of electrons, conduction is often
tive termini f'u movement °f holes toward the nega-

from the n v battery. However, just as holes move
trons fromTh t0 ^ ne£atlve side of the material, elec-

positive side V a"er^ ^SO move from the negative to the
electrons hoi P'type crystal has a deficiency of
electrons, holes are considered the current carriers in the
,nt ^JUNCTION
the flow ofXCsnorthîm'St ^ 3 mCanS t0 C°
m only one direction Th" a" l° all°W COndu
either the D- or RW cannot be accomplished
P or n-type material by itself. However
97
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND RELATED DEVICES
placing a chip of n-type material directly adjacent to a

piece of p-type material, the conditions are met to allow
conduction in one direction but not in the other. Fig. 6-1
shows how this is done. When the two materials are
brought together (Fig. 6-1A), the excess electrons in the
n-type material immediately adjacent to the p-type mate
rial will tend to move over into the p-type material and
combine with the holes in the p-type material to maintain
equilibrium. However, this combining occurs only in a
very thin layer of the material. This is the pn junction an
is the basis for most semiconductor devices. Many ways
are employed to produce the two adjacent materials and
form the junction, but the result is the same.
P N
+ + + - +
+ + + - + - - -
+ + + - +
+ + + - +
JUNCTION
(A) The pn junction.
ELECTRON FLOW
(B) Forward biased.
—- -
+
+ +-J:
+ + +
^
+ —+
NO CURRENT FLOW
(C) Reverse biased.
Fig. 6-1. Operation ot.hepn Sanction.

98
Now let s see what happens when a battery is connected

to the two layers of material. If the battery is attached so
the positive terminal is connected to the p-type material
and the negative terminal to the n-type material, as shown
in Fig. 6-1B, the excess electrons from the negative termi
nal of the battery flow into the n-type material and rush
toward the junction. Likewise, it can be said that the holes
in the p-type material rush toward the same junction. At
the pn junction the electrons and the holes combine with
one another, and current flows through the device—elec-
trons from minus to plus and holes from plus to minus.
is junction is said to be "forward biased," since the
vo tage (bias) conditions are proper for current to flow.
If the battery connections are reversed (Fig. 6-1C), the
° es move toward the positive terminal of the battery,
W' k1 u êctrons move toward the negative terminal.
it oth holes and electrons moving away from the
junction, little or no current flow occurs through it; there
C°m, h°les and electrons at the junction.
This ls said to be the "reverse-bias" condition.
ow we have the conduction properties needed to pro-
uce a semiconductor. Semiconductor devices act as con-
uc ors in one direction and insulators in the opposite
VL- are excePtio™, as we will see later in this
HirJ! ' i ProPerty of readily conducting in one
.• -101? opposing conduction in the opposite direc-
tnh ^ C S semic°nductor devices. Unlike vacuum
raTfe n ™ ,°
Se 1C nductor materials are solid-no vacuum or
fne is neee '° Sep^te the diff«ent elements. No heat-
be made Cmar,t,'° ° !,a'n conduc'ion, and the devices can
tubes UC Sma r than 's possible with vacuum
RECTIFIERS
^ conductor detdcesÎ? the slmPlest and oldest of the semi-
\ tion as a diode tube For ,essentially the same func"
example, in the power supplies of
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND RELATED DEVICES 99
a television receiver or microcomputer, it converts the AC

line voltage into the DC needed to operate the various
stages. The oldest type of metallic rectifier used in enter
tainment equipment is made of selenium. Selenium recti
fiers are seldom used today, but Fig. 6-2 shows some of
the many types that were available. Some of these units
actually contain four separate power rectifiers intercon
nected.
Silicon rectifiers (Fig. 6-3) are very popular and have
largely replaced the selenium rectifier. Most of the units
pictured in Figs. 6-2 and 6-3 can be soldered directly into
the circuit; others may be plugged into a holder.
Fig 6-2. Typical selenium rectifiers. (Courtesy International

Rectifier)
Fig. 6-3. Typical silicon rectifiers.

(Courtesy Sarkes Tarzian, Inc.) to;
100
The symbol adopted for power rectifiers is given at A in

some instances, part of the symbol will not be
] C 'i.aS Sôwn at ® and C, or the entire symbol may be
leit unshaded, as shown at D. Often the symbol is en

closed in a circle which represents the case, as shown at E.
-KJ- HK3-
D
Fig. 6-4. Rectifier symbols.
j ar Porti°n in the symbol corresponds to the cath-

!u Vacuum tube that is, electrons flow from it
with F " âfrowbeach This bar will sometimes be labeled
mav K *etters CATH. The same markings
iTst*™ ^S ampe
u °
d n the unit In Fig. 6-3, the symbol
stamped on the unit to show the polarity.
Class Letters
letters 't disagreement among manufacturers about which

quentlv **1 th^ T ^S1&nat*ng power rectifiers. Conse-
letters SE, V°X Y E ^nd REC ^ m°St C°mm°n' t
encountered. ' ' ' amonS others> maY be
SIGNAL AND SWITCHING DIODES

the L^nctiof l5' 3nd SW"chin? di°d« perform
the power rectifier * 10 C , e" Tbe difference between
the function each perform^ hr3^ •Swit.chin& diode Iies in
are used in power-sunnlv " 3 C'rCUlt' Power rectifiers
of current. Signal diodes arTUL? ^ amOUntf

pass only small values of r, S ^ clrcuIts and
used in digital circuits ; " ent' Switching diodes are
diodes are also used as 'VP aPphcations. Such
d aS cIlPPers" to limit the level of a
signal to a certain negative or positive level. Or they are

used as "limiters" which confine both the positive and
negative excursions of a signal to a specified value. Typi
cal diodes are shown in Fig. 6-5. Some have leads that are
soldered into the circuits; others are plugged into a holder.
Fig. 6-5. Signal diodes.
The symbols for signal and switching diodes are the

same as those shown in Fig. 6-4 for power rectifiers. As
with power rectifiers, a " + " or the letters CATH are
often placed near the bar portion of the symbols. Either
marking may also appear on the end of the unit itself,
although a colored dot or ring or some other identification
is often placed there instead.
Class Letters
Many letters are used to designate signal diodes. Although
CR and D are the most common, E, SC, V, XD, X, and
Y are also used.
CAPACITIVE DIODES
The capacitive diode, also called a varactor, Varicap,
reactance diode, or parametric diode, actually functions as
a capacitor in the circuit. The symbols for this device are
given here instead of in Chapter 3, because most of the
102
symbols used to depict it (Fig. 6-6) resemble those for the

semiconductor diode. Recall that a semiconductor diode
consists of a layer of p-type material and a layer of n-type
material. When these two materials are joined, a third
layer forms at the junction which serves as an insulator.
his condition is the same as for a capacitor—two conduc
tors separated by an insulator. In the normal diode, steps
r *° m*n*mize îs capacitance, but in the capaci-
lve 10 e the capacitance is emphasized. The capacitance
° a caPacitive diode varies depending on the voltage
across the diode. By varying the voltage, the capacitance
an be varied, and a circuit can be "tuned." For exam-
Pie, a potentiometer that varies the voltage applied to a
h° ?" USCd l° tUnC 3 ^ receiver to the Pr°Per
© ^ I
H
T
r
c
(D
D
F«g. 6-6. Capacitive diode symbols.
PHOTODIODES
uses arTmade^bf °de * 3 VerSatile 'J-,ce. Limit
and composition. Qioilesmade of C°nStmC'
to light. In some an^r • • silicon are also sensr
as a resistor whose value*"10118' ^ SlI!Con diode functi
light striking it. In Vanes according to the amoun
dependent resistor. Symbols'for T h8^"7 ^

were given in Fig. 2-17 "S^t-dependent resist
103
When light strikes the diode, a current can also be gen

erated. The amount of this current depends on the
amount of light striking the diode. In this application it is
called a photosensitive diode. Fig. 6-7 shows symbols use
to depict the photosensitive diode. The symbols at , ,
and C resemble the diode symbol, with the arrows, etter
L, or Greek lambda (X) signifying that it is light-sensitive.
As with other diode symbols, the circle enclosing t e sym
bol may or may not be employed, but it is recommen
Some diodes emit light when a voltage is impresse acros
them. The symbol at D in Fig. 6-7 is for a photoemissive-
type diode also called a light-emitting diode. It is t e sam
the symbol at A, except for the direction ol the arrows.
E
D
\\ \>
-(**)- -4
G
^ «;*•ve diodes-
Fig. 6-7. Photosensd.v
104
Other photodiode symbols are given in Fig. 6-7. The

ones at E and F are for bidirectional photodiodes or
photoduodiodes (photosensitive type). The one at E is for
an npn type and the one at F is for a pnp type. The sym-
at o is lor a two-segment photosensitive photodiode
with a common cathode lead. Another type which is actu-
a y our diodes with a common cathode connection is
shown at H in Fig. 6-7.
BREAKDOWN DIODES
.kôv^ diodes have characteristics similar to power
signal diodes. Recall that a diode allows current to flow
has "/rj direction. In the reverse direction, the diode
annlieH * resistance. However, if the voltage being
desitneHln/eVerSe 18 higher than that at which diode is

will fl A °perate' the diode breaks down and current
condition • d*ode wouid be damaged under these
Thev a r e H
1
J* " UOt the Case with breakdown diodes.
Y are desi^d to operate in this manner.
T
regu1ator^thaf' & breakdown diode serves as a voltage

amount 'rh H' !^' tbe yoltage exceeds a given
desired value Th C COnducts' llmiting the voltage to a

zener diorl ' 6 ^1°.st comm°n breakdown diode is the
deno e a zene H ^
P Fig' 6"8' The ôls used to
denote a zener d.ode are given at A through G in Fig. 6-9.
^ wmm~j >•
i A
'Si!
"8. Tvni/-Ml ..
The one at A is probably the most popular, although it is

often used without the circle as at B. Any of the symbols
can have the circle as at A, C, D, E, and F or be shown
without it as at B and G.
Fig. 6-9. Breakdown diodo s
synrbois for other types

'en in Fig. 6-9. The -ne^dtode ^ „
it conducts in only one dJ de A unidirec-
re for a bidirectional also called a
legative resistance re symbol at J is
Hoc, is represented at J an
106
for an npn type, while the one at K is for a pnp type. The
symbols for the bidirectional version of this unit are given
at L and M in Fig. 6-11; L is the npn type, and M is the
pnp type.
THYRISTORS
The term "thyristor" is applied to a class of semiconduc-
tor evices that provide an on-off or triggered operation
similar to that of a thyratron. Thus, a thyristor can be
considered to be a semiconductor switch. While most thy-
stors are not properly classified as diodes—the subject of
is c apter in operation, they function as two-terminal
devices with a separate element (or elements) to turn them
vr.1t r °- riSt°rS Wlli not conduct until a "trigger"
rnn,
age 18 aPPlled to the gate terminal. Then, they will
t
removed VThereadltIy aftCr -hc triSgering voltage is

mos common thyristor device is the silicon
rectifiers. (Courtesy
(or semiconductor) controlled rectifier of Fig. 6-10. Sym

bols for various types of thyristors are given in Fig. 6-11.
In the drawings of Fig. 6-11, letters have been added to
designate terminals (A = anode, K = cathode, G =
Gate, and T = main terminal on a bidirectional device).
Fig. 6-11 • Thyristor symbols.
, , * A R and C in Fie. 6-11 are for

The symbo s a , ' yristors. Such units may
reverse-blocking diode-type tnynsi
108
also be light-activated. The arrows are added to the basic

symbols as shown at D, E, and F to denote the Iight-acti-
rinnal 77 * G ^ &11 is for a b'dircc-
tional diode type thynstor, also called a bi-switch. A sili-
rnnt00]?^0 6 rfct'êr (SCR), also called a semiconductor
controlled rectifier or reverse-blocking triode-type thyris-
6 11 Terser, y the syrab°ls at H> !. J. and K in Fig.
„nit 7 Sy * 3t H and 1 illustrate <w° ây« w show
type ZA gateS' and the ones at J and K are for P-
for JZZ CTr°"ed rectifiers are ako available
of Starting- it TfT VoJta £e turns the conduction off instead

bar arms *h C s at ^ anc^ M, which have the
turn-off units6 The one^tTis"^ '° Symb°lize these Sate

one at M is for rw ^ an n~tyPe Sate> and the
also avails hi Tk âtC' tetrode-type thyristors are
blocking te 7symbols at N and O are for a reverse-
switch The™ C tbyristor semiconductor controlled
X called a f ymb01 ^ 3 bidire«ional triode thyristor,

also called a tnac or gated switch is given at P in Fig.
the symfct Vf 6r ^ ShOV™
Wly true of theTnes aVA d' G HU
is Q. 0°hers°~ CR'SCR' ££V°
TUNNEL DIODE
time for ttaCurrent °nd"Ct°r' " takes a certain amount of
•he tunnel diode ho™ \t thr°Ugh the Unit'
speed of light—' 77 : tbe.y aPPear to move at the

mate speed in the univeme A^h'61" ' the0ry' 'he
diode is capable of amnre : Same tlme> a tunnel
obtained in a two-ele ' 3 ^ unct ôn not normally

diode is beyond the scone"If Ex P ,ainin ff the tunnel
be used in many types nf • 1S °ok' Tunnd diodes can
transistor or tube can be useH^T^8 WherC usuallY onlY a
used, iemperature extremes and
Fig. 6-12. Tunnel diode and tunnel rectifier symbols.
nuclear radiation have little effect on them. The most

common symbols used to depict a tunnel diode on sche
matics are given at A, B, C, and D in Fig. 6-12. The sym
bols at E, F, and G are for a tunnel rectifier (backward
diode). They are the same as the ones for the tunnel diode
except for the reversal of the bracket-shaped element
depicting the tunneling effect. As with other semiconduc
tor symbols, the circle may or may not be used.
OTHER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

There are many other types of semiconductor diodes in
use today. Some are not presently being used in consumer
equipment, but you may encounter them as you examine
various circuits. The symbol at A in Fig. 6-13 is for a
temperature-sensitive diode, while the one at B is for a
storage diode. A current regulator is represented by the
symbol at C. Two semiconductor thermocouple symbols
are given at D and E. The one at D is for a temperature-
measuring unit and the one at E is for a current-measur
ing unit. The symbol at F is for a Schottky diode.
Optoisolators, or optocoupiers as they are sometimes
called are widely used in electronic circuits to isolate one
circuit from another. The symbol at G in Fig. 6-13 is the
general symbol. The letters T and R are not actually part
110
t°
H
3
F'g. 6-13. Other semiconductor symbols.
transit,ymb°!^ They ^ included here to identify the

bolrefVCT P°rtions °f unit. If this sym-
at Hi.f ' "a explanatlorl m "st be included. The symbol
transmitter & "a"' USCS a" incandescent lamp as the
ducer flip-ht H" a symmetr'C£d photoconductive trans-

type Wh ?h P?ndent reSiSt°r) as the receiver. Another
transistor k s Pk T a Photoemissive diode and a photo-
the rbo'at H in Fis 6 - 13 -

altered to represent theômponîûsed^6 ^ ^*
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name two semiconductor materials.
2. Why must a semiconductor be enclosed in a
vacuum?
3. Draw the symbol for a power rectifier diode.
4. Name an important use of the zener diode.
5. Draw the symbol for a signal diode.
6. Draw the symbol for a LED (light-emitting diode).
7. In the diode symbol, do electrons flow in the
direction of the arrow or in the opposite direction?
8. What normally happens when a trigger voltage is
applied to a thyristor?
9. What determines the resistance of a material?
10. Adding arsenic to a semiconductor produces what
type of material?
7
Transistors and
Integrated Circuits I
I
In 1948, Drs. William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Wal I

0
ter H. Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories announced 9
their development of the first transistor. Since that time,
the transistor has revolutionized the electronics industry.
It is used in practically every application where a vacuum
tube was formerly used, and also in applications for which
1
tubes are not suitable.
The word "transistor" is a term applied broa y to
semiconductor devices which have three or more termi
nals. There are many sizes and shapes of transistors, bach
has its own particular advantages and app ications
amplifying, mixing, oscillating, and switching, to name
few.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
i • _i +.-™c;«tnr corresponds roughly
srdw Sh" rnakes it possible

S
113
114
large current with a much smaller current. Bipolar tran

sistors are considered to be current-operated devices,
whereas tubes are voltage-operated devices, but the result
is the same—a small quantity controlling a much larger
quantity.
EMITTER
o iiiff
smm COLLECTOR
: • • .... • -
: N p N
BASE
(A) Npn.
EMITTER
it COLLECTOR
P N P
BASE
(B) Pnp.
Pig. 7-1. Elementary bipolar transistor.
rial are^l^'iT0 laYers of n-type semiconductor mate

neltions are H 7 * ^ ^ °f p"type Serial. Con
atlve volm " m ^ °f the layerS as shown" If a ne§
emitter and 1S CO™ected to the n-type material, labelec
p-type base mate^ ] y positlve. volta&e
is connected to th<
forward biased a ' * ? -}Unctlon between the two will b<
will flow between the^T f°F diodes' Thus> currenl
thin, and electrons po,nts; Tbe base region is ver>

the proper voltages Tre co^"^ !! GaSUy' Therefore> when
to forward-bias the i nnected to the base and emitter
flow between the emitter'Tl' I mUCh ,arger current can

connected to a mn " collector (the collector is
between the emitter Ld Te"h V°Itage)\ If the current
between the emitter and roll 1S vaned> the current
and collector will vary in step.
TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 115
The elementary transistor in Fig. 7-1A has two layers of

n-type material separated by a layer of p-type material; it
is called an npn transistor. In an npn transistor, the base
is made negative with respect to the collector, and the
emitter is made negative with respect to the base. Keep in
mind that the actual voltages are not important; they can
be negative, positive, or even zero on a given element.
What is important is the relationship of the voltage on a
given element to the voltage on the other elements. For
example, if the actual voltage on the collector is + 6 volts
and the voltage on the base is -I- 2 volts, the base voltage
will be 4 volts negative with respect to the voltage on the
collector. Likewise, in this same example, if the emitter
voltage is +1.5 volts, it will be 0.5 volt negative with
respect to the base and 5.5 volts negative with respect to
the collector.
The layers of semiconductor material can be reversed,
as shown in Fig. 7-1B. Here the emitter and the collector
are p-type material and the base is n-type material. Thus,
it is termed a pnp transistor. Operation of this transistor is
essentially the same as for the npn transistor, except all
the voltages are reversed. That is, the emitter is the most
positive element, the base is negative with respect to the
emitter, and the collector is negative with respect to the
base.
Fig. 7-2 shows the internal construction of one type of
transistor. The semiconductor material is in the center.
Fig. 7-2. Internal view of a

transistor. (Courtesy General
Electric Co.)
116
Connections from the various elements are then made to

the leads extending up through the bottom of the case.
Symbols
The symbols for an npn bipolar transistor are given in
Fig. 7-3. Notice that the arrowhead may be located at the
point where the diagonal intersects the circle, as in A, or
p aced along the line, as in B. The element with the
arrowhead denotes the emitter, and the bar portion of the
symbol denotes the base. The remaining element is the
collector. The letters E, B, and C identify the elements.
I he emitter is shown at the top of the symbol in C. Even
w en the various elements are repositioned, the emitter is
always the element with the arrowhead. The symbols at D
and E are seldom encountered.
F,9. 7-3. Npn transistor symbols.
0NLY
gdifferenceTinhtLSHMB0LS F°F 3 PNP TRANSISTOR- TH
npn transistor symbol j'™0"0" of the arr°whead. In th

whereas for nnn if r» * Polnts away from the base
P"P tt potnts toward the base. In other words
Fig. 7-4. Pnp transistor symbols.
it will always point in the direction opposite the flow of

electrons.
Class Letters
Fewer letters are used to denote transistors of the various
manufacturers than for other members of the semiconduc
tor family. Q is the most popular. Nevertheless, the letters
X, V, T, and TR are also employed.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
As stated previously, bipolar transistors are essentially
current-operated devices. The field-effect transistor is a
voltage-operated device—more like that of the conven
tional vacuum tube. There are two basic types of field-
effect transistors (abbreviated FET): the junction field
effect transistor (JFET), and the insulated-gate field-effect
transistor (IGFET).
Fie 7-5 shows the elementary construction of the
JFET.' Connections are made to the two ends of a bar of
5
SOURCE DRAIN
GATE
(A) N-channel.
SOURCE DRAIN
GATE
(B) P-channel.
Fig. 7-5. Elementary construction of a JFET.
n type silicon. On the opposite face of the bar, a con

trolled amount of dopant has been added to create the tw<
parallel facing strips of p-type material. Thus, a pn junc
tion is formed between each strip and the bar of n-type sil
icon. This is where the device gets the name junction FET
1 hese two strips are connected and are called the gate o
the device. The connection to one end of the bar is callec
t e source, and the connection to the other end is called the
drain. Roughly, the source corresponds to the cathode of 2
T""6' the Sate to the grid, and the drain to the
j ae' . e Path through the bar from the source to the
TFFT 1S C. d the channel- Nearly all the voltage across the
re.tl £raSS throuSh this channel with relatively little

a owcver, when voltage is applied to the gate,
restricts l 1S bmlt up around the gate, which

the 1e 1^ Channd W,dth for curre^ flow- As
wh^The'chT"^ "
^chged
86 Stl11 fUrther' 2 P01"' iS
width and current is atT 'S- COnstncted across the.fu11

a minimum. This is called pinch-
off. Thus, as the voltage applied to the gate electrode is

varied, the larger voltage from the source to the drain is
caused to vary in step and we have amplification. The
channel can be made of n-type material as in Fig. 7-5A or
of p-type material as shown in Fig. 7-5B. The former is
sometimes called an NFET and the latter a PFET.
The elementary construction of an IGFET is shown
in Fig. 7-6. Here, the gate junction is dispensed with.
Instead, a small metal plate is electrodeposited on top of
an insulating film on the face of the semiconductor bar.
When a varying voltage is applied to the gate, the result
ing magnetic field penetrates the channel, causing it to
narrow or widen to control the flow of current through the
channel. The channel may be of n-type (Fig. 7-6A) or
p-type (Fig. 7-6B) silicon.
GATE
....
P
MH
• •• •
•' Vi -: •
SOURCE- DRAIN
N
>. • <\v-.
SUBSTRATE
(A) N-channel.
INSULATION
LURCE DRAIN
SUBSTRATE
(B) P-channel.
Fig. 7-6. Elementary construction of an IGFET.
Another type IGFET is shown in Fig. 7-7. This is a

stal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOS-
OXIDE METAL
INSULATION GATE
GATE
DRAIN
(A) N-channel.
CHANNEL
OXIDE METAL
INSULATION GATE GATE
SOURCE-
DRAIN
(B) P-channel.
CHANNEL
Fig. 7-7. Elementary construction of a MOSFET.
FET). Its name is derived from the cross section of the

wafer—a metal-film gate, an oxide insulation, and a
semiconductor wafer. In an n-channel MOSFET (Fig.
/-/A), the channel is formed in that portion of n-type
material (called the substrate) between the source and
rain w ich are two diffused p-type regions. Current from
source to drain is controlled by the magnetic field pro
duced by the voltage applied to the gate. MOSFETs may
have either a single gate or dual gates.
Symbols
FFTI^TL0^ at A and B in Fig. 7-8 are for junction-type

one at R at A is for the n-channel FET, and the
D are for^r -°£ * 6 P"cânne^ FET. The symbols at C and
^trsrET^h?a,so produced-The s^mbo1 at e

Other arrant
in IGFETs in l
and p"cilanneI IGFETs, respectively.
u W° &ates- Many of the differences

ICFE Ts involve the bulk of the semiconductor material
G H
K
J
Fig. 7-8. FET symbols.
(called the substrate). Connections to it may be internal,

external, or omitted (as at C and D). The symbols at F
through I show some of the variations for n-channel units.
The arrowhead would be reversed for p-type units. The
symbols at J and K show a different way to draw the
JFET symbol. The abbreviations in Fig. 7-8 are as fol
lows: G, gate; D, drain; S, source; and U substrate. As
for bipolar transistors, the most popular class letter used
to designate FETs is Q,.
122
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
The unijunction transistor is somewhat similar to the FET
in that both are constructed from a bar of n-type semicon
ductor material. As shown in Fig. 7-9, connections are
made to each end of the bar for the two bases. Then a sin
gle pn junction is formed approximately one-quarter of
the way down from the top end. Connections are made to
BASE-1
EMITTER
Fig. 7-9. UJT construction.
N,
BASE-2
he two bases and to the spot of p material which is the

emitter. In operation, the UJT does not conduct until a
certain voltage point is reached across two of the termi
ng, then It suddenly turns on. The symbol for a unijunc
tion transistor with n-type base is given at A in Fig 7-10
while the symbol at B is for a unit with p-type base
Hg. 7-10. UJT symbols.

As with tube symbols, the circle denoting the protective

covering is sometimes omitted, but this is not recom
mended.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
The semiconductor components discussed up to this point
have been what are termed "discrete components." That
is, each was a separate, distinct item. It has been men
tioned that semiconductors can be made very small. In
fact, several—even hundreds—of transistors, diodes, and
resistors can be fabricated on a single tiny semiconductor
chip. Although not as common, capacitors are also in
cluded in some units. Integrated circuits (Fig. 7-11) can
be produced to fulfill practically any application desired.
Without integrated circuits, it is doubtful whether modern
calculators and computers could be produced. Certainly,
the small compact units of today would not be possible.
Today a computer chip the size of a fingernail can hold
the circuitry that would have occupied a large room in the
1950s.
Fig. 7-11. Typical integrated circuits. (Courtesy ITT Semiconductor,)

normally contains both the active components, such as

transistors, and passive components, such as resistors and
capacitors. Although classifications vary, a small-scale
integration (SSI) circuit contains tens of components—
usually the components for a single circuit. A medium-
scale integration (MSI) circuit contains hundreds of com
ponents, a large-scale integration (LSI) circuit contains
thousands of components, and a very large-scale integra
tion (VLSI) circuit contains tens of thousands of compo
nents.
The internal circuitry of a relatively simple IC is shown
in Fig. 7-12. Normally the individual components in the
internal circuitry of an IC are not shown. Most ICs will
contain many resistors, diodes, and transistors, and possi
bly some capacitors. Actually, because of the methods
used, an IC will contain many more fabricated compo
nents in its circuitry than would be necessary if individual
components (called discrete components) were used.
ICs are packaged in various ways. Three among many
are shown in Fig. 7-11. An IC may contain 8, 14, 24, 40
or more external connections, depending on the type and
complexity. In Fig. 7-12, the pin connections for this 16-
pin IC are shown at the points in the circuit where they
appear.
The usual practice is to use a square or triangular sym-
ol for the simpler ICs, as shown at A and B in Fig. 7-13.
e symbol at B is actually the symbol for an amplifier,
nother symbol is given at C. This symbol is for a special
type of amplifier called an operational amplifier, or op amp
°V ^rt' ^though two, three, or four leads are shown
with the symbols at A, B, and C in Fig. 7-13, more (or
may be used as needed. The symbols here do not
epresem a single discrete component, but the IC (or a
resistor ° ' which may contain the equivalent of several
such asS' yansistc!rs' diodes, etc. For more complex ICs
those shownUatdnm te!%ision reavers, a symbol such as
made to th • & ma^ used- Connections are
various other components in the circuit at the
TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
125
*H
Fig. 7-12. Internal circuitry on an integrated circuit. (Courtesy ITT

Semiconductors)
Fig. 7-13. Integrated circuit symbols.
points indicated by the leads extending from the symbol.

Each of these leads will be labeled with a pin number.
Usually another diagram, such as the one at F, will be
included somewhere on the diagram for the pin identifica
tion. Sometimes a block diagram for the symbol of the
various functions within the IC will be included within a
box similar to the one at D.
In digital circuits, the logic symbols are often included
in a boxlike symbol, or they may be included as separate
items and labeled as part of the IC. These symbols are the
subject of Chapter 13.
Class Letters
The most common letters used to designate ICs are U and
IC, but several others will be encountered, including I, A
(for amplifier), B, and G. 5
TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
127
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the two principal types of bipolar
transistors?
2. What are the three elements of a bipolar transistor?
3. What are the three elements of a FET?
4. Draw the symbol for an npn transistor and label the
various elements.
5. Draw the symbol for a pnp transistor and label the
various elements.
6. To what element is the most positive voltage
connected on an npn bipolar transistor?
7. To what element is the most positive voltage
connected on a pnp bipolar transistor?
8. What is a discrete component assembly?
9. Why can't capacitors be included in ICs?
10. What is the term for the path on which the electrons
(or holes) flow through a FET?
Switches and
Relays
When a circuit is closed, a complete path is provided over
which electrons can flow. Conversely, when open no path
exists, the circuit is inoperative. Some means must be pro
vided to open or close the circuits in electronic equipment.
Each of the devices discussed in this chapter will perform
this switching function.
SWITCH TYPES
There are many types of switches. They can be classified
by the type of switching they perform or by their construc
tion. Switches are made to fit all kinds of applications.
First, let's look at the basic switching circuits.
SPST Switches
The simplest switch is the knife switch illustrated in Fig.
8-1. When the arm is moved down, it engages the clips at
the end and completes the circuit in which it is connected.
Such a device is called a single-pole, single-throw switch
(abbreviated SPST). It can make connections between
two points on one line. The symbols for SPST switches
are given in Fig. 8-2. All look alike except D and E, which
129
Fig. 8-1. A single-pole, single-throw knife switch.
differ only in the arrowheads (indicating the movable con

tact) and the small circles (indicating the connection
points). The familiar house light switch and the on/off
switch of a radio or TV receiver are SPST units and are
identified by the symbols in Fig. 8-2.
o- —<_ >-
A B C D
Fig. 8-2. Single-pole, single-throw switch symbols
SPDT Switches
The knife switch shown in Fig. 8-3 can be used to connect
the center terminal to either outside terminal. It still
Hg. 8-3. A single-pole, double-throw knife switch.

1
SWITCHES AND RELAYS 13J
makes connections for only one line at a time, but it can

connect the center (knife blade) terminal to either outside
point. Called a single-pole, double-throw (abbreviated SPDT)
switch, it appears in many forms. The symbols for the
SPDT switch (Fig. 8-4) are the same as those for the
SPST except for the added connection.
— — o^-o o J* O O
TT •
A B C D E
Fig. 8-4. Single-pole, double-throw switch symbols.
Double-Pole Switches J
To control two separate circuits with a single switch, a
double-pole unit is needed. It comprises two sections, each
like the single-pole type shown in Fig. 8-1. The two sec
tions are mechanically but not electrically connected. For
instance, a double-pole, single-throw (DPST) knife switch
consists of two blades, each of which can be connected as
shown in Fig. 8-1. The two blades are mechanically joined
(ganged) by an insulating material, so that when one is
moved, the other automatically follows. Fig. 8-5 shows the
0 crô o^j o
•M
A B
<^0
C
tl D
Fig. 8-5. Double-pole, single-throw switch symbols.
symbols used to denote DPST switches. The dashed line

indicates that the two arms are mechanically, but not elec
trically, connected.
Adding another set of terminals to the two-bladed knife
switch so that the blades make contact in either of two
u
positions, it becomes a double-pole, double-throw (DPDT)

switch. Fig. 8-6 shows the symbols for this type.
o o cff'o o crÎ o
i 1
A
oô o cf0
o
f i t
A B
u
D
Fig. 8-6. Double-pole, double-throw switch symbols.
Switch Construction
Although the SPST, SPDT, DPST, and DPDT switches
shown here may be constructed in various ways to per
form the many switching actions, all can be represented
by the symbols of Figs. 8-2, 8-4, 8-5, and 8-6. Some
switches contain additional contacts or poles. The knife
switch was used in Figs. 8-1 and 8-3 because the action
can be easily seen, but it is seldom encountered except in
laboratories and certain lighting circuits. Instead, elec-
tro™ equipment usually employs toggle, slide, rotary,
push-button, or even the membrane switch (Fig. 8-7)

which needs only a gentle touch
ft 7he fy0mbols at E in Fi§s- 8"2 and 8-3 and at D in Figs.
tf-5 and 8-6 are usually reserved for the slide switch (Fig.
a-J mCe wafer and push-button switches may use
different symbols, they are discussed separately.
WAFER SWITCHES
SWltCh Sh°Wn " Fig' 8"9 is P°Pular for makinS
svmhnl T f° m°re °nC POint' Fi§- 8"10 shows the
onnecAT type Here,

r center terminal can be
wafer is con ^ °7 Six P°'ntS around "• °ften the
Tround the"T 1 38 Sh°Wn in Fig' 8-1F contact

nection with the circuit ° ^ u
S makeS 3 C°n"
one noint on th • nn& ln tIle center. Notice that
point on the ring extends out farther than the rest. As
SWITCHES AND RELAYS 133
£5Knr?SM !!?®®®»fflee
S®.®,®®®G©o®©©©rz)
•®®®®®00®Qffi©S«
CEJ 00 © 0®B®©|0 0 g
c 1
Fig. 8-7. Membrane switches. (Courtesy Centralab Inc., a North

American Philips Co.)
the switch is rotated, this point will be connected to each

outside contact, one after another. This, then, is actually a
single-pole, 12-throw switch, most commonly represented as
A in Fig. 8-12. The arrows extending from the small cir
cles represent the contacts around the outside. The longest
arrow is the longest contact. The ring is deliberately
drawn so that it does not touch the arrowheads except at
the long contact and at the point of the extension on the
ring As the switch is rotated, this extension contacts each
arrowhead in turn. The symbol is usually pictured as
viewed from the shaft end, and the terminals are num-
134
R9' 8"8' S"de 5Wi,cheS' ^witchcraft Inc., .Roy,heo„ Co.)
'9- A .ypical wafer swi(ch. ^Cour(e

American Philips Co )
A B
Fig. 8-10. Single-pole, six-position switch symbol.
Fig. 8-11. A typical switch wafer. (Courtesy Centralab Inc., a

North American Philips Co.)
bered clockwise, as shown in Fig. 8-12. If the wafer is pic

tured from the rear, the numbers will be numbered coun
terclockwise.
A single-section wafer switch can be used when two or
more circuits must be switched in and out at the same
time. By making some points wider on the rotating (short
ing) ring and breaking the center connection instead of
making it solid, one half will serve some of the stationary
contacts, and the other half the remainder. For instance,
symbol B in Fig. 8-12 shows a switch in which terminals 2
and 3 are connected to terminal 5, and terminals 7 and 9
to terminal 11. The curved arrow at the center indicates
the direction the center portion moves when the switch is
rotated. Rotating the switch one position will connect ter
minals 3 and 4 to terminal 5, and terminals 8 and 10 to
terminal 11. Any number of connections can be made by
such switches, each depending on the construction of the
M T T T H M T **
J L T I ! ]5~ t
Fig. 8-12. Wafer switch symbols.
shorting ring. Two other possibilities are shown in sym

bols C and D.
Another method of showing a wafer switch is given at 1
in lg. 8-12. Here the switch is laid out horizontally. Th<
ar elow the row of arrowheads represents the inne
S (which for illustrative purposes has beer
S7au u ned ° Ut and broken)- The jagged lines at the end;
° t e ar signify the broken bar. In the actual switch, th<

two ends are connected at this point. As the switch ii
rotated, the bar moves along and makes connections tc
e various contacts. The principal advantage of depicting
e switc in t is manner is that components connected tc
the various contacts can be shown more easily.
shaft^Tk Waêr secti°ns are often connected to a single
at parh US' rotatlnS tbe shaft will change the connections
shown ; Sr°ni; ^tbou&h most of the wafer switches
and othe u C ?otCr âVC ^ contacts> some have fewer
ctntacts l r 18 'I24 °r m°re- Als°> -ven though 12
will not Dhvsi* T' switch may be constructed so it
switching action Canute f° 12 P.03'1'0"3 even thouSh ^

points on the switch TheTT ' Vu °f the "
panies will vary slightlv F ymb°ls "3ed by different com-
senting the terminal* or example, the numbers repre-
Nevertheless all «? "ây be placed within the circles.

here_
CSS' ^ ^mbols will resemble the ones shown
PUSH-BUTTON SWITCHES
As mentioned before, the general switch symbols shown in
Figs. 8-2, 8-4, 8-5, and 8-6 are sometimes utilized for the
familiar push-button switches of Fig. 8-13. Symbol A in
Fig. 8-14 is more widely used, however. The vertical por
tion represents the button; when pushed, it moves the bar
down to make connection across the contacts, represented
by the two circles. The same switch is also shown by sym
bol B. Here, the arrowheads represent the contacts. Sym
bols A and B both represent a normally open switch. If the
switch is normally closed, pushing the button will open the
circuit. Symbols C and D denote this type of switch.
A push-button switch can also be of the double-pole
variety, as shown by symbol E. Here, pushing the button
closes two circuits. Symbol F represents a switch which
opens one circuit and closes another when the button is
pushed. Many other types of switching are possible with
push-button switches. The symbols will resemble those of
Fig. 8-14, but will show the actual arrangement of the
contacts. Usually dashed lines will be used to indicate the
various sections operated by a single push button.
Switch Class Letters

Switches may be designated by several letters, commonly
S, SW, M, and E. In addition, the letters WS are some
times used to indicate a wafer switch.
RELAYS
All the switches discussed previously were actuated by
either rotating or sliding a knob, pushing a button, or exe
cuting some other mechanical movement. In contrast, a
relay is an automatic switch, which may or may not
require a physical action to be activated. For instance, a
relay can be built into the circuit of a photoelectric cell.
When light falls on the cell, more current flows through it
and the relay closes.
13' °'CHOIA;7E„S„WCOCHR-,COUR,EIR
o o Q I Q
* •
A B C
tni ° i ° q I o
rn
O O O O
D E F
Fig. 8-14. Push-button switch symbols.
A typical relay consists of a wire coiled around an iron

core, and at least two contacts. The typical relay in Fig.
8-15 becomes energized as current flows through the coil
and causes its core to act as an electromagnet. One of the
contacts, being movable, is attracted by this electromag
net. As this contact moves toward the core, it disconnects
lrom the top stationary contact and connects to the bottom
stationary contact. When current through the coil de
creases below a certain amount, a spring returns the mov
able contact to its original position. Just as there are many
types of switches, there are also many types and shapes of
relays to fit a multitude of applications.
MOVABLE
CONTACT
STATIONARY
CONTACTS
COIL
Fig 8-15. General -purpose relay. (Courtesy Potter & Brumfield

Div. of AMF, Inc.)
140
The symbol for a simple relay is given at A in Fig. 8-16.

The bar at the top of the symbol is the movable contact,
and the arm with the arrowhead is the stationary one. The
relay coil is represented by a wire wrapped around a rec
tangle (representing the core). The dashed line (some
times omitted) signifies that the core attracts the movable
e ement. Another method of showing the same relay is by
symbol B; here, the regular iron-core coil symbol is used
to represent the relay coil.
The relays in symbols A and B are both single-pole,

single-throw units. All types of relays are available. For
example, symbol C shows a single-pole, double-throw
unit. The movable contact completes the circuit to the
upper stationary contact. This is called the deenergized
position (no current flowing through the coil). When cur
rent does flow, the movable contact is pulled down, open
ing the upper circuit and closing the lower one.
To simplify circuit layout, the connections to the relay
aie sometimes brought out on different sides, as shown in
D. In this relay, the circuit between the two contacts is
normally closed. When energized, the movable contact is
pulled down and opens the circuit. Sometimes the letters
NC (for normally closed) or NO (for normally open) are
placed beside the contacts on the schematic to signify the
deenergized position.
A single relay coil may operate more than one movable
arm at the same time. Symbol E depicts a two-section
relay. The top part is a single-pole, single-throw section
which is normally closed. The bottom part is a single-pole,
double-throw unit which is normally connected to the
upper contact. A somewhat different way of representing
a relay is given at F.
Still another method of showing relays is given at G and
H in Fig. 8-16. Here the rectangular box represents the
actuating coil and the two bars the contacts. The symbol
at G is for a single-throw normally open set of contacts as
at A. The symbol at H is for a relay with double-throw
contacts as at C. Here the diagonal line across the two
bars of one set of contacts represents a normally closed set
of contacts. At I, the coil is represented by a zig-zag line.
There are innumerable possibilities in the types of
relays, but their operation is obvious from examining the
contacts. Just remember that the relay is normally shown
in its deenergized position. Energizing the relay causes the
position of the bar to move toward the coil with the sym
bols at A through F, and the open contacts will be closed
and the closed opened with the symbols at G, H, and I.
Solid-State Relays
A more recent development is the "solid-state" relay of
Fig. 8-17. The one at Fig. 8-17A is designed to be inserted
into a printed circuit board. The one at Fig. 8-17B is a
heavy duty unit attached to a bulkhead via bolts which are
inserted in the ears at the bottom. The bottom plate is
unn" — „ ,,
-.AGO-FL4-0"V
7 0S d - v - •
3
LOAD 15 VDc
CONTROL 3 *;
(A) Printed-circuit board mounting. (B) Bulkhead mounting.
Fig. 8-17. Typical solid-state relays. (Courtesy Grahill, Inc.)
constructed of heavy copper to dissipate heat generated b)

e unit. Solid-state relays do not have actual contacts like
he magnetic relays discussed previously. Instead, theii
switching device is a thyristor (see Chapter 6). Enclosed ir
pt R-Ts'Tv0 Flg' 8:17 are several components shown ir
whiVh tu Input's Processed and triggers the thyristoi
rel'vs w" °UtpUt circuit. Most solid-state

lT*Ure '°P'1Cal coupling." In this type of unit, a
glows wh 1 de P°rated in the input ctrcuit
MCOR
ate the\ei:yC°Tttl0,nVn drCUlt ™ *°

photodetector which then cond'T8 d'°de ShmeS °" 3
current to be applied to the th ' ~?Smg the tnggW"
isolated from the input bv thy"Sto!"* Thus' the outPut 18
tector arrangement u S,.mple LED and photode-
input from the switching electromagnet isolated the
relay. Also av«il»h g COntacts ln the conventional

Y Also available are hybrid solid-state relays that
SWITCHES AND RELAYS
143
INPUT
CIRCUIT
OUTPUT
CIRCUIT
Fig. 8-18. Internal construction of a solid-state relay. (Courtesy

Grahill, Inc.)
incorporate a small reed relay or transformer to serve as

the actuating device. Other components are added inside
the housing to prevent false triggering of the thyristor by
pulses on the line, etc.
Often, the "black-box" approach is used to symbolize a
solid-state relay. That is, a square or rectangle will be
used on the schematic to represent the relay. The internal
circuitry will not be shown, and just the input and output
connections to the box will be given. At other times the
optoisolator symbols of Fig. 6-13 (G, H, I) are used.
The solid-state relay may also be represented by a
drawing of the control circuit and the output within a solid
or dashed-line box as shown in Fig. 8-19. At A in Fig.
8-19, the control circuits are drawn similar to those at G
and H in Fig. 8-14. The symbols used to represent specific
solid-state relays are given at B and C in Fig. 8-19. Notice
that both relays pictured in Fig. 8-17 incorporate the sym
bols on their side to show the internal connections.
Class Letters
The most common letters for designating relays on sche
matic d i a g r a m s a r e R E , R E , and E .
144
Fig. 8-19. Solid-state relay symbols.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the basic purpose of a switch?
2. What type of switch is most commonly used as th
on-off switch of a radio?
3. What type of switch does the abbreviation SPDT
indicate?
4. What is the purpose of the switch in Question 3?
5. What is a relay?
6.
What does a dashed line between two points on a
switch symbol indicate?
7. What is the purpose of the coil in a relay?
8.
What are three of the class letters used to designa,
switches on schematics?
9.
Draw the symbol for a double-pole, double-throw
10.
Draw the symbol for a single-pole, double-throw
Miscellaneous
Components t
«
$
Nearly all the components discussed in the previous chap fit
ters can be found in any one piece of electronic equip- •'
ment. In most cases, more than one of each component ^
will be included. Even so, only rarely can such equipment
be constructed from components alone. Instead, many
other items are necessary for its operation.
Don't think that, because they have been classified as
miscellaneous," the components discussed in this chap
ter are less important. This is not true. For instance, what
good would a radio be without a speaker? The reason for
the miscellaneous classification is that items in this chapter
are not necessarily found in every piece of equipment.
ANTENNAS
No piece of transmitting or receiving equipment is com
plete without an antenna. At the transmitter, the antenna
is the final unit in the system. From it, the electromag
netic waves are sent out through the air to the receiver. At
the receiver, the antenna is the first unit in the system,
intercepting the electromagnetic waves and conveying or
coupling them to the input. Sometimes the antenna is not
an integral part of the equipment but is mounted exter
nally (on a roof, tower, etc.). In such cases the antenna
itself may not be symbolized on the schematic, ut on y
the terminals where it is to be connected (see apter
145
Symbols
Fig. 9-1 shows the symbols commonly employed for
antennas. Symbols A, B, C, and D generally designate
external antennas.
Three methods of depicting the familiar loop antenna
are shown in E, F, and G. (A loop antenna is a coiled
ength of wire usually fastened flat against the back of the
cabinet.) Other versions of this symbol may be employed,
but all will resemble this general layout. Another type of
built-in antenna may use either symbol H, I, or J. This is
called a ferrite-loop antenna (Fig. 9-2). It is actually a coil of
wire wound around a ferrite core. Besides having the
advantage of being very sensitive to weak signals, it may
a so e tunable. A length of wire attached to the unit may
be stretched out for additional pickup. Notice that sym
bols H, I, and J are the same as those for a coil, which this
9-1. Antenna symbols.

MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS 147
p.
n
Fig. 9-2. Ferrite-loop antennas. (Courtesy J. W. Miller Div., Bell
Industries)
type of antenna actually is. Some versions are not tunable,

in which case the arrow is omitted.
Methods of indicating TV antennas are shown by sym
bols K through O in Fig. 9-1. Symbol K is often used for
any type antenna, but it actually represents a dipole—the
basic TV antenna. Symbol L is another basic TV an
tenna—the folded dipole. The symbols at M, N, and O
are for a monopole antenna (the single telescoping rod
built into portable TV receivers). Two of these symbols
may be used on some receiver schematics, signifying two
telescoping elements.
Class Letters
Since all antennas—no matter how they are constructed
are so similar in function to a coil, many manufacturers
use the letter L to designate them. Others prefer E or M.
SPEAKERS
The speaker is the final link in the chain of stages in a
radio receiver or amplifier and in the sound system o a
TV receiver. Its purpose is to convert the electrical sig
nals, which vary in step with the sound to be repro uce
into the actual sounds. > ruction
148
How TO READ SCHEMATI
BASKET
DUST CAP
MAGNET
SPIDER
9"3'A ,ypica' puWark- —

!hrspI ker SmeVrlt1f!4iS1.COnneCted
h S1 (° the te»™als •
there to the voice coil by leads Thu'P " Can?ed fr°
force set up by the currenrWlT^ magnetlc ,ines '
direction, the voice coil mn ^^ Current flows in 01
piece; when current flows fo'the ^ ^ ^ P°

moves forward. The vnir^ i • . °PPoslte direction,
a highly flexible fiber disc called A 77 ^ b
connected to the cone Ac *u spider, which is als<

does also, alternately expandfnJ°1Ce,Coil moves, the corn
m front of it. Sound waves are nnth ComPressing the ai
rarefied and compressed a i r 1 g m ° r e t h a n cycles 0
ally the disturbances nrodn 'JZ ? soun d we hear is actu-

The size of the cone ff 7 tHe COne-
speaker will reproduce Tn ^ range of tones which the
In general, a smaller cone is better

Fig. 9-4. A two-way (coaxial) hifi

speaker. (Courtesy Quam- Nichols Co.)
for reproducing the higher tones, and a larger cone is bet

ter for the lower tones. Often two or three speakers are
used to reproduce the entire range of tones. Another
approach is pictured in Fig. 9-4. This is a two-way (coax-
lal) speaker, where the large cone at the outside repro
duces the low tones, and the separate (tweeter) unit in the
center reproduces the higher tones.
Symbols
Many different symbols are used for speakers, as shown in
Fig. 9-5. Sometimes the symbol for a single speaker is also
used to depict the coaxial type of Fig. 9-4. At other times,
two speaker symbols enclosed in a dashed-line box may be
employed. Other minor variations of the symbols shown
in Fig. 9-5 may be encountered; however, they will usu
ally resemble those shown in this illustration.
Class Letters
The letters S, SP, SPK, LS, E, and M m
monly employed by the various companies to designate
speakers.
150
How TO READ SCHEMATI
fun«LSO™uldPritefCti°n ^ Pr°Vided' 3 short °r °ther "
ment This protectin^' ^ e""re plece o{ electronic equ

draws too much current T ^ ^ When 3 drC
fUTh™retS' imerrUPting ê exSssive'flow.0" ^ mS'de
Some areêsi^ned °f [USeS 3S indicated in Fig. 9

the rated value. Other.6" the current excee
open if a Slow-b.ow types, do r
rated value flows through them- ifT^' gher tha" '

however, they open or ''bW >'• « TgC *S ProlonSe
Some fuses are enclos<
*
n
c
B
&
Fig. 9-6. Typical fuses and fuse holders. (Courtesy Littelfuse Tracor)
in ceramic, fiber, or Bakelite instead of a glass covering, h

uses may be rated as low as .002 ampere; others are w
designed to withstand several amperes. *
Some fuses have leads extending from their ends so they
can be soldered directly into the circuit. Most of the fuses
in Fig. 9-6 are inserted into holders. Some holders are
shown at the lower left of the photo. Another type of fuse
and holder is shown in Fig. 9-7. Here, the fuse is twisted
to lock in place in the holder. The length of the fuse and
the width of the locking tabs differ according to the rating.
Thus, the wrong size fuse cannot be inserted.
Still another type of fuse resembles a small capacitor. It
may have a value stamped on it or use a color code system
to indicate the value. The same color code is used as for
resistors and capacitors. The first two bands indicate the
first and second significant figures and the third band the
multiplier. The value is in milliamperes. The fourth band,
Fig. 9-7. An „-,ype fuse and i,s holder (Courtesy Bussmone Div.,
McGraw-Edison Co.)
which is wider, indicates the characteristics (e.g., red is

fast acting).
Fuse Symbols
Symbols A and B in Fig. 9-8 are used by nearly every
company to designate fuses. The only difference between
the two is the addition of the circle in B to denote the ter
minals. The symbol at C is sometimes used for a special
type of fuse in which a chemical takes the place of a wire.
b c
s- -a- -s-
D E F
Fig. 9-8. Fuse symbols.
Class Letters
Most companies designate fuses by the letter F on their
schematics, although some prefer M or E. The fuse rating
usually appears on the schematic alongside the symbol
and, if it is a slow-blow type, this fact is noted.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
êHC'rCUit.braker Performs the sam<= function as a fuse
but does not destroy itself in case of an overload It merel
opens two contacts, which are restored by pressing a but
ton or sliding a switch. The circuit breakers !n moden
prdpto'ther famiHar aPPlica"°n of th.
of current as low asTl amperû^ 6 i" Sma" ^
ment. ln electronic equip
breakers: 7JZ andT™^8 °f °Peration

thermal and magnetic. In the thermal type, the
MISCELLANEOUS CoMR>Nexn
the r"1 e3lS 3 mcta* which bends enough to open
value W u Cn l !* c currcnl reaches a predetermined

again bv en,. coo's' l^c contacts can be closet!
netic tvpeÛS >r s^'n8 resct button. In the mag-

sufficient stre ( t , Uroma 8nct (formed by a coil of wire) has
circuit wehngt l° altract onc lê contacts and open
Again, pushi ^ current reaches the prescribed limit.

ever» it will n§ reset button closes the circuit. (How-
o
Unitscombi .' i 'â'n ^ 'he overload still exists.) Some
n( I
. ^'g 9-9 sj1() " 'dermal and magnetic principles.
Clrcuit ov i "nc va"etY circuit breaker. When the
er 0
s> 'he rod pops up and the circuit is
SrfeEEr- I
n51P,ned- A
c°hsn,
' '
a 'he
Vr Va • -
r hon êty is shown in Fig. 9-10. The inter
ne n>'li type 'his unit is given in Fig. 9-1OB. This is
VVêre j, hea,(. ^ hen the current exceeds the stated
(^vi
SPH ben^s V
t beats 'he bi-metal strip to the point
nS to j ' rnovable contact back enough to allow
Ce s
lr'Ppi " ,,n al
n So ! the switch and open the circuit. This
$v. , e t^sed as an on/off switch by manually
ôls sHde switch.
Syrnh
tr, ? b0js _ ,
jj.' at A u are used to represent circuit breakers,
si * th a"d D in Fig. 9-11 denote both ther-
itfl^d v êtk ( 'Vpes. Symbol A is sometimes altered to

pSS^* toT of operation. For example adding a
Sh-Pul, a «*;> curved portion of the symbol as in E
" hni>oh-,vne hreaker. Symbol F indicates a

154
How TO READ SCHEMAT
(A) Appearance.
HOUSING
ACTUATOR
(SWITCH) SPRING
MOVABLE
CONTACT
COVER
TERMINAL (CONNECTIONS, TO CIRCUIT
(B) Internal construction.
F'9. 9-10. A switch-type circuit breaker fCou , A „

Alcoswitch) (Courtesy Aug at/
MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS
155
f
V JL,
in
* C D
> :> |:) ') )

F G \
£
H
P»9- 9-11. Circuit breaker symbols.
The symbols for thermal units are given at H and I in

S- hey combine symbol A with a square or two
artia circles which designate the thermal section. If the
c ion is magnetic, the zig-zag line in J is used instead. A
°i and a switch symbol are combined to depict the mag

netic circuit breaker in K.
Class Letters
The most common class letters for circuit breakers are
> M, RC, and E. Sometimes the letter F is used; this is
a carryover from the designation for a fuse, which the cir
cuit breaker replaces.
LAMPS
Two basic types of lamps are generally used for lighting
dials and other indicators in electronic equipment. e
first is a regular incandescent type similar to a comm
156
flashlight bulb. The other obtains its lighting properties

from a rare gas, such as neon.
Incandescent Lamps
The incandescent lamp is used where illumination, rather
than a warning signal, is needed. For example, many
radio and TV dials have lamps behind them to make the
markings visible. In other equipment, a lamp may be
placed behind a jeweled bead or a switch button which
glows to indicate that the unit is on. The symbols for
incandescent dial lamps are given at A through D in Fig.
-12. The circle depicts the glass envelope of the bulb; the
portion inside the circle represents the wire which gives off
light when heated. Although seldom encountered in elec
tronic equipment, the symbols at E and F represent a
two-terminal and a four-terminal fluorescent lamp, re
spectively. r
A
=©
B C
0 -o =0r0
Fig. 9-12. Incandescent and fluarescen, lamp symbals.
The class letters I R N<N PT _I ^
ous companies for inranr^ ' i' & are used ^ van"
also be employed mCandeSCent lamP*- Other letters may
Neon Lamps
wi1deesra7p!Sofihe0fff0nly 3 S°ftred «hen li, Its

Of two plates called eleT ' 1S 3S a° lndicator- ^ consists
P tes, called electrodes, separated by the neon gas.
157
The symbols for neon lamps (Fig. 9-13) all depict these
tvvo electrodes. The only difference is the manner in which
t ey are drawn and the dot (which always symbolizes gas)
made the envelope. Symbol E is for AC lamps only, and
symbol F is its DC counterpart.
# #- -o- 4b- D
r
ff
s
&
%
F G P»
m
Fig. 9-13. Neon lamp symbols.
e sarê class letters designate neon as well as incan-
cscent lamps. I, B, and DS are the most common. How-

ever, the letters NE (for neon) are also employed.
BATTERIES
Batteries power many types of portable equipment. Essen-
tla y, all batteries consist of two dissimilar materials in a
so ution either plates immersed in an acid (as in the
automobile storage battery) or a carbon rod and a zinc
container with a solid material between them (as in the
ashlight cell). Other batteries employ nickel-cadmium,
Saline-magnesium, and mercury in their construction.
The same symbols are used for all.
A cell, often incorrectly called a battery, is the basic
Un't- A battery is two or more cells used together to pro
v'de the desired voltage or current. For example, a •

v°lt automobile storage battery contains six cells, eac
supplying 2.1 volts. c ii as

The two dissimilar plates form the symbo or" a ' _
shown at A in Fig. 9-14. This symbol is practical y
158
How TO READ SCHEMATIC
r|l|fc ^jjfc Jh-Jh
Fig. 9-14. Battery symbols.
sal in acceptance. The shorter bar represents the negative

plate, and the longer bar the positive plate. Often the
an signs are also included on the symbol as
shown; sometimes, only the " + » sign is included.'
bets of bars are added to depict multicell units, as
shown in B and C—but don't be misled into believing the
number of pairs of bars always conforms to the actual
number of cells ,n the battery. Sometimes it does, but usu-
Svmh°i ^ f°Ur °r fivC sets of bars arc employed.
P Jk'^f? °teS abattery.with taps at various points,
n
rare, however ^ 3 Vanable taP' Such symbols are
Class Letters
SntiilTn.'hT
identifying batteries' on schematics.
B BT' uE' ^ M are m°st fo:
CRYSTALS
hart^ ^ fr°m matCriaJs' such as quartz whic
preLm isU^LToP:h7m°fTreratin,? 3 V°It3ge ^
effect. Conversely, when an altern f f ' he puzoelectr
crystals will bend or twist in T V°lta?e 15 aPPhec

variation Bv cutting synchronization with th
ferent dLembn "LVbv'mS a"d * di'

to it with a metal nlAt 1°"^ e*ectncal connection
crystal c;m le nude io ^ 3 h°,dCr)'-i
rate, called its resonant frequency. ' ' * 3 Cert31r
is required 7t dLâme^rea3''"8' °nIy 3 ^ SmaiI f°rCe

tude oscillations Th quency to obtain large-ampli-
°ns- These oscillations of alternating voltage
159
are often present in the tuned circuit of an oscillator cir

cuit. Since the crystal will oscillate at only one frequency
(determined by its dimensions and cut), the frequency of
1 e crYstal oscillator remains constant. Crystals are also
used as filters for tuning amplifiers so that only a certain

desired band of frequencies will pass and all others will be
rejected.
The three symbols for a crystal given in Fig. 9-15 illus
trate its physical construction. The two bars represent the
0 er, and the rectangle or slanted lines denote the actual
crystal element.
±
EZZ3 1
T" T
c D
Fig. 9-15. Crystal symbols.
C,ass Letters
The class letters Y, M, and X are used by various compa-
nies t0 identify crystals on their schematics.
MICROPHONES
Sound waves, as they exist, cannot be boosted in strength.
• °r can they be mixed directly with the signal at a radio
station and transmitted over the airwaves. True, a mega
phone can direct the sound to a certain point, but the tota
sound power will not be increased. ,
before sound waves can be amplified, they must e
changed into an electrical signal. This signal can t en
Put to a number of uses. For example, it can e ^ a
strength by an amplifier and eonvcnted ac^ o ^ (caUed
speaker, or mixed with a radio or V head of a tape
modulating the signal), or applied to t e
recorder to record on tape
A microphone changes sound waves into a varying elec

trical signal. Its purpose is just the opposite of that of the
speaker discussed earlier in this chapter. A speaker, how
ever, will work as a microphone when properly connected.
In fact, most intercom systems use a conventional speaker
which by proper switching serves as both the microphone
and the speaker.
There are several methods of constructing micro
phones. Fig. 9-16 shows some of the many types of micro-
(A) Dynamic.
(B) Electret.
(C) Crystal.
(D) Ceramic.
*9. »-!«. Typical microphones. (Courtesy As.oi/c Corp.;
phones available. Although the outward appearances arc

similar, the internal constructions differ. The microphone
in Fig. 9-16A is a dynamic or moving coil type, in which a
coil moves in a magnetic field to create a current and
thereby converts sound into electrical waves. As the sound
strikes the diaphragm, the coil movement induces a volt
age into the coil.
Several other construction principles are used for micro-
P ones. The carbon type consists of a brass cup filled with
compressed carbon granules. A diaphragm connected to
1 e cup is moved back and forth by the sound waves. The
movement changes the pressure on the granules, which

c anges the resistance of the granules to a flow of current
rough them. Another microphone operates on the ca

pacitor principle—the sound waves move a plate back and
°rt with respect to a fixed plate and thereby change the
capacitance. The electret microphone in Fig. 9-16B, hav-
lng a very low output, has an amplifier built into the hous-
lng- This microphone also includes a telephone-type dial
aud a dual-tone multifrequency generator in the case so
1 at it can be used to dial the desired station.
he crystal, explained previously, can also be used in

microphones. Fig. 9-16C shows such a microphone. Flere
1 e sound strikes the diaphragm, moving it back and
°rth. The crystal element is connected to the diaphragm

v'a a drive rod. As the pressure from the sound bends the
crystal unit, a voltage is generated. The resulting current,

which varies in step with the sound, is then coupled to the
following amplifier. . .
Some microphones (Fig. 9-16D) employ ceramic ele
ments instead of crystals. They are usually less suscepti e
t0 damage by high temperatures and humidity t an
the crystal units. . nLnnP are

The most common symbols for a symbols
*own at A, B, and C in Fig. 9-17. When these^ ^
are used, the type of microphone (cryst ^ symbol Sym-
is usually designated by a note esi e -c\ dynamic,
hols D, E, and F represent crysta (
Si
na
'HA
D E
i
Ml
Fig. 9-17. Microphone symbols.
m
j«» and capacitor microphones, respectively. The microphone

c symbol is often omitted from schematics because it usually
is not an integral part of the equipment. Instead, only the
terminals to which it is connected are shown.
Class Letters
The class letters M, MK, MIC, or E are the most popular
lor microphones. Often no class letter is used. Instead, the
type of microphone is designated beside the symbol.
TRANSDUCERS
The microphones just described are designed to pick up
sounds that we can hear and convert them to electrical
waves. Other devices are very similar, but are designed to
respond t° sounds we cannot hear. A common example of
control fHt,0n ^ ^ USC °f ultrasonic sounds for remote
ZZ In this aPPIicati°n the unit is called a
"transducer'' Ir"hC micr°Phone- (Actually, the term

flow of pnp f
Cn CS an^ device f°r transferring the
other svstem^Tt?111 ^ °F systems to one or more
sonar nickun TK US' a.SPeaker ls a transducer, and so is a

quite cPomro„TL?vtTThn °f ^ 1°™ £° *
in Fig- Q 1« " now®ver0 The symbols at A, B, C, and D
g- 18 are used to depict ultrasonic transducers. The
A B C
E- ^ D E
•
'
%
Fig. 9-18. Transducer symbols. %
symbol at E is a general type used to represent any trans

ducer that produces an electrical output. As with micro
phones, many materials are used in the construction of
'mnsducers. The type of material may be designated by a
uote beside the symbol.
HEADSETS AND EARPHONES

Like the speakers discussed previously, the headsets and
earphones convert a varying voltage into sound. Some o
them are constructed much like a speaker. Usually, two
c°ils are placed over two pole pieces which are permanent
magnets. These pole pieces attract a metal diaphragm sus
pended over them. As the current through the coi s Jar*^s'
lhe magnetic field it sets up is alternately added °
subtracted from the field of the permanent magne s.
hanging field moves the diaphragm back an
step with the voltage. , or„mir ele-
Other types of headsets have cryst °r,^cusseci pre

sents. They operate like mlcroP °n ng voltage is
viously, except in reverse. That is, which, in turn,
applied to the crystal or ceramic sla
Soves the diaphragm back and forth. earphones are
t-tSol c is *r a doub.e
E F G
Fig. 9-19. Earphone, headphone, and headset symbols.
headset. Additional circles are sometimes placed inside the

symbol, as shown by D. Symbols E and F, a combination
of those in Fig. 9-17 and A in Fig. 9-19, designate a hand
set (a combination microphone and earphone) used in
some telephone and intercom systems. The addition of a
line on the connecting arc in symbol F, as shown at G,
signifies a push-to-talk switch on the handset
PHONO PICKUPS
DmduPcednh Cr,dge îg' 9"20) C°nVertS the vibrations
produced by the variations in a record groove into electri-
Fia '"20- Ph°n° COr,rid^- (Courtesy Shore Brothers, Inc.)

MixmMHx* CoMKwum
ca! signals. It ban & dose 'fttniMfinf* to the micro

phone, where the variations in sound waves air converted
into electrical signals. Many symbols have been deviaed
for depicting the phono cartridge. Since some < art ridges
are monaural and others are stereo, and since some have
one needle and others two, differences in indicating them
are inevitable. Symbols A and B in Fig. 9-21 are similar
excePt lhat B represents a stereo cartridge. Two crystal
cements are shown, but only one needle. Other ways of

indicating crystal or ceramic cartridges arc given by C
1 rou^ E. The symbols at F and G are general symbols,
and a magnetic cartridge is symbolized by H. Symbol D £

can ^so ^ made to signify a magnetic pickup by substi-
B.
luting a coil symbol for the crystal symbol on its body.
sually> when a pickup is not an integral part of the
actual circuit, no symbol is used; instead, a socket into i
w !ch it connects is shown on the schematic.
C,ass Letters
h place of the class letter, an identifying note is often

Paced beside the symbol for a pickup. When employed,
1 e'elters M, P, and PU are the most popular.
Phono co^-Vô'.-
166
TAPE HEADS
In an audio magnetic tape recorder the heads perform
hree functions. The first function is essentially the same
as that of the phono pickup. The head converts the varia
tions ,n the recording to an electrical signal which corre
sponds to the sound that has been recorded. This electrical
I MIL1 signal is then amplified before it is applied to a speaker,
Iff. re the electrical signal is converted to sound. The dif-
(I|li ierence between a tape head and a phono pickup is that on
iff.
to , ™;COrd' varia"°ns are cut in the groove to
I NIK,!' matmet fi U 3 t3pe recordc, a varying
I III*II
netfc n » 'I W the t3pe which holds this mag
netic pattern. As the tape passes the head, a signal is
I*
f
m signafori
signal 1] used
originally ^todrCUit which varies
magnetize the tape
in steP with the
record thes!l provided hV magnetic heads is to
of the nickun" H°" tf tapC ' EssentialJy th's is the reverse

the tie t" 1S 3pplied to the head. As
spondfng to h ? ' 3 VaryinS masnetic field corre-

ame head is Tf " reC°rded °n the tap- Often the
same head is used for recording and playback and the
can be owTand oveÔn '5 Mae"ctic cape

the tape it remains u a Pattern is recorded on
ing it m'contact with™

can be DC or a hiVh fr„ A X magnetic field
common. Most ta^X h C' ^ ^ A° is m0re
contacts the tape just ahead of th 3" hCad Wh'Ch
record mode, this erase h A recordmg head. In the
tape just before the * removes any signal on the

back,Jno exc^tio^Vrao f ^
the recorded signal is not re ^ ^ CraSC head' S°
symbols for tap^recorTg"tII^ ^ 1°^

show a combination of a coil
is similar to the actual
Z J\ 7 '
3 A ad B"
circular element. This
actual construction of a magnetic head, as
-e> -< "->

E F
Fig. 9-22. Magnetic head symbols.
shown in the photo of Fig. 9-23. A coil is sometimes used

y itself to show a magnetic head. Usually a note will be
placed by the symbol to explain its function. The symbols
at A and B in Fig. 9 -22 will usually have an R (record), P
(playback), or E or X (erase) inside the circular portion. If

t e head is used for both recording and playback, an R/P
wiH be used.
Another type of symbol is given at D, E, and F in Fig.

^"22. The one at D, with the arrow pointing away from
the tip, signifies a playback head. The symbol at E is for a
record head, and the "X" in the symbol at F identities an
1 t*
. onol audio magnetic,op. h.od.
Fig. 9-23. Construction o
168
erase head. By combining D and E and having arrows

pointing in both directions, the symbol for a record-play
back head is produced.
The heads used in video cassette recorders perform
essentially the same function as those explained for audio.
1he difference is that more heads are used. There are
heads to record and erase the audio and, in addition, mul
tiple heads to record and play back the picture or video.
Usually the symbols at A and B in Fig. 9-22 are used to
represent each video head.
ROTATING MACHINES
^°Ufh ""J dassified as electronic equipment, motors,
generators, dynamotors, etc., are sometimes included on
JWl
o
MOT
j—CH
A
i r
c
rmQfWi
F,9* 9"24- Motor symbols.

schematic diagrams. Turntables and tape recorders are

examples of equipment using electric motors.
Motors
As shown at A in Fig. 9-24, the basic symbol for a motor

ls an M, the letters MOT, or the word MOTOR placed
alongside or inside the circle.
Where it is desirable to show the connections to the
raotor, symbols B and C may be used. In symbol B, the
ed coil is in series with the armature, while symbol C
s ows it in parallel. (The coil symbol represents the field,
the circle the armature.) Two methods of showing

P onograph motors are illustrated by symbols D and E.
°nie other representative methods are given in F through
J- n each instance, the symbol is drawn to conform with
' ^ mot°r connections. At other times, only a coil symbol
w'Hbe used.
Generators
general, symbols for generators are the same as tor

Rotors, except the letter G, the letters GEN, or the word
Aerator win be used.
SOLENOIDS
41 solenoid is an electrical device which
Mechanical action, such as closing a valve or soun ^
d°°r chime, when a voltage source is connec e
Pushing a button, for example). & movabie hon
A solenoid consists of a coil surroun ' s through the
core attached to a spring. When cv*ire" f into the coil or
c°il, the core is either attracted art ^ ^ the core actu-
repelled partially from it. The move^ when the current
utes the device to which it is connec -nG returns the core to
through the coil ceases to flow, a sp
its original position. , the symbol for a sole-
As you have probably guess ^ ^^ as shown by A
noid is often like that for a c
170
and B in Fig. 9-25. An arrow will sometimes be added, as

s own at C, D, and E to signify the fact that the core is
movable. Other symbols sometimes used are given at F
G, and H.
METERS
Meters are sometimes included in electronic equipment so
if; that operating conditions or other information can be
tl«S
momtored. They are often represented by symbol A in
C
iC ,g' ~7b*. acc°mpamed by identifying letters inside or
II# alongside it An arrow may be added to indicate the
ll»Mi
fvTJw/8 Wn by symbols B a"d C. The same identi
fying letters are used, but alongside the symbol.
type of meter aremm°n abbreViati°nS for iden»<yinS thc
A—ammeter
PI position indicator
AH ampere-hour meter
REC—recording meter
CRO—oscilloscope
SY—synchroscope
D—demand meter
t —temperature meter
DB—decibel meter
TLM—telemeter
F—frequency meter
UA or nA—microammeter
G—galvanometer
V—voltmeter
I—indicating meter
VA—volt-ammeter
MA—milliammeter
VI—volume indicator
NM—noise meter
VU volume-unit meter
OHM—ohmmeter
W—wattmeter
PF—power-factor meter
PH—phasemeter WH watt-hour meter
OTHER SYMBOLS
symbols
ment. Symbol A is for a i . specialized equip-
Ibile radios. It consi t f P tC USed in some automo-
consists of a metal plate placed alongside the
^3
f
H
Fig. 9-25. Solenoid symbols.
A B C
Fig. 9-26. Meter symbols.
^777 Z)C. -0<H

D
A
=•0 =Q H
1 1 K
J _„nBnt symbols.
Fig. 9-27. Miscellaneous com
172
metal case and separated by an insulating material. Three

methods of indicating lightning arresters are shown in B,
G, and D. Symbol E is for a bell, while F depicts a buzzer,
oymbol G is for a telegraph key. Symbol H is for a tele-
grap sounder. The symbol at I is for a thermocouple
temperature measuring device.
The symbols at J and K in Fig. 9-27 represent a delay
e ement used to hold back a signal for a certain period of
!me' 1 hf Slde of the symbol with two vertical lines at K
signifies the input side of the line. An arrow may be added
as shown at L to represent a variable delay element.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
9' wl at 'S the PurP°se of a speaker?
I. What circuit element destroys itself when it
performs its intended purpose?
d. What are the two types of lamps used in
. emertainment-type equipment?
5' NameTh'b6 differenrCe between a ^11 and a battery?
5. Name hree types of microphones.
b. Draw the symbol for a headset.
7. Draw the symbol for a voltmeter.
«. Draw the symbol for a crystal
10 Name ^"7 Symbo1 a"d indicate the P°larity.

' Name 'hree functions of a tape head
10
Connecting the
Components
M components are useless unless they can be inter*
connected. There are many ways to do this. The printed
Clrcuit, in which the connections consist of a metal foil
atlac cc^ (printed) to a phenolic backing, is one of the
m°st popular. The most widely known method of connec-
tIon, of course, is by means of a wire. It can be an actual
^lre 11111 between two points, or the wire (more commonly

C ed âd) of a component. Nevertheless, the two are
ln lcated in the same way on the schematic.
WIRES
As you probably know, a line denotes a wire or a com
ponent lead. There are three methods of showing whether
l w o kads are connected or not. The first is illustrated by
A » Fig. 10-1. The vertical line at the left intersects the
horizontal line, indicating in this system that they r are cun

i t e d Now notice that the W ™ «
cle at the crossover point. The halt cir
wire (called a jumper) hYP^-'^cd at the point where the
In the system at B, the hJrizontal line denotes that the
eft vertical line crosse Conversel no dot at the inter-
two lines are connecte • ^ horizontal lines indi-
section of the right ve
cates no connection. confusing if you don't know
These two systemS.ed A, two crossed lines indicate a
which one is being u
f 4 H
A B C
Fig. 10-1. Three methods of showing connecting and

nonconnecting leads.
connection, whereas in B, they indicate just the opposite.

For this reason, it is always best to carefully study the
schematic first. If jumpers are used at some places, you
know that the crossed lines indicate a connection. Dots at
the point where some lines cross alert you to the fact that
lines crossing without dots do not connect. The system at
C in Fig. 10-1, actually a combination of the two previous
systems, eliminates any chance of confusion. The dot (at
the left) indicates that the two lines connect. To be on the
safe side, the jumper (at the right) is also used to indicate
no connection.
GROUND AND COMMON RETURN

SYMBOLS
The ground symbol is very common on all schematics.
Actually, the term "ground" is a carryover from the early
days of radio when the receiver was literally connected to
the earth (ground). The term "earth" is used in British
terminology to describe this point. A more proper term
wou e circuit return or common return point. Since most
circuits must use a common return nnm. hnw
CONNECTING THE COMPONENTS 175
symbol is used to represent a connection to a structure

that serves a similar function as an earth ground such as
the frame of an air, space, or land vehicle which is not
conductionally coupled to the earth.
The symbol at B in Fig. 10-2 is used to represent the
chassis or frame connection of a piece of equipment, or
the equivalent to this connection for a printed circuit. This
point is what is commonly used for the common return of
electronic circuits. It may be at earth ground potential or
there may be several volts difference in the two points. If
the two are the same, the symbol at A will be used. Also,
while the ANSI standard specifies the symbol A for earth
ground and the one at B for chassis, you will find many
instances where the symbol at A is used for the chassis
connection. Be sure to examine the schematic, and com
pare with the unit to make sure which system is used.
I 1 ^ I
A B C D E
Fig. 10-2. Ground and chassis symbols.
You will also find instances where more than one com
mon return point is used on a given piece of equipment.
In this case, the symbol at C in Fig. 10-2 will e use o
represent a c o m m o n return. A n identifying e t t e r o
number may be put in the open area of the sym ° • e
all points with the same identifying letters (or numbers;

are considered to be connected to this common poin .
'ndustrial circuitry, an A is used within this sym o
Indicate the analog ground and a D for the digital grou .
You will find minor variations of the syrn o sa , ,
and C in Fig. 10-2. For example a solid symbol
D or the symbol at E may be used. Regardless of the sym
b°l> the ones in Fig. 10-2 represent the com
Point for the circuit and all points which have the sa
symbol are physically connected in the equipmen .
176
OTHER METHODS OF DENOTING

CONNECTIONS
Companies are constantly striving to make their sche-
matics easier to read. A long, winding line is most difficult
to o ow around a schematic when the connections are
remote and widely separated. Eliminating as many lines
as possible is one way to simplify a schematic. For exam-
p e, instead of drawing them from the voltage sources in a
power supply to their destinations, an arrangement like
a* ^0-3 can be used. Each source is indi
cate y a dot and labeled with the voltage available at
at point. Then, all other points connected to this source
are indicated by an arrow, circle, or dot and labeled with
the voltage, as shown at B. Coded letters such as A, B,
i. °ccasiona ly are used instead of listing the actual
age. Another method is shown at C in Fig. 10-3. This
em vCnhUtPUt j P°wer supply. The differ-
tapC recorder
boxV AgeS are deS1^nated y ^ 1. 2, and 3 in the black

b
will ha\ P°mt t^lc schematic connected to this point
will have the same black box and number.
and°(Ther°mPan'eS tr"tangles, squares, diamonds,
two points Of>e

g< tric esigns to signify connection between
P ts. Often, the source is indicated by a solid sym-
6.31 V
SOURCE
134 V
R16 220U
47.3 V 6.02 V
SOURCE
8.35 V R11 ^10000 C10|Aj220/iF

4.91 V
SOURCE
134 V
C4 100 nF
f'9« 10-3. Methods of showi

•ng voltage sources.
bol, and the points connected to it by the outline of the

same symbol.
Similar methods have been adopted for designating
connections between points other than voltage sources.
Lsually, letters are employed—all points labeled with the
same letter are assumed to be connected.
Sometimes two points are interconnected by a cable
(several wires bundled together), usually designated by
symbol A in Fig. 10-4. The ring surrounding all wires
presents the outer covering of the cable, and may be
Piaced at each end or in the center. If the cable is shielded,
ground symbol may be added to the symbol at A, as
J 0Wn at B. Also, a dashed circle may be used, or a
^hed line above and below the lines representing the
^res> as shown at C and D. A ground symbol will be
connected to the dashed lines, as shown at C and D.
e same systems are also used for designating a single
shielded lead, as shown by symbols E, F, and G. The

dashed lines at G may extend the entire length of the cable
or wire, or for only a short distance as shown here.
In equipment which contains many connections be
tween various sections and subchassis the system at H in
Fig. 10-4 may be used. This may or may not represent an
actual cable. It is used when several connections must be
made between separated points on the schematic. A line
with a number designation is drawn to a single heavier
line which is drawn around the schematic. Any two points
which are connected are designated with the same num
ber. Thus instead of drawing 10 or more lines between
various points in a schematic, a single heavy line serves
the same purpose and simplifies the layout of the sche
matic making it easier to follow.
CONNECTING DEVICES
Sockets, plugs, and jacks are only a few of the many
ypes o connectors. All have one thing in common—a
points"16111 mCanS for connecting and disconnecting two
of Jhf ,Symbol0for connectors is usually an actual drawing

lte plutVaree
C is an en i •
1^°'*\ a"d C * 10"5 for A'
examples; A and B are side views and
Tor a nrono- ,VIew' Symbol D is for a socket. The symbol
unit (the socket^Th^118^ ,S Sohd> and hollow for the open
combinations (Fie
most plue-anrl cr. i
IOKT T
- ^ °f phg a"d
tYPGS
same system is used lor
P ug and-socket combinations. Fig 10-7 shows only
Fig. 10-6. Various plugs and sockets. (Courtesy Switchcraft Inc., a
Raytheon Co.)
a few of them. In each instance, the symbols show t e

actual arrangement of the plug pins or socket openings.
Fig. 10-8 illustrates five methods of showing connec
tions for single leads. Symbols A and B are for the familiar
I rain I
II©!
llffi! Z>
J Qi
iir«D
Ifilj
f \ f° \
( ° )
V ® •J \o /
Fig. 10-7. Various plug and socket symbols.
phono type plug and socket found on the rear of mat

radio and TV receivers. Symbols C, D, and E all depi
simple one-wire connectors. The arrowhead in symbol
the plug and the remainder is the socket. Symbols
Snst;WdSereS°,id ^^ '
D E
Fig. 10-8. Single-wire connector symbols.
CONNECTING THE COMPONENTS
181
There are many plug and socket combinations as shown

in Fig. 10-9. These sockets and plugs contain so many
connections that it would be difficult to show leads from
all the pins so a different method is usually employed. The
various points may be arranged in a row and each pin and
socket terminal numbered, as shown in Fig. 10-10. At
other times, the individual plug and socket connections
may be indicated separately by the corresponding half of
the symbol like that at C in Fig. 10-8. Each part is labeled
with a designation for the plug or socket and the pin num
ber. For example, the drawing in Fig. 10-11A is a portion
from a schematic of a computer printer which uses this
type of designation. At another point in the literature, a
drawing (Fig. 10-1 IB) is given which shows the actual pin
connections on the socket.
Unless the connections are shown separately as in Fig.
10-11, plugs and sockets are usually not identified by class
letters. When they are, the letters P or PL (for plugs) and
S or SK (for sockets), or X and M are the most popular,
but many others are also used.
Terminals for the connection of antennas, speakers,
ptc., may also be shown on schematics. These may be des
ignated by some of the symbols in Figs. 10-7 or 10-8. At
other times, a drawing of the terminal board may be used.
^lg- 10-12 shows some of the more common ones.
Usually called phone plugs and jacks because of their
original use in telephone switchboards, the units in Fig.
10"13 are also used in many types of equipment. Jacks are
Mailable with two or three connections. In Fig. 10-13A
'he one on the right is a three-connection type. The others
use two-connections. One connection is made to the tip of
'be plug and the other to the long shank portion (called
'be sleeve). In the three-connection type, notice a small
Portion between the tip and the shank is separated by an
'osulator. Another connection is made to this portion
(called the ring). Thus, in a two-connection jack, connec
ts can be made to the tip and the sleeve, and for the
' ree"Connection type, connections can be made to t e tip,
(B) Cable connector.
Mult,conductor connectors. (Courtesy in Cannon)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
Fig. 10-10. One method of 1 <j> ^ i i i i j>_ I? ^

showing multicontact plugs
'!! 1 T T IT T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
CN3
19 CN3
4
17 CN3 6
8
10
12
1 4
16
18
20
22
2 4
26
CN3
SOCKET VIEW
(A) Socket connections on schematic. (B) Drawrng of socket shoWlng pin locations.
Fig. 10-11. A common way to show the connections for a

multiconductor socket.
Fig. 10-12. Terminal symbols. 2 2
e> 2)
(A) Plugs.
(B) Jacks.
"*"M* "i™ ftscfgj <=—r «—
™s;r",r, A in pi?. '• •*

ype, While the one at B is for the three-
CONNECTINC THE COMPONENTS 185
\ r
RING-
SLEEVE'
H I J
Fig. 10-14. Phone plug and jack symbols.
connection type. The different elements are identified in

the drawings.
When a jack is inserted into the plug, connection
made between the plug and the jack. At t e same
°ther connections may be made or removed in the equip
ment containing the jack. Fig. 10-14 shows h
^bols for jacks of'this type. (The arrow show* wtth
^bol C indicates the direction in whichi the Pg
mserted, but is not a part of the symbol.) When in erted,
the tip 0f the plug is connected to the uPPer ( a n d
symbol C and the sleeve to the bar-shaped element (a^
botto™ terminal). In D, the ping;t up and
Portion connected to the upper terminal, h„fnre COn-
disconnecting it from the center terminal, s ,
!** is made between the upper terminal and t p £
Sometimes the plug will cause a contact to
stead of broken, as in symbol E.
The symbols at C, D, and E represent jacks used with

the two-connection type of plug. Jacks for the three-con
nection plug have an additional element as shown at F for
connection to the ring. Many other connections (and dis
connections) can be made when the jack is inserted in the
plug. Some are shown at G through J in Fig. 10-14. For
example, with the jack represented at G, when the jack is
inserted, the tip is connected to the third terminal up from
the bottom. At the same time a connection between the
second and third terminal is broken. Also, a connection
which was being made between the fourth and fifth termi
nal from the bottom is broken. The open-bar type element
between the portion of the symbol representing the tip
connection and the top connection represents a mechani
cal (but insulating) coupling between the two. Therefore,
when the tip connection raises, it also raises the top ele
ment opening the circuit between it and the contact below
it. Other combinations are shown at H, I, and J. For any
jack, just look at the way it is laid out and then analyze
what happens when the plug is inserted. There will be
minor variations in the way the elements are drawn but all
will resemble those of Fig. 10-14.
Like sockets, jacks and plugs are usually not assigned
class letters. But if they are, the letter J is the most popu-
ar for jacks and P or PL for plugs, although X and M are
sometimes used.
PRINTED CIRCUITS
In most types of modern electronic equipment, the w,
named ^ by 3 printed circuit Appropriate
to l h r P T' b°ard COmprises a Phenolic ba

tive pattern 5 ors are -printed" with a condu
wiri ; . '«« advantage is that tedious har

mass produced"!^ necf?sary- r«stead, the circuits can 1
quicker and more "eliaNe*' hj?"3]™ ^
Compactness i„ equipment' d^Ts
printed circuitry. In circuits where the placement of leads

is critical, the printed circuit offers the advantage of all
circuits being identical—a goal that can never be exactly
accomplished with hand wiring.
The connections made by the printed wiring are shown
in exactly the same manner as with hand wiring. If only
part of the circuit is printed, that portion may be outlined
by a dashed line and identified as such. Ways of identify
ing the different points of the printed-wiring board will be
discussed in Chapter 14.
COMPONENT COMBINATIONS
Two or more components are often contained within a
single unit. This is done to save space, cut cost, and pre
vent interaction between components (thus forestalling a
malfunction).
Coil and Transformer Combinations

Various combinations of components are
for example, a c o i l m a y b e w o u n d d i r e c t l y o v e r a r es i s ,
0r a capacitor may be connected across one or o
ings
of a transformer. The schematic rePre*ent*?° _re
^se two units, as well as other popular combina 1 ,
ên in Fig. 10-15. The symbols may be enclos
dashed-line box which signifies that all compone ^
11 ê pan of an individual combination unit.
ground symbol connected to the box in from the
t the components within the box are s ie cannot
** of the circuit. That is, stray magnetic fields camm
enter or leave the box. This shielding is c^n.
metal cover (or can as it is commonly calle )

nected to ground. . in Fig.
Some of the other combinations are a so ancj Q
JJ"15- The units represented by symbo s , ^' a

^ contain a coil and capacitor. Symbo bol E>
fpacitor connected directly across a coil. capacitor.

* cou is also in parallel but with a variable capac
188
nmmr tl
-VW-
x T
T
wmn : WW
-if-
j i
—4-JTWTL_^fJ_
-4_fWWL_|£j_
tl
x
//
Various CO, I and transformer combination symbols.

The coils and capacitors in F and G are connected in

series.
The transformer in symbol H has a resistor connected
across one winding and a capacitor across the other.
Many other similar combinations are possible. Symbol I
represents a transformer, three capacitors, a coil, and a
crystal diode—all occupying a single can. Notice that the
dashed lines extend all the way around the crystal diode,
signifying that the diode itself is entirely enclosed by a sep
tate can. Usually the diode is mounted in two clips on
top of the regular can, over which a metal cover is placed
to shield the diode.
This same dashed-line symbol with the ground con
nected to it is used in many ways to designate a shield.
As mentioned previously, when drawn around a lea or
group of leads, it represents a shielded wire or cab e.
other times, it may be placed around a tube sym 0 0
denote that a shield is placed over the tube after it has
heen inserted into its socket. . ,
The various companies differ considerably in t e ^
letters by which the foregoing units are designate .
assign the same L or T that they do for a regular c
transformer, but leave the resistors and capaci or
signed. If more than one coil is include , t ey a
classified with an A, B, C, etc. Other companies assign
class letters to the individual components jus
were separate units.
Packaged Electronic Circuits

The units pictured in Fig. 10-16 include several indiv^;
ual components. These devices contain va"
coils>
lions of resistors, capacitors, and in some i1 . ' '
ah bound to a base plate and sealed w.th a protecttve cort
'ng. Such units are extremely resistant to mo.sture, tern
Pâture, and shock. reoresented schematically by
Ihese units are usually repre combi-
u®g regular resistor and Cap^C,t^ Tines to indicate they
d
nation is then enclosed within dashed
Fig. 10-16. Packaged electronic circuits. (Courtesy Centralab Inc.,

a North American Philips Co.)
« T
R«. 10-17. Packaged electronic circuit symbols.
are contained in a single unit. Each lead is numbered at

the point where it extends from the dashed lines. There
are myriad units employing this type of construction.
Each will vary only in the number of components, their
connection, or their value. Fig. 10-17A through G shows
some of the available combinations.
The dashed lines around the components in the unit are

sometimes omitted. Occasionally, the symbol at H in Fig.
'0-17 may be used instead of showing the actual internal
connections. It may or may not be enclosed within dashed
^nes- The internal connections are usually shown else-
where on the schematic.
There are several methods of assigning class letters to

^ Packaged units. Some companies will assign one
ese
class letter (A, E, K, M, N, X, PC, PN, DC, or RC) to

entire unit. Others will assign the letters R and C to
'he unit, and designate the individual components as A,
' pi etc. Still others may combine the two met ,
^signing a class letter and a number to the entire urn
,hen designating the individual components within i
re?ular R ancj Q designations.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
'• Why is it advantageous to show all voltage sources^
together and then indicate the points which
to them? .
2l Does a symbol which has a solid black dot represe
the socket or the plug portion of the unit.

' Are the terms "ground" and "chassis
Anonymous? , . . ,:nP
' What is designated by a line with a dashed ^^
above and below it and a ground connec
, "[the dashed lines? . , ^-Hcs?
" How are printed circuits shown in sc e
' Hame two advantages of using componen
combinations.
What does a dashed line around a component (or

group of components) with a ground symbol
connected to it indicate?
What does the letter A or B following the class letter
and number of a component usually indicate?
Show two methods of illustrating crossing wires
which are not connected.
Show two ways of depicting an AC line-cord plug.
11
Combining the
Components
In the preceding chapters, we have discussed practically
every component used in electronic equipment and the
methods of connecting them. We have also shown how
several components are sometimes combined in a single
unit. Before any of these components can serve a useful
purpose, however, they must be connected to form a cir
cuit.
What is a circuit? A circuit is a combination of compo
nents connected in such a manner as to perform a spe
cific function. . ,
A passive circuit is one which does not contain a tu e,
transistor, or IC; it is merely a combination of resistors,
capacitors, and coils. In certain applications, such a cir
cuit can perform many useful functions. For e*ar™P e.' .
quencies below a certain point will pass throug t e circ
Fig. IM A and on to the following circuity The signals
above a certain frequency are shunted ( ypaS^ ^ .
ground by the capacitors. The opposite is true of the c
cuit in Fig. 1MB. This is a high-pass filter. Mow_ a
tain frequency, the signals are shunted to groun
tbe coils; signals above this frequency are passed on to
next stage.
There are many passive circuits, or CO"^^ât1l°âcjl
they are sometimes called, like the ones in ig- •
Performs a definite purpose in the overal opera
llnif
unit.
193
/WTL
T
-o o
I -o o-
(A) Low-pass filter. (B) High-pass filter.
Fig. 11-1. Two passive circuits.

I®. _ ' W ^ ^
1 f*
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
§ Perhaps the simplest circuit is the rectifier circuit shown in
Fig. 11-2. Recall that in order for a diode to conduct, the
anode must be more positive than the cathode. Then elec
trons will flow from the cathode to the anode. The anode
is connected to an alternating voltage. Hence, during the
periods when the anode is positive, electrons flow from the
cathode to the anode. However, these electrons must
come from somewhere. They flow from ground up
through R3, then through R2 to the cathode. Since elec
trons flowing through a resistor produce a voltage drop
across it, a voltage (which will be positive at the top) will
be produced across R3. This voltage will also be present
on capacitors Cl and C2.
During the period when the alternating voltage on the
anode is negative, the diode does not conduct. But since
t e primary purpose of a capacitor is to store electrons,
capacitors Cl and C2 will hold the charge previously
placed on them and maintain the voltage relatively con-
t£ant u t>q' "t:ile *S aPPêd to the anode, the current
through R3 R2> CRl, R, ;s Dc This .§ ^
of the rectifier the AC has been converted to DC. The
VOLTAGE
F,fl- 11-2. A typical rectifier circuit.

COMBINING TOE COMPONENTS 195
voltage at the output of the rectifier is used to power the

tubes or transistors in the unit. While in most applications
the circuit will be more elaborate than the one in Fig. 11-
2, the principle is the same. Transformers, additional
resistors, capacitors, etc., will be added to the circuit to
While seldom encountered in modern electronic equip

ment, older tube circuits are still in use. Also their opera
tion provides a good theory background for modern cir
cuits. Fig. 11-3 shows the basic triode amplifier circuit.
The plate of the tube is connected (through resistor ) o
the DC B+ voltage. This could be the voltage at the out-
put of the circuit of Fig. 11-2. In Fig. 11-3A an AC signed
is applied to the left plate of capacitor CI. Since an
signal will, in effect, pass through the capacitor, 1
B+
(A) Using RC coupling.
B+
(B) Using transformer coupling.
Fig. 11-3. Grounded-co.hode amplifier circuits.

appears at the grid of the tube. As explained in Chapter 5,

this signal will be amplified by the tube and appear at the
plate. Capacitor C2 couples the amplified signal to the
next tube (or stage as it is called in electronics terminol
ogy).
The circuit in Fig. 11-3A is called a resistance-capaci

tance coupled (RC) circuit. A transformer-coupled circuit
»
t
m
• irtolr
is given in Fig. 11-3B. Its operation is similar to that of
the circuit in Fig. 11-3A. The transformer secondary and
t A,
CI are tuned so that only a narrow band of frequencies
J ft, will pass. Therefore, only the desired frequencies are cou
pled to the grid of the tube. The amplified signal appears
at the plate and is coupled via T2 (which is tuned by C2 to
IK the desired frequency) to the next stage.
i
Another type of circuit is given in Fig. 11-4A. The sig
nal is coupled to the grid of the tube via CI—the same as
in Fig. 11-3A. However, here the similarity ends. Notice
that the plate is connected directly to the B + voltage
source. However, any signal at the plate will be bypassed
to ground by the filter capacitors in the power supply-
so notice R2 and C2 are connected to the cathode. In
t is circuit, called a cathode follower, the signal is developed
across resistor R2 and coupled to the next stage by C2. No
R1
C1 ±z
B+
R2
(A) Cathode-follow,er circuit.

Fia 11 A TL ^ Grounded-grid circuit.
Th° c<"Hod.-,
ol,owe, and grounded-grid circuits.
COMBINING THE COMPONENTS 197
gain is accomplished in this circuit; in fact, there will be a

slight loss. But, in certain applications, the cathode fol
lower has advantages over the amplifier circuits of Fig.
11-3.
Another version of the triode amplifier, called a
ôunded-grid amplifier, is given in Fig. 11-4B. The signal
is applied to the cathode, and the output is at the plate in
this circuit. As you can see, the grid is not actually con
nected to ground as implied by the name. However,
capacitor Cl connected between the grid and ground
serves as a bypass capacitor and removes any variations in
the voltage which might occur at the grid.
Other Circuits
There are many variations in the foregoing basic circuits.
Tetrode or pentode tubes are employed. Except or
added components for the screen circuit, operation is a
rally the same as for the triodes given here. Norm y'
s'gnal is applied to the grid. The changes in t e gri
age caused by this signal increase or decrease the number

°f electrons which flow through the tube rom Dlate
Plate. Thus, the number of electrons flowing out p ^
and through the plate load (i.e., the rests or with
former winding connected to the Plate^ctVrêflow produces

the signal on the grid. This varying e ^ drop is cou_
a varying drop across the plate loa , at the grid
P t0 the next stage. Since a sm the signai is
produces a much larger change at th p
said to be amplified. a triode, tet-
T he foregoing is true no matterspecial cir-
rode, or pentode tube is used. Th
change the form of
euits which generate their own sig ' fuer functions.
4e app,ied signal, and of this

How these circuits operate is y electrons
book. Suffice it to say that the sam ^ ^ flow
flowing from cathode to plate, " a
he cathode and
bemg affected by the elements betwee
Plate, still applies.

Tube Voltages
All tube voltages are measured with respect to the cath
ode. Often the cathode is connected to ground; at other
times it is connected through a small-value resistor to
ground. In the first instance, the actual voltage at the
cathode is zero; in the latter, it is a few volts positive. It
makes no difference what the actual cathode voltage is—it
could be — 100 volts or -I- 100 volts—as long as the volt
ages on the other elements are maintained in the proper
relationship.
The grid is usually a few volts negative with respect to the
cathode. The actual amount varies with different tubes.
oth the plate and the screen are positive with respect to
the cathode. Normally this difference is from 100 to 200
vo ts, but it can be more. Usually the plate is slightly more
positive than the screen grid, but sometimes the two volt
ages are the same, and in certain instances, the screen is
more positive than the plate. The suppressor grid is usu
ally connected to ground or to the cathode; hence, at most
there will be only a few volts difference between it and the
cathode.
BASIC BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

CIRCUITS
transist°r amplifiers can be connected in thr
com mo WT 1 C common emitter, common base, ar

tors are" C° ' smce ôth pnp and npn transi
let's look 7t u " Umber of Nations is doubled. No
howthe^perre °f ^ ^ ™ and s,
The Common-Emitter Circuit

A t circuit using a p„p transistor is give
sistor is given in nsTl ^ "P" ™
terpart—the amnn^ j , ' lts vacuum-tube coun
grounded-cathode amplifier-,he common
COMBINING THE COMPONENT* 199
emitter circuit is the most popular. First look at Fig.

11-5A. The signal is coupled via CI to the base ol transis
tor Ql. R1 and R2 establish the proper operating voltages
on the base, and R3 establishes the operating voltage on
the emitter. The amplified signal appears across R4 and is
Fig. 11-5. C o m m o n - e m i t t e r circuits.
circuit in Fig. 11-5B is the nPnJC^°transistor via

Again, the signal is couPê appears across
id the amplified version of t S
1 is coupled via C3 to the in Fig. 11-
only difference between ^ battery is con.
e type of transistor and tn y
nected in the circuit. (The operating voltages will be dis

cussed later.)
The Common-Base Circuit

The two circuits in Fig. 11-6 show the pnp and npn ver
sions of the common-base circuit. The input signal is cou
pled to the emitter of the transistor via Cl. The amplified
signal appears across R3 and at the collector of the transis
tor. Here it is coupled to the next stage via C3.
(A) Pnp. (B) Npn.
Pig. 11-6. Common-base circuits.
th ^s'stor establishes the correct operating voltage a

the base. Note however, that this resistor is bypassed b)
capacitor . Thus C2, by alternately storing and releas
h"! ™ ' removes anr variations and maintains the
5
far as ,t! co"sta"t v°ltage. Since the voltage is constant at

This is ^ S,g" V°ncerned> « is at ground potential,
fier d sr T"6 ^ the grounded-grid tube-type ampli-
t n F^ H fi prevtously. As in Fig. 11-5. the two circuits

and the polarhyof th^te^' f°r °f tra"SiSt°r
The Emitter-Follower Circuit
cêdTe emitter-follower (also

I
(B) Npn.
Fig. 11-7. Common-collector circuits.
>rQl, and the output signal appears acrossemitterres.s-

>r R3. Then it is coupled via C3 to the following stage.
«istors R1 and R2 establish the proper ope g

Se a, the base of the transistor. R4 P °™
erf
action at the collector but, like the base of th p

lrcuit, the collector is bypassed by a cap
a{
fcnce, as far as the signal is concer"e '
ff s in the two
r°und potential. Again, the only d
larity of the
rcuits are the transistor type and P
attery.
Voltages
As we have pointed out in each of the basic circuits, the
negative terminal of the battery is connected (through a
resistor) to the collector of a pnp transistor, while for an
npn transistor the battery connection is reversed. Unlike a
tube, in which electrons always flow in one direction (from
cathode to plate), the electron flow through the two types
of transistors is in opposite directions.
Electrons always flow from the negative terminal of a
battery, through the circuit, to the positive terminal. In a
pnp transistor electrons flow from collector to emitter;
hence, the collector must be the most negative point. The
base is maintained a few tenths of a volt negative with
respect to the emitter. Therefore, the emitter has the most
positive voltage of any of the elements.
The opposite is true of the npn transistor. Here the elec
trons must flow from the emitter to the collector. There-
ore, the emitter is the most negative point. The base is a
ew tenths of a volt positive with respect to the emitter,
and the collector is the most positive point.
FET CIRCUITS
Like tubes and bipolar transistors, there are three basic
amplifier circuits. Also, like bipolar transistors, there
are two types of junction FETs-n-type and p-type.
J f St 3 1P°âr transistor is primarily a current-oper-
ae evice. The FET, like the vacuum tube, is primarily
a voltage-operated device.
Common-Source Amplifier
Katsr~e aniplif,t;r is siven Fig- 1P8-

ine is established ype JunctI™ pET is used. Proper bias-
FET a "ch» i>>y S°.urce resistor R2. Recall that in an
and that a voha betWeen the drain and source
to decrease or increase Ihus° ff" ^ tH'S Cha"nel

us affecting the flow of electrons
through the channel. Thus, in Fig. 11-8A, an AC signal is

applied to the circuit via C1. A varying voltage is devel
oped across Rl, which causes the gate voltage to increase
or decrease. This varying voltage causes the channel
between the source and drain to vary. Electrons flowing
up through R2 to the source, and through the channel to
the drain, are affected by this change in the channel. A
small change in the gate voltage causes a much larger
change in the current from the drain to the source. There
fore, an amplified signal appears at the drain and is cou
pled to the following stage via C4.
0!
C4
C1 H
R3
R1
4
R2<
C2 C3
h
-V
(B) P-type-
(A) N-type.
Fig. 11-8. Common-source FET amplifiers.
The circuit in Fig. 11-8B is the same ,'*X<fcon.

1-type junction FET is used. Notice that the d
"«ed to a negative supply. Operation is the sam
% 11-8A, except all voltages and currents are reversed.
Common-Gate Amplifier
The circuits in Fig. 11-9 are for a common -gate amph etc
Here the stgnal is applied via CI to the
^te is connected to ground so it ^tays^ ^ incoming
s°urce voltage will vary in accordanc ^ .g the same
S1gnal and since the gate is constan ,
is heid con-
35 if the gate voltage varied and the
t the drain
s'ant. Therefore, the amplified signal appear
a"d is coupled to the following stage via

X1 C3
rW
a / Û-
;
C1 R2
»
* If
It
'
R1«
J4M
J
+v
(A) N-type. (B) P-type.
Fig. 11-9. Common-gate FET amplifiers.
Common-Drain Amplifier
^7^' ^ illustrates the common-drain amplifier. Thi
circuit is also called a source follower. No voltage gain i:
obtained from this circuit. There will, however, be a cur
rent gain. In Fig. 11-10, the drain is effectively at grounc
(A) (B) P-type.

F.g. 11-10. Common-drain FET amplifiers.
removes3^6,;!8",31 " COnce™ed since capacitor (

Znal fT TIT™5 from 'his element. T1
is taken from the C°Up ed to the Sate via CI. The outp
following stage. S°UrCe and couPled through C3 to tl
Other FET Circuits

There are many other circuits using FETs. They may use
transformer coupling instead of the resistors and capaci
tors shown in Fig. 11-8 through 11-10. Other configura
tions may be used for oscillators and other applications.
SUMMARY
The circuits discussed in this chapter are the basic ampli
fier circuits. In Chapter 14, we will see how these circuits
are modified for use in actual practice. The basic princi
ples outlined in this chapter apply to all the circui s
regardless of the refinements.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1- What is the purpose of a rectifier?
2- What is a passive circuit? .•
3. In which direction do electrons flow through a diode
when the anode is negative with respect o
4. Whafat the two basic types of bipolar trustors?

5. Which of the basic tube circuits pro uc
6- In which direction do electrons flow through an np
transistor? . , _ reference
1- What element of the tube is used as
point for voltage readings? fr,nsistor circuits?
8- What are the three basic bipo
9. What are the three basic FET C'r® ^ flow?
10. From what terminal of a battery do electro
12
Flowcharts
A flowchart consists of a series of symbols that graphically
represent the solution to a problem. In a sense a flow
chart is a block diagram, but with different shape oc s
to represent different types of functions.
A flowchart is the first step in planning a computer pro
gram. By determining the steps needed and plotting
°n a flowchart, the programmer can make sure t e pro
gram will produce the wanted results.
COMMON SYMBOLS
The most common symbols used in 12-1A
hated in Fig. 12-1. The processing symbol of Fg-
"an represent one or more instructions for any y . f
cess that will change the value, form or location of m or
mation. For example, addition subtraction,*
h°n, division, or moving data from P
are all represented by the P^^fg^dicates that a com-
The decision symbol in Fig. 1^- t<! a DOint
Parison is to be made. Usually this S.
where two values are compared to ^ ^ ^
Ihen, depending on the result, tn
Point or another. lC repreSents any
. The input/output symbol oi r y make the data
'nput/output (abbreviated I/0) ®V'ê resuit of the pro-
avadable for processing or to sho of some type,
ressing. This could be a keyboard, a sen
207
or any other device that could supply an input signal, or it

could be a CRT screen, printer, or some other type of
output indicating device.
The terminal symbol of Fig. 12-ID is used to show a
start, stop, halt, delay, or interrupt in the flow. The con
nector symbol of Fig. 12-IE represents an exit or entry to
another part of the flowchart or a junction in a line of
flow. A set of two connectors is used when it is necessary
iffl' to break the chart because of page length or other limita
'«*
tions. This symbol also is used at a point where two or
il%
more flow lines join with one flow line, or one flow line
eft
in**. branches to two or more flow lines.
!fc
ifi
(A) Processing. (B) Decision. (C) Input/output.
o o 11
( ) erminal. (D Connector. (}?) Direction arrows.
Fig. 12-1. Common flowchart symbols.
TYPICAL FLOWCHART
lisf of customWS 3 typ'ca^ flowchart. Suppose you have
same time you would lik Z'P C°deS' At
tomers in this zip code Such™"?' number of CUS
for a mailing to a certain H * !f d be convenien

flowchart start at tH » esired area. To analyze the
by the input/output symbol t h ' ^ StCP'
gram then makes a decision' iT U F** 1§ rCad' THe pT°'
• It checks to determine if this
FLOWCHARTS 209
is the end of the file (of course on startup it won't be, but
it must be checked each time). Since initially the answer is
no," another decision is made: Is the zip code equal to
the one being searched for? If so, the address is printed
out and a 1 is added to the accumulated total of the
addresses counted. Then, the next address is read and the
series starts over. If the zip code is not equal to the one
Fig. 12-2. A typical flowchart.
=ing searched for, the program bypasses thejj>™tin8 °f

le address and the adding to the tota1, andthejiext
idress is read. This process contmocsun
le" is read. Then the total number of ^dresses for the
P code being searched is pr.nte ou ^ for a djf_
^ds. The entire program can the
rent zip code.
210
OTHER FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

Most flowcharts are drawn using only the symbols in Fig.
12-1. However, there are other symbols that may be
encountered in certain specialized flowcharts. These sym
bols are usually for more elaborate flowcharts used with
mainframe computer systems and are shown in Fig. 12-3.
The symbol in Fig. 12-3A is for a punched card, while
the ones at Figs. 12-3B and C signify a deck of cards and a
file of cards, respectively. The symbol at Fig. 12-3D rep
resents any type of online storage device such as a mag
netic tape, drum, or disk. The symbol at Fig. 12-3E is for
a magnetic tape (reel), while the one at Fig. 12-3F is for a
punched tape. A magnetic drum is symbolized at Fig. 12-
(A) Punched card.

r(B) Deck of cards.
r(C) File of cards.
(D) Online storage. (E) Magnetic tape. (F) Punched tape.
(G) Magnetic drum.

(H) Magnetic disk. (I) Core.
(J) Document.
(K) Manual input.
(L) Display.
Fig. 12-3. Specialized

211
FLOWCHARTS
3G, a magnetic disk at 12-3H, and a magnetic core at Fig.

12-31. The symbol in Fig. 12-3J represents a document as
the medium for an input/output device.
A manual input, such as a keyboard, push buttons, or a
switch setting is indicated by the symbol of Fig. 12-3K.
The symbol in Fig. 12-3L is used to represent an input/
output function in which the information is displayed for
observation at the time of processing. This could be an
(M) Communications link.

V
(N) Offline storage.
(O) Predefined process.
OTAVwfu.. (0) Manual optratifm. (R) Auxiluty operation.
(S) Merge.
A
(T) Extract.
(U) Sort.
(W) Multiple symbol (punched tape).

(V) Collate.
flowchart symbols.
online indicator, video device, console printer, plotter, or

similar device.
If telecommunications is used to connect between two
points of the operation, the symbol at Fig. 12-3M is used
to show the communications link. When information is
stored offline, that is, separate from the main computer
operation, the symbol in Fig. 12-3N is used, regardless of
the storage medium. The symbol in Fig. 12-30 is for what
is termed a predefined process symbol. This process will
contain one or more operations or program steps, such as
subroutines, which are performed elsewhere (not on this
flowchart).
The preparation symbol at Fig. 12-3P represents modi
fication of an instruction or group of instructions which
change the program itself. Examples are the setting of a
switch, modifying an index register, or initializing a rou
tine. The manual operation symbol in Fig. 12-3Qis used
for any offline process geared to the speed of a human
being, while the auxiliary operation symbol at Fig. 12-3R
represents an offline operation performed on equipment
no*under tîe direct control of the central processing unit.
I he merge symbol at Fig. 12-3S represents the combin

ing o two or more sets of items into one set, while the
extract symbol in Fig. 12-3T represents the removal of
• ne or Ijnore sPecific sets of items from a single set of
items. The sort symbol of Fig. 12-3U is used to show the
"I"18 int° a SPecific order- The collating of
r ' at is, t e formation of two or more sets of items
of Fig ^2 3ym0re 0têr sets 1S represented by the symbol
oneratir^n ^°W'n^ a s|ngle symbol and describing the

Fig 12-3W ' htCXt' miJh'Pê symbols such as the one in
the other ran °n^ symh°l offset and overlaid over
files or media Th t(\ show tIle creation of multiple
.ape;°wt:r T0htLr:vleo.here is tmu]t,p,e punched

multiple printed rennn Can overlaid to show
card files, etc. ma gnetic tape reels, punched
FLOWCHARTS 213
SUMMARY
Flowcharts, as you can see, are important tools to use in
showing any operation. Since the symbols are standard
ized they can be understood by others. Thus, instead of
the necessity for long detailed descriptions of an opera
tion, a quick graphic picture is all that is needed. Flow
charts are invaluable in planning operations. For exam
ple, before the writing of any computer program is
attempted, a flowchart should be drawn to make sure eac
operation is performed in order and that a necessary step
has not been inadvertently omitted. The same proce ures
can be used in planning any operation.
QUESTIONS
(All questions refer to the common signals and n
specialized ones used in mainframe operations.) ?
!• How does a flowchart differ from a b oc iag

2- In what field are flowcharts most common y
3- Draw the flowchart symbol for processing.
1 Name three items that can be represented by the
>- -v •
6- What usually occurs when the symbol of Question
7. Dra^he symbol that would be used to represent a
B. show a keyboard on a
flowchart? Draw it. . wuere the

9- What symbol is used to show a Poin
program branches to another Pr°|QW the end Gf a
Draw the symbol that is use

program.
13
Digital Circuits
Digital electronics has quickly become an important part
modern electronic circuitry. Microcomputers are prob-
J ly the most apparent use of this digital circuitry today.
ut digital circuitry has many other applications in mod-
ern e'ectronics, for example, in two-way radio, test equip-
ment, audio recordings, and even TV receivers.
DIGITAL BASICS
To understand digital circuitry, you must first understand
!Je nature of digital data. Digital circuitry makes use of
1 e binary number system. Instead of the ten digits
through 9 used in the familiar decimal numbering system,

onlV two digits—0 and 1—are used in the binary number-
ln§ system. Since only two digits are neede , a ina
number can be represented by a simple on o , o
low state.
T F-
Fl|. 13-1 shows the concept of a
switch,
.IA' a simple circuit consisting of closed for one
a lamP is shown. Suppose the swi c
ig repeated
second and then opened for a secon . 13-IB.
[°ur times, the result would be as showr\ iamp. Then,
nitially there would be no voltage across across the
when the switch is closed, the 6 vo ts a across the
amP; opening the switch aSal" pr°„y? represent a 1 and
0
lar*p. The 6-volt pulses could be used
hich can show
P
0-volt points a 0, so we have a system wh

1,1 r>
6-VOLT :±
BATTERY
I
LAMP
(A) Series circuit.
6 VOLTS
_j~L_n_n_rL
(B) Pulses produced by opening and closing switch.
,JT
,JL
(C) Parallel circuit and resulting pulses.
Fig. 13-1. The digital concept.
the two digits of the binary number. We could just as ea

Uy use the positive pulses to represent the 0 and the 0-vc
points tel. The former case, where the positive pul
represents a 1, is called positive logic. If a zero represent
i e ' would have negative logic. Both systems are usei
u we wi con ne our discussion to positive logic circuits

l Y PracJlc digital circuit, of course, the switch won
inJsH 71CianCl operate at a very high speed. Ant
instead of a lamp, another device would be used. Ju
min , a digital signal consists of a series of puls<
217
DOTAL Cntcum
which have two states to represent the two digits of a

binary number. The pulses are either high or low there
is no in between. Fig. 13-1C shows how this on-oil tech
nique can be used to represent a number. Here the top
switch is closed, so the lamp is on—representing a 1. The
next switch is open—representing a 0. 1 he last two
switches are closed, the lamps are on, so each represents a
'•Putting these together we have 1011, which is tie
binary number equivalent to the decimal number 11.
Digital circuitry is involved with the manipulation o
P^ses as shown here. These pulses can be one after t e
olher as shown in Fig. 13-1B; this is called serial data. 11
'bev occur simultaneously as shown in Fig. 13-1C, it is

calledparallel data. In a digital device, such as a computer,
a series of these pulses called bits make up a binary wor
adigital device, all binary words must be the same eng
^ can be 4, 8, 16, or more bits long and can be use

serially as in Fig. 13-1B, or in parallel as in Fig- •
vhile diodes and transistors can be used to mam ,
êse bits, in modern circuitry ICs are used a mos
Jlvely. Instead of showing the actual circuitry use g
lorm an operation, special symbols to show w a
uged
t0 the pulses as they travel through the circui ry
the
'"stead. In digital electronics, the interest is ^ eyen

transistors, diodes, resistors, etc., within t e effect the
'be IC itself. Instead, the interest is on Tjsuaily sev-

ev'ce will have on the pulses applied to •
eralsuch devices are included in one IC. ^ more binary
A digital logic element will have j0gic element

data inputs that are to be Proc^ssJ '
and produce an
w>" process this data in a specihe ^ logic element
aPpropriate output depending on t e
involved.
BUFFERS AND ,NVE^S

mportant
In digital circuits buffers and circuit, matching

Unctions in connecting two pa
two stages, and providing the proper polarity signal to the

following circuit.
Buffers
The primary purpose of a buffer is to couple two circuits
or to provide a higher current to a stage such as might be
necessary to charge a capacitor. In a buffer there is no
inversion of the signal. That is, the output will be at its 1
state if—and only if—the input is at its 1 state. The sym
bols for a buffer are given in Fig. 13-2A. The distinctively
shaped symbol at the left is more common in the U.S.;
however, this symbol is not the one recommended by the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). They
recommend the square symbol at the right. This is also
true of the symbols which follow in this chapter. The dis
tinctively shaped symbols are more common in the U.S.,
but the IEC recommendation is the square or rectangular
symbol with an identifying number and/or symbol.
The chart in Fig. 13-2B is called a truth table and is a
common method used to show the operation of binary cir
cuits. The letters A and Y on the symbol in Fig. 13-2A are
not part of the symbol. They have been placed here (and
on the symbols which follow) to identify the inputs and
outputs for the truth tables. In a truth table a "1" is used
to represent a high or on condition, also called a true condi
tion. A 0 represents a low or off condition, also called a
false condition.
INPUT OUTPUT
A Y
0 0
1 1
(A) Symbols.
(B) Truth table
^9. 13-2. The buffer.
is in the truth table of FiS- 13-2B, if the input at
0 This f°rUV'S &

e 'nput is a 0, the output is
Thts satisfies the definition of a buffer given previous!
219
We the truth table is rather obvious for the buffer of

13-2A, for more complicated circuits it becomes a
'try handy tool useful in analyzing the operation ol the
bice. land
w.
Inverter
digital inverter does just what its name implies. That is, lating
coutput is the inversion or opposite of the input. The
1695
^bols for an inverter (also called an inverted buller) arc
and
?yen in Fig. 13-3A. Note they are the same as shown pre-
»y
H for the buffer except for the small circle added at
- output. This circle at the output indicates an inver
Jn also called negation. This circle can also appear at
;
c inPUt of this and other symbols which incorpoi ate
:Sation symbol.
95
(B) Truth table.

(A) Symbols.
Fig. 13-3. The inverter.
Tl tt* 1 shows the

oe truth table for the inverter of rig- out-
Jeration of the inverter. If the input at K input, the
J at Y will be a 0; conversely, with a a erter is the
JtPut will be a 1. Another name for
^ gate.
GATES
gitai processing
There are six bas.c gate c ^ digt^**,
stinctive output dePendmg be constn.c
i to the inputs. Whhe^ or s.s.ors,
tran
ties, relays, d,S"®

ted in lCs'
they are incorp
AND Gate
In an AND gate, the output will be a 1 if—and only if—all
inputs are a 1. The switches of Fig. 13-4A illustrate the
concept. Both switches must be closed before there is an
output. The symbols used for an AND gate are given in
Fig. 13-4B. The truth table in Fig. 13-4C illustrates the
operation. Only when both inputs are a 1 will the output
be a 1.
(A) Switch analogy.
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
(B) Symbols for two-input AND gate. (C) Truth table for B.
INPUT OUTPUT
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
V) Symbols fo„hm-inputANDgau (E) Tmthlabk/orD
Fig. 13-4. The AND gate.
several. A three-inn^t hmited to ?wo inputs; it may h

4D and the f u AND âte *s iûstrated at Fig.
are'now StTlh 16 ^ " * at ^ 13"4E- While th
are Is will the outpu^'aT °f mPU' SlgnalS' 0nly

DIGITAL CIRCUITS 221
OR Gate
An OR gate like the AND gate may have two or more inputs
and an output. In an OR gate the output will be a 1 when
one or more of the inputs is a 1. The only time the output
of an OR gate will be a 0 is when all the inputs are a 0.
Using the switch analogy previously shown for the AND
gate, in an OR gate the switches would appear as in Fig.
13-5A. When either one or both of the parallel switches
are closed, there will be a complete circuit and an output.
Additional parallel switches could be added for the same
result. The symbols for an OR gate are given in Fig. 13-
5B. As was stated before, the distinctively shaped symbol
on the left is the most common in the U.S., but the rec
tangular one is the one recognized by the IEC. The sym
bol at the left is for a two-input OR gate; the one in the
center illustrates how the symbol is extended for multiple
inputs. The truth table for a two-input OR gate is given in
Fig. 13-5C. Notice, as stated previously, when either
input (or both) is a 1, the output will be a 1. Only when
both inputs are a 0 will the output be a 0.
(A) Switch analogy.
BA =D-*
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 0
(C) Truth table. 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Fig. 13-5. The OR gate.

NAND Gate
A NAND is actually an AND gate with an inverter. This is
shown by the symbols in Fig. 13-6A. The symbols are the
same as for the AND gate except for the circle at the output
which, as stated previously, represents an inversion of the
signal. Thus, when any input is a 0, the output will be a
1. If all inputs to a NAND gate are a 1, the output will be a
0. While only two inputs are shown in Fig. 13-6A, more
may be included. The truth table is given in Fig. 13-6B.
Compare this with the truth table for the AND gate of Fig.
13-4C. Notice, the truth table for the NAND gate is oppo
site that of the AND gate. For this reason, the NAND gate is
sometimes referred to as a negated AND gate.
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(A) Symbols. (B) Truth table.
Fig. 13-6. The NAND gate.
While it might appear that the NAND gate is not actuall)

a different logic gate but merely a combination of the ANE
gate and an inverter, the NAND gate and the NOR gate
(which follows) are considered to be separate gate types
Both find many uses in practical digital circuitry.
NOR Gate
Like the NAND gate, the NOR gate produces the opposite
(or complement) of its counterpart, the OR gate. The sym
bols of big. 13-7A indicate it as an OR gate followed by ar
inverter. The truth table in Fig. 13-7B confirms this inver
sion rom the results obtained from the OR gate. For a NOF
gate when either or both inpu(s are a log.c ^ the Qutpu
- a logic 0. Only when both inputs are a logic 0 will <
DTCRRAL CIRCUITS 223
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
>1
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Fig. 13-7. The NOR gate.
logic 1 output be obtained. Thus, the NOR gate is referred

to as a negated OR gate.
C o m b i n a t i o n a l Logic Gates
In reality, combinational logic gates are formed by a com
bination of gates but they are considered as separate logic
devices. The Exclusive-OR gate is an example of a two
input combinational logic gate. With an Exclusive-OR gate
(also called an XOR gate) when both inputs are at ogic ,
the output is a logic 0; likewise, when both inputs are set
to logic 1 the output is a logic 0. If either of t e inpu s is
set to logic 1 and the other input is set to logic 0, the ou -
put will be a logic 1. The symbols for an Exclusive-OR ga e
are given in Fig. 13-8A and the truth table is given in g.
13-8B.
INPUT OUTPUT
:
Y
A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(B) Truth table.

(A) Symbols.
Fig. 13-8. The Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate.
The Exclusive-NOR gate of Fig. Also called a
sri.t.. ".
8 b°,h inp°"m •*"
pie of a two-input comh.nat.on ^ is a negated
"'*"
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
Fig. 13-9. The Exduslve-NOR (XNOR) gate.
logic 0 or both are set to logic 1, the output will be a logic

1. When one input is set to a logic 1 and the other to logic
0, the output is a logic 0. This is confirmed by the truth
table in Fig. 13-9B.
Other Logic Gates

The gates shown here have all contained two inputs except
for the one in Fig. 13-4D. Keep in mind that the AND, OR,
NAND, and NOR gates can all have multiple inputs. If one is
encountered, a truth table can be constructed to obtain
the results for any combination of logic Is and Os input.
Also, while we have shown the negation at the output for
the NAND, NOR, and XNOR symbols, it can occur at the
input, and the negation can be for only part of the inputs.
To better understand the relationship between the vari
ous gates, refer to Fig. 13-10 which gives a comparison of
each for a given input. Consider that the pulses on the top
me, which could be the clock or timing pulses in a circuit,
are routed to input A. The pulses on the second line are

connected to input B of a two input gate. The remaining
ines show the outputs for each of the gates discussed,
ach gate has its place in the operation of digital circuitry,
y the proper combination of gates, the proper pulse can
As K 7 SiVCn co«*ination of inputs
eates Tn^ ^ ?rG-' a s*nê ^
- usually contain several
K " r Tuitry> the interest is in the logic cir-
that of the IC Sym °1S sIlown here wil1 t>e used instead of
DIGITAL CIRCUITS 225
JUUII1 U1 fin
AND i
OUTPUTi UJ. M
OB
OUTPUT jitu
n
I
NAND
OUTPUT
LT
1 L 1
;
"l
IU1 LRU J"

Fig. 13-10. Comparison of logic gate outputs.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
What two digits are used in binary numbers^ ^
In positive logic, a 1 represents a V S
How many inputs does a buffer normally have?

Another name for an ® t is a i and the
In a two-input AND gate, it one inp
other is a 0, what will the ^|PU uts are Is, the
In a two-input OR gate, n
output will be a •
7. What does the small circle in a NOR gate symbol

signify?
8. Draw the symbol for an Exclusive-OR gate.
9. In a three-input NAND gate, two inputs are at 0 and
the other is at 1. What is the output?
10. Complete the following truth table for an AND gate.
! 3K
I IB!1 Inputs Output
i H! A B Y
I list
0 0
I ft
I %*.
0 1
1 0
IK
I 1 1
(fit?
-
14
Reading and
Interpreting
Schematics
Most schematics follow the same general arra"f
The input is normally at the upper left-hand coiner From
here, the path is usually arranged m *
nght and from top to circuits as if
can trace your way through the in, ^ rgad a sche-
you were reading a book. The mental image of

matic is to analyze each stage, The output
what happens in it and -block" in the equip-
of each stage is the input of the reach the
ment. Continue through all the stages ^
output device (i.e., speaker, Pictun\. ' schematic, the
If you follow this pattern in râ -t be a raciio
or TV
operation of any ec?uipmen* Gr even a computer-
receiver, a transmitter, radar sei,
should become apparent.
RADIO RKE.VERSCHEMAT.C
• i fi ^-transistor radio receiver is

The schematic of a typica ^ information it con-
given in Fig. 14-1. L e t s
tains.
227
The Signal Path

Refer to Fig. 14-1 as we follow the signal from transistor
to transistor (stage to stage in electronics terminology) on
its journey through the radio. The same general principles
can then be applied to many other circuits.
The Converter—The first stage (transistor) in most pre
sent-day radios is the converter, which actually functions
as an RF amplifier, oscillator, and mixer. The signal is
first intercepted by loop antenna LI in Fig. 14-1. The two
variable capacitors connected across LI tune the circuit to
the frequency of the desired AM radio station. The signal
is then connected to the base of converter transistor Ql.
Coil L2, the two variable capacitors, fixed capacitors C5
and C6, and a portion of Ql form the oscillator portion of
the stage.
The signal from the oscillator and the one from the
antenna are combined, or mixed, within the transistor.
The two original signals are still present at the output (col
lector) of the transistor, but two more also appear. One is
equal to the sum of the frequencies of the two original sig
nals, and the other is equal to the difference between
them. Both are exactly like the original signal except for
frequency. Transformer L3 is "tuned" by the capacitor
across the primary and the ferrite core adjustment to
accept the difference frequency, called the IF (intermedi
ate frequency) and to reject the other frequencies present
at the collector. This IF signal is passed to the secondary
of L3 where it is coupled to the next stage.
IF Amplifier— The next stage is the IF (intermediate fre
quency) amplifier. The IF signal at the secondary of trans
former L3 is connected to the base of IF amplifier Q2.
Here the signal will be boosted, or amplified, by the time
it reac es the collector. The collector circuit of transistor
Q is tuned by coil L4 and the capacitor connected across
it so that the correct band of frequencies (455 kHz, the IF
requency) will be the most prominent. The IF frequen
cies arc t en coupled to the base of the second IF amplifier
229
READING AND IvrmmrnNc SCHEMATICS
Fig. 14-1 • Seh*n*°*'C of a tran#i*,or radio.

(Q3) by capacitor C8. The signal is further amplified by

Q3 and appears at the collector of this transistor and
across the primary of transformer L5. Normal trans
former action couples the signal to the secondary of L5 for
application to the next stage.
Detector and A VC—The signal from L5 is connected to
signal diode X2 where it undergoes a change called detec
tion. The diode conducts during one half cycle of the
iff
_ applied IF signal the same as the diode action for any
other AC signal. The output is a fluctuating signal that
varies in step with the variations in the amplitude of the
IF signal. These, in turn, vary in step with variations in
the received signal. Originally, these variations were pro
duced by the sound (speech, music, etc.) at the radio stu
dio, so we have reconstructed a signal that is a reproduc
tion of the original modulating sound. This is the audio
frequency signal (a frequency that can be heard by the
human ear). It is far too feeble to operate a speaker
(although it could be heard from an earphone connected
(RF)'S *X)^nt^' s'gnal is coupled to the volume control
Another voltage is developed by resistors R6, R7, and

R8, and capacitor C3. Called the AVC (automatic vol
ume control) voltage, it varies according to the strength of
the signal received at the antenna. This voltage is applied
to the base of Q2 to change the gain, or the amount of
amplification of this stage. Thus, if the signal becomes
stronger or weaker (say because of atmospheric condi
tions), t e gain of the previous stages is automatically
chan^SC °F *ncreasec* accordingly, to compensate for the
Audio Amplifier A portion of the audio signal present at

J/0"™ contro* (fê amount depending on the control
capô^Cm H0 thC baSC °f Q4 thr°Ugh ^ •22"'J
coC or nf i " 15 amPlified and at the
sien^ H; n transistor - the collector of Q4, the
sistor 05 T^L- ^ ^°uPled to the base of audio output tran-
Q5' Llke the <"her stages, Q5 amplifies the signal
OQ 1
READING AND INTERPRETING SCHEMATICS
still more and it appears across transformer Tl. The

speaker (SP1) connected across the secondary of Tl con
verts the amplified signal into sound.
Power Supply— Before any of the stages discussed in the
foregoing can work, the proper voltage must be applied to
them. This is the purpose of the components located1 in t e
lower right corner of the schematic (fig- 14-1). T e me
cord, which is plugged into the 117-volt AC outlet,is
shown at the left. The next symbol is the on-off switch b ,
it connects one side of the line to the rectifier (XI).
RF bypass capacitors C15 and C16 remove any lg
frequency noise that might be present on the power lines
and passed into the receiver. R16 serves as a use an
helps smooth out any surges in the AC line vo ta^.
You will recall from a previous chapter t a a cath_
conduct only when its anode is more positive neeative

-
ode. The AC line voltage varies from P° J. sltl e

COnducts
hence, during the positive half-cycles t e 1 h
dwolyiic capacitors (CI and ) ^ _ <iU,

smooth out these pulsations. Thus,
put is essentially DC. . . 14t 104 volts is
A. the output of the rectifier Source" Gn the
present. This is labeled as the . -m this re-
schematic. However, most off the tra" R17 ancj R19
ceiver do not require such a hig vo ^ ^ operating the
drop this voltage to the 18 and 12. . grounded, but
other transistors. Notice CI is no between its negative
that a 12-ohm resistor is connec ment that pro-
side and ground. This is a sP^cia arrangements of resis-
vides the — 0.44-volt source. any ^ ^ power supply to
tors and capacitors can be inc u e t-on Qf the various
provide the proper voltages or p
stages.
Voltage and Current more items are

In addition to the signa pa > ^ voltage at each ele-
included on the schematic. ne
ment of every transistor. This information comes in handy

for troubleshooting the equipment. Also, included in the
power supply section is a listing of the total current for the
receiver operation (36 mA at 117 volts). This is given near
the line cord symbol. The notes at the lower left state the
conditions under which the voltage measurements were
taken.
Other Information on Schematics

Many other items are included in Fig. 14-1, and each is
useful in analyzing circuit operation or in troubleshooting.
For example, drawings show the location of the terminals
on the coil. These numbers are also included on the sche
matic symbols. While these numbers may not actually
appear on the transformers, they will aid you in locating
the various points. Other drawings show the basing of the
transistors.
Transformers and other components often have colored
leads for identification. These are shown in Fig. 14-1 for
audio output transformer T2. Also given beside each coil
on the schematic is its resistance, since the easiest method
of checking the condition of a coil is to measure its resis
tance.
Letter and number combinations A1 through A6,
s own in the squares, are the alignment points for the
receiver. Adjustments are made here, according to the
instructions, to tune each stage to the proper frequency.
I h e numbers 1 through 21 in black boxes appear on the
schematic and also in Fig. 14-2, a photograph of the chas-
M. CaJled CIRCUITRACE (a trade name of Howard W.
ams o . , nc.), this system greatly aids in locating the
various points on a printed-circuit board. By referring
simu taneous y to the schematic and Fig. 14-2, technicians
are saved tedious tracing of the printed wiring.
233
RWXNGAJ® iNTtumrnNc SCHEMATICS
UJCCU
LLLU^
Printed circuit
BCD TO DECIMAL DECODER

The circuit in Fig. 14-3 is for a binary-coded decimal
(BCD) to decimal decoder. Most complete circuits of
equipment employing logic symbols are too large to fit on
these pages. Therefore, to show how these symbols are
used in circuits, a partial circuit showing one operation is
given here.
The binary number system was discussed briefly in
j Chapter 13. Recall that only two digits—0 and 1—are
Jj; used in the binary system. A convenient numbering sys
I«M.
tem, called a binary-coded decimal (BCD) uses a four-
i an
digit binary number to represent the decimal digits 0
through 9. Each of these four-digit combinations, then, is
used to represent one digit of a decimal number. Thus,
the decimal numbers 0 through 9 in BCD are as follows:
Decimal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
0111
1000
1001
i• ^°rB^ digit of the decimal number, another four-

digit BCD combination is used. For example, decimal 83
when written in BCD is 1000 0011. The circuit in Fig.
rW can 1 i•be • USed
ZrT, to decode
aecode or convert the BCD digits to a
decimal digit. The ffn,,r Ron , 5•
A R™ r r\ °Ur BCD digits are applied to inputs
an'nh J ; ^ the ieft' The first digit of the BCD is
input B u he SeC ° nd to in Put C' the tbifd t0
input B, and the fourth to input A.
LA
READING AND INTERPRETING SCHEMATICS 235
Q—°
Fig. 14-3- BCD to decimal decoder circuit.
As an aid in tracing through the circujs, *e outputs^

e inverters have been labeled S> throug
stand the operation of the circuit, assume BCD 0101 is

applied to the input. Thus, at input D, we have a 0; at
input C, a 1; at input B, a 0; and at input A, a 1. This will
produce the following results at the outputs of the first
inverters: point Z, 1; point Y, 0; point X, 1; and point W,
0. Following on through the second set of inverters, the
results are: point V, 0; point U, 1; point T, 0; and points
S, 1. Tracing through the connections, the only AND gate
which will have a 1 at each of the inputs is the AND gate at
the 5 output. Thus, the condition for decoding 0101 to its
decimal equivalent 5 has been met. Tracing through to
each of the other AND gates will reveal at least one 0 input,
so no output will be obtained from any of the other AND
gates.
Try tracing through the circuit in Fig. 14-3 for other
BCDs. For each input, only one of the AND gates will have
all Is at its input, satisfying the condition for an output.
For other logic diagrams, similar techniques can be
used to trace through the circuit and determine just what
happens to each stage. In a practical circuit, all of Fig.
14-3, plus probably additional circuits, will usually be
included in a single IC.
FROM SCHEMATIC TO CHASSIS

One of the most difficult problems a beginner faces is to
physically locate on the chassis a component that is
included on the schematic or to construct the circuit by
looking at the schematic. Unfortunately, as you saw in
Chapter 1, the actual chassis does not look like the sche
matic. In fact, on a schematic a resistor may be shown
next to a transistor, but on the printed-circuit board it
may be physically located at the opposite end. The sche
matic shows the electrical connections only, but the com
ponent must also have some means of mechanical sup
port.
Terminal strips may be included on the chassis, and the
erminals utilized for connecting two points. Unused ter-
237
READING AND INTERPRETING SCHEMATICS
minals on components may also be used as tie points.

With printed circuits, often the printed wiring must e
arranged in a certain manner to make all the connections.
Unusual arrangements may be necessary to fit all t e con
nections in place. 9 ,
If you have a photograph like the one in Fig. ar*
the ones given in Chapter 1, a component is easy to

locate. But a component can still be locate , eên 1 °
the schematic is available. Just look for a ami lar "ea
point in the circuit. (Transistor or transformer leads a
usually the most convenient points.) Then, see w ,
ponents are connected between this point an ematic
component. Start at the known point on e ^
and follow any wire or printed-circuit pattern
to it. Be sure to trace out any leads connected^ Ue
points. If you encounter a componen n
back
between the wanted point and .f ^nd-miss''' tracing

and try a different route. Such ^ ^ ^ becomes
sounds tedious, but with a little p
easy and fast.
OTHER TYPES OF EQUIPMENT

No matter how complex, the sc,hemf^wn ;nto individual
electronic equipment <=an be chapter. Then, by fol-
stages, as you did in the first wiU be able to
lowing the connections between g > etermine the over-
fit the blocks together and in this way determ
all operation of the circuit.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Where is the input norrnaUy bje^"1 on
2. What three functions are performed y
converter stage? Watine transformer leads is
What additional aid m locating
often included on a sc lem voltage?
What is the purpose of the A
How does the IF signal differ from the signal

received from the station?
What is the best way to analyze a schematic?
What type of signal appears across a volume
control?
What is the decimal equivalent of BCD 0111?
Which requires more power for operation, an
earphone or a speaker?
What is the purpose of an RF bypass capacitor?
A
House Wiring
Symbols
239
CIRCUITS
Branch Circuits, C o n c e a l e d Without further designation

in Ceiling o r Wall s y m b o l s a t left indicate 2-wire.
For o t h e r d e s i g n a t e a s follows:
Branch Circuits, C o n c e a l e d
inF,oor m <3 w ^ )
Branch Circuits, E x p o s e d ft—+f (4 wire) etc.
lift" H o m e Run t o Panel Board
(IB (Number of Arrowheads

I n d i c a t e s N u m b e r of Circuits.)
Feeder
IM
ft •GENERAL OUTLETS
(ft
»•* Ceiling Wall Ceiling Wall
© "®
I Mr. Recessed
O -O Outlet Incandescent
Outlet
!fc
(K ® -® Blanked Outlet
© -® Vapor Discharge
Lamp Outlet
© -© Clock Outlet
® ~® EXi< U9hl
© Drop Cord Night Light
© -© Fan Outlet Ceiling Wall
II NM
© -® Unit Heater o r
Cooler Outlet F l u o r e s c e n t Fixture Outlet
(S urfa c e o r Pendent)
© J u n c t i o n Box -CUE
F l u o r e s c e n t Fixture Outlet
(R e c e s s e d)
© <D Lampholder
U
C o n t i n o u s Row Fluorescent
©-© Lampholder with

Pull S w i t c h
HI
C o n t i n o u s Row Fluorescent
(R e c e s s e d)
HOUSE WIRING SYMBOLS 241
CONVENIENCE OUTLETS
" (Q Duplex Ceiling or Wall

-0 Radio Outlet
/-N Other than Duplex (*1 Indicates

M Single. 3 Triplex, etc.) Radio and
Convenience Outlet
1.3*
(() Waterproof
WP Special Purpose Outlet
Range
20 amp 250V
Switch and Outlet -© Receptacle (Polarized)
30 amp 250V
© Floor Outlet Receptacle (Polarized)
SWITCH OUTLET DESIGNATIONS
Sp-Switch and Pilot Light

S-Single-Pole Switch
SM,—Momentary-Contact Switch , j,
52-Double-Pole-Switch
SRC-Remote Control Switch |__J
53-Three-Way-Switch
SwP-Waterproof Switch isolating
54-Four-Way-Switch
SD-Automatic Door Switch Switch
Pu" (T) -©
SE-Explosion-Proof Switch
SK-Key-Operated Switch Switch ^
Ceiling Wall
PANELS
ill ° l ]
r
Circuit Lighting lv,ot"'
Panel Controller
Breaker
Underfloor
©
Duct or Junction
© Generator Instrument Box (Triple System)
• For single system use 1 line,

duplex system 2 lines, etc.
Motor
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
M interconnecting
E Push Button Annunciator K-] Telephone
0
Floor Telephone
Outlet-Public
D Buzzer
-© Thermostat
Floor Telephone
Outside
N
Outlet-Private
D> Bell Telephone
B
Appliance Symbols
SWITCHES
Y
Closes On
Dn Risinc
Pressure or Vacuum Actuated
Rising Pressure
T
Opens On Rising
sing Pres
Pressure
Y
o O—[j-TJ"
Temperature Actuated
Opens On Temperature Rise

Closes On Temperature Rise
o
Liquid Actuated
Opens On Liquid Level Rise

Closes On Liquid Level Rise
Y
Closes On Flow Increase
Flow Actuated
X
Opens On Flow Increase
Foot Operated o—Y-a

Closes By Foot Pressure Opens By Foot Pressure
LIMIT SWITCHES
N0-
O—
N O. Held Closed
N.C.
f0 N.C. Held Open WARP SWITCH
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH REED SWITCH
o f-o
•
Permanent Magnet
N.C. (j) N.°. ^
o—' 0000 —o
Electromagnet
MERCURY SWITCH *
spst spdt
245
AffUANCE SYMBOl-S
THERMOSTATS
>^-c oôOOO^ or ^
^ —C
or or
BALLAST
-0- -O"
NO NC
Adjustable or Double Throw
L_r~L_r~Lg or o
f or | > or | •-
r\r > —" HEATER
w
3 PRONG PLUG
-0-
HUMIDISTAT
STARTER
THERMOPILE
IGNITOR 1
c
Answers to
Questions
247
Chapter 1 8. The physical location of

transistors, ICs, and major
1. A drawing using symbols to
components on the chassis.
represent the various parts,
9. Dial-cord stringing diagram
and showing the electrical
and exploded views of
connections of all components
mechanical assemblies.
in a circuit. In addition, the
10. The schematic.
value of components, color of
leads, tube pin connections, Chapter 2
voltage and resistance
1. The ohm.
measurements, and many
2. (A) To limit current (flow of
other items are usually
electrons) in a circuit. (B) To
included.
provide a voltage drop.
2. By a class (code) letter and
number. 3. An opposition to the flow of
electrons through a circuit.
3. It shows the various stages in
The electrical equivalent of
the unit, and how they fit
together. friction.
4. Omega Q.
The physical location of the
components. 5. A variable resistor.
6. R.
It cannot show the connections
to each part. 7. 27,000.
They are the quickest, easiest, 8. One whose resistance
and most meaningful method decreases when its
of portraying the electrical temperature is increased.
connections in a circuit.
By an "exploded" view,
which shows all components in
their relative position, yet
spreads them out so you can
see each individual part.
249
ANSW ERS TO QUESTIONS
1.
Chapter 3
To store electrons.
• -$>
2. No, they only appear to.
3. The farad.
4. The dielectric.
5. No.
6. Filter capacitors in power
supplies.
7. One millionth.
Chapter 6
8. The rotor.
9. C. 1. Germanium, silicon, selenium
10. (A) Polarized electrolytic 2. It is not necessary.
capacitor. (B) Trimmer
capacitor. (C) Nonpolarized
electrolytic. 4. Voltage regulation.
Chapter 4
1. Inductance.
2. Henry.
3. None, except for the slight
amount of resistance it offers 7. Opposite the direction of the
to the flow. arrow.
4. The magnetic lines of force set 8. It starts conducting and
up by the primary cut the continues even after the
secondary windings. trigger is removed.
5. Two or three solid lines. 9. The number of electrons in
6. Choke. the outer shell.
7. The primary. 10. N-type materia
8. A powdered-iron (ferrite)
Chapter 7
core.
9. T and L. 1. Npn and pnp.
2. Emitter, base, and collector.
3 Source, gate, and dram.
COLLECTOR
Chapter 5 4- BASE/PY
TTV/ EMITTER
1. To control the flow of

COLLECTOR
electrons. BASEfFT
2. To supply or emit electrons. VT. / EMITTER
3. V.
4. A gas tube. 6. Collector.
5. The television picture tube. 7. Emitter.
8. One made of individual
6. The plate.
7. Through pins in the tube separate components.
base.
9. They can but are more 9. H'M'M*

difficult to fabricate and so are
not used as often. 10. Record, playback, and erase.
10. Channel.
Chapter 10
Chapter 8
1. It simplifies the layout of the
1. To open and close a circuit. schematic by eliminating
2. Single-pole, single-throw. many lines.
3. Single-pole, double-throw. 2. Plug section.
4. To connect one point to either 3. Not always, but they can be.
of two other points. 4. A shielded lead.
5. An electrically operated 5. The same as for any other
switch. leads.
6. The two points are 6. Occupy less space; less
mechanically (but not expensive in initial cost; less
electrically) connected. expensive to assemble on
7. To form an electromagnet. chassis; critical lead routing
8. S, SW, M, E. easily accomplished.
9. o 7. A shielded component.
O O 8. They are parts of a multiple
unit.
10. °-i
9 + +
Chapter 9
1. To convert an electrical signal Chapter 11
into sound waves. 1. To convert AC to DC.
2. A fuse. 2. A network of components
3. Incandescent and neon. which does not contain a
4. A cell is the basic unit; a transistor, tube, or IC.
battery is a group of cells. 3. No electrons will flow.
5. Carbon, dynamic (or moving 4. Npn and pnp.
coil), capacitor, electret,
5. The cathode follower.
ceramic, and crystal.
6. From emitter to collector.
6 6 7. The cathode.
8. Common emitter, common
base, and common collector.
7. -©- 9. Common source, common
base, and common drain.
8. i
10. The negative terminal.
How TO READ SCHEMATICS 251
Chapter 12 6. 1.
1. In a flowchart the blocks have 7. Negation or inversion.
distinctive shapes to represent
the type of operation.
8 :=S>
2. Computer programming.
3. 9. 1.
10.
Inputs Output
4. Addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, A B Y
moving data. 0 0 0
5. Decision.
0 1 0
6. A comparison.
1 0 0
1 1 1
•
8. Input/output symbol. Chapter 14
1 At the upper left-hand corner.
2. RF amplifier, oscillator, and
mixer.
9. Connector.
3. Color of leads.
4. To automatically compensate
for changes in signal strength.
>»• £=3 5. In frequency only.
6. Break it down into individual
Chapter 13 stages.
7. Audio signal.
1. 0 and 1.
8. 7.
2. High.
9. Speaker.
3. One. 10 To remove high-frequency
4. Not. signals present in the circuit.
5. 0.
Index
Adjustable air-core coils, 67-68 Basic tube circuits, 195-98
Adjustable iron-core chokes, 71 Basing diagram, 81
Adjustable resistors, 34 Basket (speaker frame), 148
Air-core coils, 66-68 Batteries, 157-58, 202
Alternating current (AC) and direct current Beam-forming plates, 86
(DC), 19-22, 166, 194 Beam-power tubes, 86-87
American National Standards Institute Bias, reverse, 98
(ANSI), 7 Biased, forward, 98, 114
Amplification, 82, 85 Bidirectional diode, triode, and tetrode
Amplifiers) thyristors, 107-8
audio, 230-31 Binary-coded decimal (BCD) to decimal
common-drain, 204 decoder, 234-36
common-gate, 203-4 Binary numbering system, 215-17, 234
common-source, 202-3 Bipolar transistor circuits, basic, 198-202
grounded grid, 196-97 Bi-switch, 108
intermediate frequency (IF), 228-30 Bits, definition of, 217
operational (op amp), 124 Block diagrams, 8-10, 126
schematic of a typical cassette tape Blocking a DC open circuit, 44
recorder, 2-5 Brattain, Walter H., 113
transistor, 198 Breakdown diode, 104-6
Analysis, radio-receiver schematic, 227-33 Buffers, 217-19
AND gate, 220, 236
Anode, 80, 90 Callouts on schematics to identify
accelerating, 91-92 components, 3
circuit, use of, 194 Capacitance, 44, 48-51, 53-54, 56
first, 92 changing the, 60
focus, 91
interelectrode, 84, 85
Answers to end-of-chapter questions, 247-50
Capacitive diode, 101-2
Antennas, 87, 145-47
Capacitor(s), 43-63
loop, 146-47, 228-29 bypass, 197, 231
symbols for, 146-47 ceramic, 45, 47, 52-53
Appliance symbols, appendix of, 243-45
color codes for, 48-55
Atoms and electricity, 15, 17-20
coupling, 196
Audio amplifier in radio receiver, 230-31
defined, 43
Audio output stage, 230-31
electrolytic, 56-60, 80
Automatic volume control (AVC) and detector
feedthrough, 55, 56
in radio receiver, 230
fixed, 44-55, 187-88
Autotransformer, 77-78
ganged, 62
Axes, horizontal and vertical, 20-21
mica, 48, 50-51
in microphones, 162
Backward diode, 109 nonpolarized electrolytic, 60
Bardeen, John, 113
paper, 48, 49, 50, 59
Bases, tube, 80, 92
plastic film, 48
Basic bipolar transistor circuits, 198-202 radio tuning, 60
INDEX 253
Capacitors)—cont. Class letters—cont.

symbols for. 55. 58-59. 62. 187-88 coil, 67
tantalum. 54, 56, 58 crystal, 159
trimmer, 60, 61 fuse, 152
tubular, 45, 46. 52 growing standardization of, 3, 7
for tuning, 60, 73 integrated circuit, 126
variable, 60-62, 187-88 lamp, 157
Carbon microphone, 162
composition resistor, 27-28 packaged electronic circuit, 191
microphone, 161 phono pickup, 165
Cassette tape recorder components power rectifier, 100
block diagram of, 9 relay, 143
schematic of a, 4-5 resistor, 29, 32-34, 39, 41-42
signal and switching diode, 101
Cathode, 80
circuit use of, 194 speakers, 149
defined, 79 switches, 137
table of common, 6-7
follower, 196
transistors, 78, 117, 121
in phototubes, 90
as reference point for voltages in tubes, tubes, 94
Coefficient, negative and positive
82-83, 92, 198
temperature, 40
Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), 91-94, 208
Cell. See Batteries Coil(s), 65-71
adjustable air-core, 67-68
Ceramet resistor, 28
adjustable iron-core, 71
Ceramic capacitor, 45, 47, 52-53
Channel of a field-effect transistor, 118-20 air-core, 66-68
Chassis defined, 65
ferrite-loop antenna as a, 146-47
layout diagrams of a, 10
iron-core, 70-71
finding schematic information in the,
microphone, 161
236-37
powdered-iron core, 68-69
symbols, 174-75
in relays, 139-41
Choke, iron core, 70-71
in solenoids, 169, 171
Circuits)
symbols for, 66-71
audio, 60
in tape heads, 166-67
basic bipolar transistor, 198-202 and transformer combinations, 187-89
basic tube, 195-98
voice, 148
breakers, 52-55
Color codes
as a combination of resistors, capacitors,
capacitor, 48-55
and coils, 193
coil, 67
common-base, 200
fixed resistor, 28-29, 30-31
common-emitter, 198-200
fuse, 151
defined,193
Combinations
digital, 100, 126, 215-26 coil and transformer, 187-89
emitter-follower, 200-201 component, 187-91, 193-205
integrated, 123-27 Common-base circuit, 200
open, 44 Common-bus connection for resistors, 31
oscillator, 159 Common-emitter circuit, 198-200
packaged electronic, 189-91 Common return symbols, 174-75
passive, 193-94 Component(s)
plate, 85-86 combinations, 187-91, 193 205
printed, 186-87, 232-33 connecting, 173-92
in relays, 141, 142 discrete, 124
rectifier, 194-95 identification, 3
return, 174 numbered, photograph labeled with, 12
screen, 197 schematics used to show connections of, 2
signal, 100 Computer
source follower, 204 connector types, 181-82
C1RCUITRACE system to locate points on a drafting device for generating schematics,
PC board, 232 8
Class letters flowcharts, 207-13
antenna, 147 Conductor, electricity, 18, 65, 95-98, 186
battery, 158 Cones in speakers, 148-49
capacitor, 48, 53, 55, 62 nortina HPvices. 178-86
circuit breaker, 155
Connections, methods of denoting, 173-92 Diode(s)—cont.

Control grid, 82-84, 91, 92 semiconductor, 95-111
Converter in radios, 228 signal, 100-101, 230
Core(s) storage, 109
adjustable air, 68-69 switching, 100-101
ferrite, 72 symbols for, 102, 103-5, 109, 110
Coupling for transfer of energy, 44, 72, 142, temperature-sensitive, 109
195-96, 218 tubes, 79-80
Crystal(s), 158-59 tunnel, 108-9
diodes, 188-89 zener, 104-5
in microphones, 160-61 Direct current (DC)
p-type, 96 and alternating current (AC), 19-22, 166,
Current 194
alternating and direct, 19-22 pulsating, 80, 82, 231
bipolar transistor used to control a large, Discrete components, 124
113-14 Doping, 95
coil's effect on, 65 Double-pole switches, 131-32
diode creates one-directional, 97, 104 Drain of a field-effect transistor, 118-20
electron, 79 Dual in-line package (DIP) resistor network,
pulsating direct, 80, 82 31-32
regulator, 109 Dynamic microphone, 161
speaker, 148
surges and overloads, 150, 152-53 Earphones, 163-64
and voltage, 231-32 Earth. See Ground
Current-dependent resistors, 41-42 Electrical friction, 25
Cutaway view diagrams, 147-48 Electricity and electron theory, 18-22
Electrodes, 156
Deflection, 91-94 focus, 91-92
Detector and automatic volume control (AVC) Eletrolyte in capacitors, 56
in radio signal, 230 Electrolytic capacitors, 56-60, 80
Devices, connecting, 178-86 Electromagnetic energy. See also Magnetic field
Diagrams in relays, 139
basing, 81 waves, 145
block, 8-10, 126 Electromagnetically deflected cathode-ray
chassis layout, 10 tubes, 92-94
cutaway, 147-48 Electromotive force (EMF), 19
exploded view, 14-15, 16, 39 Electron(s)
functional block, 9 buildup and depletion in capacitors, 44
mechanical, 14-15 electricity defined as flow of, 18-19
photograph, 10, 12-14 theory, 15, 17-22, 79
pictorial, 10, 14 tubes, 79-94
schematic, 1-8 Electronic circuits
types of, 1-23 networks for, 29, 31-32, 33
Dial-cord stringing, 14-15 packaged, 189-91
Diaphragm, 161 Electrostatic deflection, 91-92
Dielectric insulator in capacitors, 43, 45, Emission, secondary, 85-86
47-48, 56, 60 Emitter-follower circuit, 200-201
Digital circuits, 100, 126, 215-26 Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate, 223-24
binary numbers used for, 215-17 Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate, 223
buffers and inverters in, 217-19 Exploded view diagrams, 14-15, 16, 39
logic gates used with, 219-25
symbols for, 218-24 Farad as the unit of capacitance measurement,
Diode(s) 44
backward, 109 Feedthrough capacitors, 55, 56
breakdown, 104-6 Ferrite loop antenna, 146-47
capacitivc, 101-2 Field-effect transistors (FETs), 117-21
crystal, 188-89 circuits, 202-5
light-emitting, 103, 142 insulated-gate, 117, 119-20
parametric, 101 junction, 117-18
photoemissive, 110 metal oxide semiconductor, 119-20
photosensitive, 102-4 symbols for, 120-21
reactance, 101 Field, magnetic, 65, 71-72, 120, 166, 187
Schottky, 109
Filament, 79, 80, 82-83, 88
INDEX 255
Film, plastic, 48 Integrated circuits (ICs), 123-27

Filter, low-pass and high-pass, 193-94 bits to manipulate, 217
Fixed capacitors, 44-55, 187-88 defined, 123
Fixed resistors, 27-29 dual in-line package resistor network used
Flowcharts, 207-13 on, 31
Fluorescent lamp, 156 gates incorporated in, 219, 224
Focus electrode, 91-92 symbols for, 124, 126
Forward biased junction, 98, 114 Interclectrode capacitance, 84, 85
Functional block diagram, 9 Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier, 228-30
Fuse(s)1 150-52 International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), 7, 218, 221
Gas-filled tubes, 89 Inverter, digital, 219, 235-36
Gate, 219-25 Iron core
AND, 220, 236 for chokes, 70-71
combinational, 223-24 for powdered coils, 68-69
exclusive-XNOR, 223-24 for transformers, 72, 73-78
exclusive-OR, 223
of a field-effect transistor, 118-20 Junction
n-type, 108 field-effect transistor, 117-18
NAND, 222 pn, 96-98, 113, 122
NOR, 222-23
OR. 221 Knife switch, 129-32
p-type, 108
Laminations on iron-core chokes, 70
voltage, 108
Lamps, fluorescent, incandescent, and neon,
Generators, 169
Grid 155-57
complex photo superimposed with a, 10, Large-scale integration (LSI) circuits, 124
Layout diagrams, chassis, 10
13-14
Letter codes. See Class Letters
control, 82-84, 91, 92
Light-dependent resistor, 41-42
oscillator, 87
Light-emitting diodes, 103
on pentagrid tube, 87
screen, 84-86, 198 Logic
gates. See Gate
suppressor, 86-87, 198
positive versus negative, 216
of a tube, 196-97
GridTrace, 10
Magnetic field, 65, 71-72, 120, 166, 187
Ground
Mechanical diagrams, 14-15
defined, 83
Medium-scale integration (MSI) circuits, 124
symbols for, 174-75, 188-89
Grounded-grid amplifier, 196-97 Megohm, 26
Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect
transistor, 119-20
Heads, tape, 166-68
Meters, 170, 171
Headsets, 163-64
Mica capacitors, 48, 50-51
Henry (H) as the unit of inductance
Microfarad, 44
measurement, 66
Microhenry, 66
Heterodyne, 87
Microphones, 159-62
Horizontal axis, 20-21
Millihenry, 66
Horizontal deflection plates, 91-92
House wiring symbols, appendix of, 239-4 Mixing, 87
Modulating sound, 230
Motors, 168-69
Identification of components shown in
Moving-coil microphone, 161
schematics, 3 Multifunction tubes, 87-89
Incandescent lamps, 155-56
Inductance, 66, 67-68, 70 N-type material in semiconductors, 96-98, 1
Inductor. See Coil(s)
114-15, 122
Information
NAND gate, 222
contained in schematics, 2-3 Negative temperature coefficient (NTC), 40
displayed in data processing, 210
Neon lamps, 156-57
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
Networks, resistor, 29, 31-32, 33
(IEEE), 7 Nickel-cadmium batteries, 157
Insulated-gate field-effect transistor, 117, Nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors, 60
119-20 NOR gate, 222-23
Insulating material, 123 Nucleus of an atom, 17-18
Insulator, electricity, 18, 43, 95, 102
Numbering, binary versus decimal, 215-17, Pulsating direct current, 80, 82, 231
234 Push-button switch, 132, 137, 138, 139
Ohm as the unit of resistance measurement, Radio receiver schematic analysis, 227-33
25 Ratings
Omega, 26 capacitor, 59
Operational amplifier (op amp), 124 resistor, 25-26
Optoisolators and optocouplers, 109 Reactance diode, 101
OR gate, 221 Receiver schematic analysis, radio, 227-33
exclusive, 223 Rectification, 80
Oscillators Rectifier
in pentagrid tube, 87 circuits, 194-95
in radio signal path, 228 metallic, 99
power, 98-100
selenium, 99
P-type semiconductor material, 96-98, semiconductor controlled, 108
114-15, 122 silicon, 99, 106-7
Packaged electronic circuits, 189-91 silicon controlled, 108
Parallel data, 217
symbols for a, 100, 109
Parametric diode, 101
tube, 75
Path, signal, 228-31 tunnel, 109
Pentagrid tubes, 87 Relay(s), 137, 139-41
Pentode tubes, 86 solid-state, 142-44
Permeability tuned to change inductance of symbols for, 140-41, 143-44
powdered-iron coils, 68-69 Reset button on circuit breakers, 153
Phono pickups, 164-65, 166 Resistance
Photodiodes, 102-4 determination of, 95
Photoemissive diode, 110 diode, 104
Photographs. 10, 12-14 Resistor(s), 25-42
Photomultiplier, 90-91 adjustable, 34
Phototubes, 90-91 carbon, 27-28, 40
Pickup, phono, 164-65, 166 Ceramet, 28
Picofarad, 44 color codes for, 28-29, 30-31
Pictorial diagrams, 10, 14 current-dependent, 41-42
Piezoelectric effect, 158 defined, 25
Placement chart fixed, 27-29, 188-89
defined, 10 functions of a, 26
of a television receiver, 11 light-dependent, 41-42, 102
Plastic films, 48 networks, 29, 31-32, 33
Plate(s) plate, 83-84
beam-forming, 86 potentiometer, 35-39
circuit, 85-86, 197 ratings, 25-26
deflecting, 91 rheostat, 35, 38
in batteries, 157-58 semiconductors acting as, 40
in diode tube, 79-80. See also Anode special, 40-42
in microphones, 161 symbols for, 32-34, 38, 40-42, 188-89
in neon lamps, 156 tapped, 32-34
in phototubes, 90 temperature-compensating, 40
spark, 170-72 thermal, 40
in triode tube, 83-84 thermistor, 40-41
Pn junction, 96-98, 113, 122 variable, 35-39
Polarity, 56-57, 59, 60, 100 voltage-dependent, 41-42
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC), 40 wirewound, 28, 29, 34
Potentiometer, 35-39 Resonant frequency, 158
precision, 36 Reverse bias, 98
Powdered-iron core coils, 68-69 Rheostat resistor, 35, 38
Power Rotary switch, 132
supply, 231 Rotating machines, 168-69
transformer, 74, 76 Rotor in variable capacitor, 60
Precision potentiometer, 36
Printed-circuit (PC) boards, 186-87, 232-33 Schematic(s), 1-8
transformers for mounting on, 74, 77 analysis, radio-receiver, 227-33
Protons, 15, 17, 22 arrangement of information in, 227
INDEX 257
Schematics)—cont. Switch(es)—cont.
block diagram uses compared with, 8-9 membrane, 132, 133
chassis components found by reading the, on potentiometer, 39
236-37 push-button, 132, 137, 138, 139
class letters used on, table of, 6-7 rotary, 132
diagrams, 1-8 semiconductor, 106, 108
foreign, 7-8 single-pole, double-throw (SPDT),
information conveyed by, 2-3 130-31,132
limitation of the, 10 single-pole, single-throw (SPST), 129-30,
methods of preparing, 8 132
reading and interpreting, 227-38 slide, 132, 134, 153
simplifying a, 176, 178 symbols for, 130, 131, 132, 135-36
toggle, 132
symbols used in, 1-2
wafer, 132-36
Schottky diode, 109
Screen grid, 84-86, 198 Switching diodes, 100-101
Secondary emission, 85-86 Symbol(s)
Selenium, 99 antenna, 146-47, 181
Semiconductor, 95-100. See also Transistors appliance, 243-45
defined, 95 battery, 157-58
diodes, 95-111 buffer, 218
cable and shielded lead, 177-78, 188-89
electron balance of, 95
capacitor, 55, 58-59, 62, 187-88
material, 123
switch, thyristor considered to be a, 106 circuit breaker, 153, 155
used as a resistor, 40 coil, 66-71, 187-89
wafer, 120 crystal, 159, 188-89
diode, 102, 103-5, 109, 110, 188-89
Shockley, William, 113
flowchart, 207-12
Signal
amplified, 197 fuse, 152
generator, 169
audio frequency, 230
ground and chassis, 174-75, 188-89
diodes, 100-101, 230
growing standardization of, 3, 7
electrical, 160, 164-66
headset/earphone, 163-64
intermediate frequency (IF), 228
house wiring, 239-41
path. 228-31
integrated circuit, 124, 126
voltage, 147
inverter, 219
Silicon, 99, 106-8
iron-core choke, 70-71
Sine wave as type of alternating current
lamp, 156, 157
waveform, 21
meter, 170, 171
Single in-line package (SIP) resistor network,
microphone, 161-62
31-32
miscellaneous, 170-72
Slide switch, 132, 134, 153
motor, 168-69
Small-scale integration (SSI) circuits, 124
packaged electronic circuit, 189-91
Solenoids, 169-70, 171
phono cartridge, 165
Solid-state relay, 142-44
plug and socket, 178-81, 183
Sound
power rectifier, 100, 109
modulating, 230
relay, 140-41, 143-44
waves. See Microphones and Speakers
resistor, 32-34, 38, 40-42, 188-899
Source of a field-effect transistor, 118-19
signal and switching diode, 101
Spdt switches, 130-31
single-wire connector, 180
Speakers, 147-50, 160, 162, 166 solenoid, 169-70, 171
Special resistors, 40-42
speakers, 149-50, 181
Spider in a speaker, 148 switch, 130, 131, 132, 135-36
Spst switches, 129-30 tape head, 166-68
Stator in variable capacitor, 60
terminal, 183, 185-86
Storage diode, 109
thyristor, 107
Stringing, diagram of dial cord, 15 tip, ring, and sleeve, 182, 184-85
Substrate, 119-21, 122
transducer, 162-63
Suppressor grid, 86-87, 198 transformer, 73-75, 77-78, 187-89
Switch(es), 129-39 transistor, 116-17, 120-23
double-pole, single-throw (DPST) and
tube, 80, 81, 82-83, 84-89, 91-93,
double-throw (DPDT), 131-32
188-89
gated, 108 variation, 3, 7-8
knife, 129-32
Tape heads, 166-68 Tube(s)—cont.

Tapped and adjustable resistors, 32-34 gas-filled, 89
Tapped windings, 72 ionically heated cathode, 89
Telecommunications links in flowcharts, 210 multifunction, 87-89
Television receiver, chassis layout diagram of pentagrid, 87
a, 11 pentode, 86, 197
Temperature coefficient photomultiplier, 90-91
capacitor, 50-53, 55 phototubes as a type of, 90-91
negative (NTC) and positive (PTC), 40 symbols for, 80, 81, 82-83, 84-89, 91-93,
Temperature-compensating resistors, 40 188-89
Temperature-sensitive diodes, 109 television picture, 94
Tetrode tubes, 84-86 tetrode, 84-86, 197
Thermal resistors, 40 triode, 82, 197
Thermistors, 40-41 voltages, 82-84, 114, 198
Thyratron, 89, 106 Tuning capacitor used for current, 72
Thyristor(s), 106-8, 142 Tunnel diode, 108-9
bidirectional triode, 107-8
Toggle switch, 132
Unijunction transistors, 122-23
Tolerance, 29-31, 48-53
Transducers, 110, 162-63
Transformer(s), 71-78 Varactor, 101
air-core, 72-73 Variable
audio coupling, 74, 77 capacitors, 60-62
autotransformer type of, 77-78 resistors, 35-39
and coil combinations, 187-89 Varicap, 101
coupling, 195-96 Vertical axis, 20-21
defined, 71 Vertical deflection plates, 91-92
ferrite-core, 72 Very large-scale integration (VLSI) circuits,
in hybrid solid-state relays, 143 124
iron-core, 72, 73-78 Video cassette recorders, 168
power, 74, 76 Views, exploded, 14-15, 16, 39
symbols for, 73-75, 77-78 Voltage(s)
types of, 72-78 alternating, 194, 231
Transistors), 113-23 automatic voltage control (AVC), 230
amplifiers, 198 on capacitors, 48-50, 52, 54, 59, 60, 194
bipolar, 113-17, 198-202 and current, 231-32
development of the, 113 defined, 19
field-effect, 117-21 formula for measuring, 26
insulated-gate field-effect, 117, 119-20 oscillating, in crystals, 158-59
junction field-effect, 117-18 regulator, 104
metal oxide semiconductor field-effect, schematic simplified representation of, 176
119-20 transformer used with winding to alter the
symbols for, 116-17, 120-23 amount of, 72
unijunction, 122-23 transistor, 202
Trigger voltage, 106 tube, 82-84, 114, 198
Trigger diac, 105 Voltage-dependent resistors, 41-42
Trimmer capacitor, 60, 61
Triode
Wafer
thyristor, bidirectional, 107-8
semiconductor, 120
tubes, 82, 197
switches, 132-36
Truth table for binary circuits and logic gates,
Watt as the unit of current measurement, 26
218-24
Tube(s) Waves
bases, 81 electromagnetic, 145
beam power, 86-87 sound. See Microphone and Speakers
cathode-ray, 91-94 Windings, 72
Wires, representing connecte an unconnected,
circuits, basic, 195-98
173-74, 180, 188-89
cold-cathode, 89
Wirewound resistor, 28, 29, 34
diode, 79-80
Wiring, symbols for house, 239-41
electron, 79-94
electrostatic, 91-92
function to amplify signals, 82 Zener diode, 104-5
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How To Read Schematics

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How To Read Schematics

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How to Read

Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a

International Standard Book Number: 0-672-22457-7

Editing: Louis Keglovits

Printed in the United States of A merica

4 Coils and Transformers 65

7 Transistors and Integrated

8 Switches and Relays 129

9 Miscellaneous Components 145

10 Connecting the Components 173

** £ o m k' n ' n 9 *he Components 193

13 Digital Circuits 215

14 Reading and Interpreting

A House Wiring Symbols 239

B Appliance Symbols 243

C Answers to Questions 247

Why Schematics and Symbols?

cuit can be sketched in a short time. Also, because the

Information Conveyed by Schematics

wfih a" Cassette T SChema!ic of a amplifier used

Electrical measurements obtained at the various points

n+n Denotes chassis.

a Z:™'XoT '"Play" Unle"

* Measured in "Record" with Audio VIVM or equivalent meter

Fig. 1-1. Schematic of a

Table 1-1. Recommended Class Letters

Q JhoTotrs'ist?' thyratr°n <-miconductor type),

R Resistor, potentiometer, rheostat, instrument or relay

the weights of lines and other minor differences do not

the values for the components usually will be the same,

Fig. 1-3. Block diagram of the cassette recorder of Fig. 1-1.

the schematic, it is nevertheless useful because it is easier

overall operation and functions of a unit, the block dia­

CHASSIS LAYOUT DIAGRAMS

PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTORIAL

location of parts. For examole c & ea«y simplifies the

Fig. 1-5. Photo of a portion of a chassis wi«k

Fig. 1-6. Photo of a portion of a chassis with a grid structure for

Fig. 1-7. Dial cord stringing diagram.

but the relationship of each part to the others is main­

important to our discussion here). The proton has a mi­

(A) Helium. (B) Copper.

Fig. 1-9. Comparison of a helium atom and a copper atom.

Since like electrical charges repel each other and unlike

of the orbiting electrons is sufficient to counteract the

Fig. 1-10. Simplified concept of electron flow.

all™?-,"' Th 7 Single electron in its °wer shell, readily

The flow of electrons can be com n ^ •

opened, the flow of electrons through the wire is stopped.

Alternating and Direct Current

Fig. 1-11. Electron flow.

Likewise, a deficiency of electrons is created at the center

current, and the horizontal axis represents time

current through the wire would flow fi ^°U ^ SCC that

(A) Direct current. (B) Alternating current (sine wave).

(C) Varying direct current. (D) Alternating current.

Fig. 1-12. Direct ond alternating current waveforms.

the direction of electron flow (current) is not practical, but

to COnCePtS in mind' « is now possible

effect each will have on the flow

Also, when current flows through a resistor, a voltage is

Some resistors have a carbon film deposited on a

overall operation and functions of a unit, the block dia

but the relationship of each part to the others is main

important to our discussion here). The proton has a mi

th^ \xec resjstor is usually marked in some way to sh<

pie, the one in Fig. 2-5B contains thirteen 10-kilohm resis

A switch may also be included on the back of a Potenti