Arc Flash &

Electrical Safety
FA L L E D I T I O N
Contents

3 — Arc flash and electrical safety: Compliance and

best practices

6 — How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

16 — Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for

critical networks

23 — Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

33 — Why short circuit current matters

2
Arc flash and electrical safety:
Compliance and best practices  Back to TOC

An arc flash incident is one of the most significant hazards that

electrical maintenance workers may face. Five tips for preventing arc
flash are highlighted.

E lectrical safety is of paramount importance in the workplace, and it is crucial for

electrical maintenance personnel to have a clear understanding of the hazards they
may encounter. One of the most significant hazards that electrical maintenance work-
ers may face is an arc flash. This blog will discuss what arc flash is, how it occurs, why
electrical safety is so important, why compliance with NFPA 70E and OSHA is critical
and some best practices to prevent arc flash.

What is arc flash in the workplace?

Arc flash is a dangerous electrical phenomenon that occurs when an electric current
jumps between two conductive objects. This phenomenon results in a release of en-
ergy in the form of light and heat, which can cause severe injury, burns or even death.
Arc flash can occur in any industry with electrical equipment, including manufacturing,
construction and maintenance.

How does arc flash occur?

Arc flash occurs when there is a breakdown in the insulation between two conductive
objects. This breakdown can be caused by a number of factors, including human error,
equipment failure, or environmental factors such as moisture or dust. Once the insula-
tion is breached, an electrical current can jump between the two conductive objects,
resulting in an arc flash. When it comes to preventing arc flash, electrical safety is es-
3
Arc flash and electrical safety: Compliance and best practices

sential in the workplace because electrical hazards can result in severe injury or death.  Back to TOC
Electrical hazards can also cause significant property damage and result in costly
downtime.

Why is it important to comply with NFPA 70E and OSHA?

Compliance with NFPA 70E and OSHA is critical for ensuring the safety of electrical
maintenance personnel. NFPA 70E provides guidelines for electrical safety in the work-
place, including requirements for training, personal protective equipment (PPE) and
hazard assessments. OSHA provides a framework for developing and implementing
safety procedures to protect workers from electrical hazards.

Five best practices to prevent arc flash

Implementing best practices to prevent arc flash can help to reduce the risk of electri-
cal hazards in the workplace. Here are some examples:

1. Conduct a hazard assessment: Conducting a hazard assessment can help identi-

fy potential electrical hazards in the workplace and determine the appropriate PPE
for electrical maintenance personnel.

2. Use lockout/tagout procedures: Lockout/tagout (LOTO) procedures can prevent

accidental energization of electrical equipment during maintenance or repair.

3. Provide appropriate PPE: Providing appropriate PPE such as arc-rated clothing,

gloves and face shields can help protect electrical maintenance personnel from
arc flash.

4
Arc flash and electrical safety: Compliance and best practices

4. Use warning labels: Warning labels can alert personnel to potential electrical  Back to TOC
hazards and provide information on proper PPE and safety procedures.

5. Use permanent electrical safety devices (PESDs): PESDs are permanently in-
stalled voltage indicator and test point devices that improve safety and productiv-
ity when performing electrical maintenance procedures such as LOTO.

Arc flash and LOTO compliance statistics

According to the BLS, in 2019, there were 160 fatalities due to exposure to electrici-
ty, and 2,530 non-fatal injuries involving days away from work. Failure to follow LOTO
procedures was one of the top 10 most frequently cited OSHA violations in 2022, with
1,977 violations.

Arc flash is a significant hazard that electrical maintenance personnel may encounter in
the workplace. It is essential to comply with NFPA 70E 120.5 Process for Establishing an
Electrically Safe Working Condition and implement best practices to prevent arc flash.
By doing so, we can help to reduce the risk of electrical hazards and ensure the safety
of all workers.

Nick Schiltz
Nick Schiltz is a copywriter for Grace Technologies located in Davenport, Iowa. The
company specializes in electrical safety products and predictive maintenance solutions.
During his five years at Grace, Schiltz has published more than 250 blog posts rang-
ing in topics from electrical safety best practices to the future impact of the industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) in the industrial space.

5
How to assess transformer
condition using liquids testing  Back to TOC

By regularly testing a transformer’s liquid, condition information can be

tracked and acted upon if needed

A n insulating liquid sample can reveal a wide variety of information about the
condition of an electrical asset; this includes evidence of overheating, partial dis-
charge and arcing, paper degradation, water ingress, oxidation, presence of chemical
and physical contaminants and more.

Consequently, insulating liquid testing is a key method for assessing a transformer’s

condition and identifying incipient faults before they become critical. A single mea-
surement is valuable, and trending changes in the data over time enhances the diag-
nosis by revealing the severity of the situation and enables asset managers to plan
appropriate actions. This could involve offline electrical tests to determine the underly-
ing cause, fitting online monitoring devices to monitor the condition of the asset more
effectively or scheduling a repair or replacement.

Importance of a high-quality transformer sample

Ensuring good results for an electrical component assessment starts with delivering
a good insulating liquid sample to the lab. Even perfectly performed lab tests are
rendered meaningless if they are based on a poor sample. Failing to take the sample
correctly will inevitably lead to poor results and the additional cost of having to retake
the sample and perform the analysis yet again.

A good sample needs to be truly representative of the bulk liquid circulating within the
6
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

electrical equipment. Getting to this representative insulating liquid requires several  Back to TOC
liters to be flushed through the sampling pipework and into an appropriate waste con-
tainer before collecting the sample proper. In the process of waiting for the flushing to
complete, this insulating liquid can be used to rinse the sample container and caps to
ensure they are free from contamination.

When taking a sample, it is beneficial that the container is large enough to hold the
amount of insulating liquid needed with some extra just in case the lab needs to re-
peat a test to verify unusual results; this typically means about 1 liter.

There are many suitable containers for taking an insulating liquid sample and each has
its own benefits and pitfalls. Generally, glass or aluminum bottles or metal cans are the
preferred options. The container should properly seal the sample, preventing ingress
and egress of any liquids and gases. Because insulating liquids can degrade in sun-
light (photodegradation) leading to the synthesis of hydrogen or an increase in acid
number, the containers, sleeves and/or packaging should be lightproof to protect the
sample from sunlight.

Plastic bottles should be avoided because water molecules can easily diffuse through
the container walls, thus increasing the water content of the sample. Studies have re-
vealed that tenths of parts per million, aka ppm, of water can enter the sample during
transportation and storage before testing. Conversely, small molecules like hydrogen
can diffuse out of the oil through the plastic container walls, which decreases the con-
centration ultimately measured in the sample.

Lastly, it’s important to pack the samples well to avoid damage during transportation
7
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

 Back to TOC

to the testing laboratory. Make sure the bottoms of the Figure 1: Duval triangles represented
in InsideView Software, a Doble
bottles are protected as well.
Engineering Software. Courtesy:
Doble Engineering
Using dissolved gas analysis to assess
transformer condition
Dissolved gas analysis, or DGA, is arguably the most powerful tool in the industry when
it comes to assessing transformer condition. Commonly performed according to ASTM
D3612C and known as the headspace method (also detailed in IEC 60567), this diag-
nostic test measures the concentration of certain key gases dissolved in the insulating
liquid. Additionally, if samples are taken at regular intervals, the rate of gas genera-
tion can also be determined. This information enables specialists to understand which
faults are emerging and their severity.

While acetylene is the most important gas to measure for detecting severe faults, 8
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

all gases are important from an incipient fault perspective. The types and quantities  Back to TOC
of gases that form within the insulating liquid will unveil the nature of the fault and
determine whether it involves the solid insulation, is a thermal or electrical issue
and whether there is a leak within the sealed system or premature degradation in an
open system.

There are many recognized methods for interpreting DGA data — with insufficient time
to review here — as well as suggested gas limits in guides such as IEEE C57.104-2019
and IEC 60599. Nevertheless, it’s important to remember that allowance must be made
for factors such as the type of the dielectric liquid involved (silicone, mineral or ester liq-
uids). However, a high-level summary of DGA interpretation (see Figure 1) would include:

• Acetylene usually indicates arcing or a high-temperature thermal condition.

• To check for partial discharge, look at hydrogen levels.

• For low-temperature faults, pay close attention to ethane and methane.

• Ethylene is an indicator of a high-temperature thermal issue.

• In temperate climates, high levels of carbon monoxide are a sign of paper deg-
radation, whereas in hotter climates, high levels of carbon monoxide can persist
without other indicators of paper degradation being present.

• High levels of carbon dioxide can indicate general overheating of the paper insulation.

9
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

A single set of DGA data fails to inform us whether the gas concentrations are stable,  Back to TOC
increasing or even subsiding or indeed how long they have been there or if they are
associated with a known incident like a transient condition or if they occur when the
transformer is stressed in a particular manner. All that is known is that gases are pres-
ent and the concentration of each. This may indicate an issue, but it cannot indicate
whether there is an active problem.

Therefore, a trend of several data points needs to be established, which will inform the
asset manager if the gassing is stable, becoming more intense or is progressing from
one fault type to another.

Even after having established the DGA trend, as with all diagnostic tests, context is
paramount. Know the normal behavior for an asset, its age and local conditions, such
as ambient temperature, loading, transients, harmonics or other circumstances that
would explain the gases in the oil. Comparing gassing of an asset to sister units (if
available) can provide additional information. Changes in the gassing levels may have
been caused by a change in loading pattern or a through fault.

Also consider any maintenance activities that have been performed. Have any repairs been
made? What electrical tests have been conducted? If results from several transformers
have changed, has there been a change in the sampling procedure or the laboratory used?

Under some circumstances degassing of the transformer insulating liquid is undertaken

— typically, when filling a new transformer or after maintenance that has exposed the
core and windings. This inevitably changes DGA values and requires new benchmark
tests to reestablish the trend in gas behavior over a period (at least three months). It is
important to remember that degassing the oil will not fix the underlying cause of the 10
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

problem; it erases the DGA trend and, as a  Back to TOC

procedure, is not risk free even when using
competent contractors.

Understanding oil quality data

The diagnostic value of monitoring chang-
es in the chemical, physical and dielectric
properties of the insulating liquid cannot
be understated, as these can also degrade
over time and affect the performance of
the transformer. Here, we consider some
of the other tests that provide further valu-
able information about oil quality.

Water is the most damaging molecule in

the transformer. When dissolved in the
insulating liquid, it catalyzes reactions,
weakens bonds, attracts other polar con-
Figure 2: The foreground show special
tamination to the paper and allows acids to be aggres- bottles used for corrosive sulfur
sive. Conversely, free water in oil will generally sink to testing. The background is graduated
the bottom of the transformer where it contributes to cylinders used in everyday lab activity.
Courtesy: Doble Engineering
tank corrosion; if it precipitates onto a winding due to
oversaturation, it can cause flashovers.

Water concentrations are generally much lower in the insulating liquid compared to
the paper. Typically, water exists at parts per million levels in the insulating liquid com-
11
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

pared to single-figure percentage levels  Back to TOC

in the paper. This is because paper itself
has polar components (e.g., hydrogen
bonding), which although giving the pa-
per additional mechanical strength, also
attracts water molecules. The presence
of water in the paper is important as it
disrupts the hydrogen bonds reducing
the physical strength of the paper.

Knowing how water partitions between

the insulating liquid and paper means
that by measuring the water content in
the insulating liquid, the content in the
paper can be calculated. Nevertheless,
different insulating liquids have different
levels of affinity for water. Thus, it is im-
portant to know which oil is being tested
as the difference is particularly marked
Figure 3: Breakdown voltage
between mineral oils and ester liquids.
cell dielectric strength testing
for insulating liquids. Courtesy:
To further complicate the situation, the polarity of the in- Doble Engineering

sulating liquid can be affected by aging byproducts, espe-

cially in mineral oils. It is therefore better to examine the relative saturation of water in
an insulating liquid rather than parts per million. It should remain below 50% to retain
adequate dielectric breakdown voltage.
12
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

Under particular circumstances, the water in  Back to TOC

the paper can generate gas bubbles, for ex-
ample, during transformer overloading events
or during startup before adequate oil circu-
lation is established. Under these conditions,
the conductors can heat the paper above
100°C causing water to vaporize, thereby
increasing the likelihood of bubble formation,
which in turn can lead to partial discharge (PD)
and risks localized physical PD damage. The
probability of bubble formation is dependent
on both the concentration of the water in the
paper and temperature; for example, with 2%
by dry weight of water in the paper, the risk of
bubble formation is very low below 140°C.

Transformer insulating liquids are designed Figure 4: Setup for ASTM

to provide electrical insulation under high-electrical fields. D1816 testing of a breakdown
voltage cell. Courtesy: Doble
Any significant reduction in the dielectric strength may
Engineering
indicate that the insulating liquid is no longer capable of
performing this vital function. Breakdown voltage is a mea-
sure of the electrical stress the insulating liquid can withstand without breaking down.
The test is conducted by increasing the voltage between two electrodes within a test
vessel containing the test insulating liquid until the insulating liquid breaks down.
Sampling technique plays a significant role in obtaining meaningful breakdown volt-
age results, particles and fibers accidentally introduced during cleaning the test cell or
13
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

sampling bottles (chamois leather, cotton rags, paper towels) can all drastically reduce  Back to TOC
the measured result.

Accelerated transformer aging

Transformers typically last at least 40 years even though the design life is usually
around 25 years — but that is not by accident. Keeping the asset sealed and operating
at or below nameplate will preserve this life expectancy. High temperatures, elevated
levels of oxygen, water content, acidity and sludging — all in the presence of other
catalytic factors like copper in the windings, silver contacts and iron — can speed up
the aging of paper and insulating oil, as well as corrode the metal in the transformer.

Three recommended tests identify oil aging or contamination, thus enabling early in-
tervention:

1. Power factor testing measures the dielectric losses of the insulating liquid. As the in-
sulating liquid oxidizes or polymerizes with increasing time in service, the polar con-
tent increases, which can be detected through increased power factor. This test can
also detect the presence of other contamination in the insulating liquid and while it
cannot identify the actual molecules, highlights the need for further investigation.

2. Color tests are a simple rapid indicator of aging in the insulation system; the dark-
er the oil sample, the more aged the oil.

3. Interfacial tension (IFT) is an indirect measure of the polar nature of the insulating
liquid and provides powerful insight into early oil oxidation and polar contaminants,
such as water or acids. The test measures the strength of the separation between
water and the oil or natural ester sample. Oil/natural ester and water should form
14
How to assess transformer condition using liquids testing

distinct layers when there is little contamination present, but as the oil/natural ester  Back to TOC
becomes aged or wet, the tension between the liquids becomes less distinct and
therefore weaker, such that a lower IFT result is worse than a higher one. It should
be noted that IFT is also affected by the presence of detergents such that residual
deposits from cleaning sampling equipment, sampling containers or the test vessel
with such surfactants can have a dramatic effect on this test parameter.

Other insulating liquid quality tests such as acidity and relative density can be per-
formed in tandem for a more in-depth examination of the characteristics of the insulat-
ing liquid. It takes gross contamination, aging or overprocessing for these properties
to change significantly, so if either of these values fluctuates between tests, it could be
cause for concern. If an issue with the insulating liquid does present itself, there are
other investigative tests that can be employed.

Analysis of insulating liquid samples collected from transformers is the starting point
for understanding the condition of the asset. The applied tests can reveal a lot about
incipient faults or developing problems; nevertheless, additional contextual informa-
tion and further electrical testing may be required to build a complete picture of the
underlying problem and diagnose the root cause.

This article was provided by the InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA),
and originally appeared in its publication. Doble Engineering Co. is a NETA member.

Simon Sutton, Ph.D, Lance Lewand and Andy Davies

Simon Sutton, Ph.D, is Director of Services for Altanova, a Doble company. Lance R.
Lewand is the Technical Director for the Doble Insulating Materials Laboratory. Andy
Davies is Transformer Oil Services Engineer for Doble. 15
Prioritizing electrical safety and
cybersecurity for critical networks  Back to TOC

Facility managers and control engineers need to learn more about the
information technology (IT) side of things. Ensuring electrical safety and
reliability is critical and should not be overlooked.

C ybersecurity is often associated with data and information technology (IT) per-
sonnel, but the traditional responsibilities of IT and operational technology (OT)
teams are steadily converging as equipment connectivity and electrification increase
in critical environments. This means facility managers and control engineers need to
understand more about networking and systems administration, while IT teams must
know more about the types of technologies used and uptime requirements.

When defining the responsibility of managing OT cybersecurity, it’s important for orga-
nizations to ensure electrical safety and reliability are not an oversight, and the respon-
sibility of managing OT cybersecurity is defined. Engineers can better protect them-
selves and their facilities.

1. Why is OT cybersecurity an important topic?

When an application is critical, like a hospital, airport, or industrial control system, the
supporting electrical infrastructure automatically becomes mission critical. This means
cybersecurity measures should be in place to prevent power system disruptions that
could impact the uptime of those critical applications.

This also means it is important to employ personnel or trusted third parties who fully
understand electrical safety codes and standards in addition to a facility’s technology,
16
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

connectivity systems, criti-  Back to TOC

cal processes and cyberse-
curity risks.

2. What are the

electrical safety
risks of securing
OT?
OT networks monitor and
ensure the safety of build-
ing and facility infrastruc-
ture that operate critical
processes, including motor
controls, power distribution
and protection, fire detec-
tion systems, and more.
When these systems and
To address potential vulnerabilities,
components are networked for monitoring, data collec-
critical industries require expertise
tion and insights, they can form an attack surface from in power systems engineering and
which cybercriminals can gain access. cybersecurity. Courtesy: Eaton

An IT security professional who has not completed proper training on handling elec-
trical equipment or been through a facility safety briefing does not have the requisite
preparation to make informed decisions when it comes to securing these environ-
ments.

17
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

Unlike today’s cutting-edge IT networks, OT systems often contain a mix of legacy  Back to TOC
and modern equipment. In the past, OT equipment was cut off or “air-gapped”
from all communications networks to minimize vulnerability. Today, operational
technology needs to be connected to broader communication networks to support
more informed, real-time decisions. This means cybersecurity professionals may be
required to open energized electrical enclosures to capture network traffic or up-
date firmware, which necessitates a strong emphasis on electrical safety codes and
standards.

3. What codes and standards are relevant for electrical safety?

Interacting with any energized equipment is high risk, requiring a thorough under-
standing of electrical safety codes and standards outlined by the National Fire Protec-
tion Association (NFPA) in the following documents:

• NFPA 70: The National Electrical Code (NEC) — provides installation requirements

• NFPA 70E-2021 — covers the topic of electrical safety in the workplace

• NFPA 70B — covers electrical equipment maintenance.

NFPA 70E includes requirements for safe work practices to protect personnel by reduc-
ing exposure to major electrical hazards, including shock, electrocution, arc flash and
arc blast. These requirements rely on proper installation (in accordance with the NEC)
and maintenance (performed in accordance with NFPA 70B).

NFPA 70B also covers critical requirements for safely accessing and evaluating many
18
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

common OT technologies, such as motor controls, automatic transfer switches and  Back to TOC
more. The code provides guidance on topics such as:

• Required personal protective equipment (PPE)

• Safety/hazards assessment

• Safety instrumented systems

• Lockout/tagout (LOTO) and safe work procedures

• Common failure modes for equipment under control.

Newcomers to the electrical industry must take (at minimum) a three-week training
program and pass multiple live demonstration tests at Eaton before working on ener-
gized equipment under the supervision of a seasoned professional. It typically takes
upward of a year of in-person training and support before maintenance professionals
are prepared to safely work on or around energized equipment on their own. The same
stringent training processes and commitment to electrical safety should apply to pro-
fessionals tasked with securing OT networks and systems.

4. Why are qualified workers so important?

Traditionally, a trained cybersecurity personnel is well-versed on the system character-
istics of confidentiality, integrity and availability, but they are not trained on electrical
safety and system reliability operations. This challenge goes both ways. For example,
electrical engineers aren’t often trained on cybersecurity, and cybersecurity personnel
aren’t often trained on electrical safety.
19
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

Addressing cybersecurity on OT networks requires comprehensive cross-functional  Back to TOC

considerations and typically is not the responsibility of any single discipline or entity
within an organization, resulting in distributed or ambiguous ownership.

Specific real-time consideration of the availability, performance, safety and other needs
of the system should be considered. Often, given the embedded nature of compo-
nents in these networks, typical IT methods, tools and policies are either not effective
or can damage the system. Scanning a system of laptops and workstations with a tool
designed for these assets is different than scanning a network of controllers and other
embedded devices. The impact of improper interaction with these systems can range
from a device failure or process disruption to random data dumped onto a network.

5. What skillsets are required to secure OT systems?

The essential know-how revolves around advancing safety, reliability and cybersecurity
throughout the entire lifecycle of the facility. The ability to safely assess, interact and
harden the equipment found in critical power systems help minimize risk to personnel
and reduces the likelihood of downtime.

For example, a failure in physical processes used to evaluate the cybersecurity of crit-
ical power system architecture can result in a direct failure in the critical application.
Extreme efforts are made at the design, build and operational phases to ensure contin-
uous operation and reliability in critical environments. Electrical infrastructure is com-
plex and requires highly qualified personnel to secure it. If an individual is not familiar
with the basic principles of electrical safety, accidents are more likely and can result in
personal injury and downtime.

20
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

Therefore, action items for personnel tasked with the OT cybersecurity of any opera-  Back to TOC
tion should include the ability to:

• Inventory all connected hardware, software and dataflows

• Assess facility OT networks and assets to evaluate the attack surface and discover
known vulnerabilities and weaknesses

• Understand critical processes and how cybersecurity processes could negatively

impact uptime

• Evaluate the electrical safety codes and requirements associated with lifecycle cy-
bersecurity maintenance to support personnel safety, uptime and compliance.

Together, these tasks require comprehensive knowledge of:

• OT and ICS applications and processes

• Electrical safety codes and standards

• Electrical reliability and uptime

• Industrial network defense

• Cybersecurity regulation and guidance

21
Prioritizing electrical safety and cybersecurity for critical networks

• Cybersecurity assessment and vulnerability detection  Back to TOC

• Defensive technologies and approaches

• Lifecycle cybersecurity maintenance.

6. What else about power systems, electrical safety and cy-

bersecurity requires mentioning?
Cybersecurity risks to connected systems have never been greater, as malicious threat
actors look to exploit system vulnerabilities. To address potential vulnerabilities, critical
industries require expertise in power systems engineering and cybersecurity. The goal
is to safely assess, interact and secure critical power system networks without risking
the safety of personnel or uptime of critical processes. This is complex and requires
in-depth training and experience. Sometimes, it is best to bridge this critical knowl-
edge gap by partnering with an experienced third-party organization that understands
the risks associated with unique operations. At the end of the day, the most important
thing is protecting what matters: personnel, data and critical processes.

Anthony Ciccozzi
Anthony Ciccozzi is lead cybersecurity engineer at Eaton.

22
Back to basics: Switchgear,
transformers and UPSs  Back to TOC

Switchgear, transformers and uninterruptible power supplies are among the

largest, costliest and most critical devices in a facility

A n understanding of the operation, construction and application of operation of

switchgear, transformers and uninterruptible power supplies is important for de-
signers, specifiers, facility owners and construction managers who may be called on to
render decisions about design, project budgets and available space.

Switchgear
Switchgear is electrical distribution equipment: it accepts power from a source, routes
it to a number of outputs and provides overcurrent protection and control functions.
Of the types of distribution equipment described in the NFPA 70: National Electrical
Code Article 408: Switchboards, Switchgear and Panelboards, switchgear is generally
the most robustly constructed, the largest and the most expensive. It’s typically applied
in high-reliability facilities, like hospitals or data centers, where continuity of power is
critical to effective operation.

Switchgear is available in a wide range of voltage ratings, from below 1,000 volts to
more than 200 kilovolts. Medium-voltage switchgear, rated above 1,000 volts, is manu-
factured in a variety of configurations. Assemblies are available for exterior padmount
installation, vault installation or installed in dedicated freestanding metal buildings,
with air, gas, vacuum or oil as insulating media. This discussion will focus on interior
low-voltage switchgear.

23
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

The alternative to switchgear is switchboard construction. Switchboards generally require  Back to TOC
less space and are less expensive. Both are typically constructed of a number of vertical
sections. Each section is enclosed in sheet metal, with openings in front for overcurrent
protection devices, monitoring equipment and control devices. A section may contain a
main overcurrent protection device, metering devices, automatic control and monitor-
ing systems, overcurrent protection devices for distribution feeders or a combination of
these or other equipment specific to the installation. Overcurrent protection is typically
accomplished with circuit breakers, with fused switches are less frequently.

LV switchgear is constructed to UL 1558: Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage

Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear. Switchboards are constructed under UL 891: Switch-
boards. UL 1558 incorporates a number of requirements that enhance the reliability,
durability and maintainability over UL 891.

Switchgear breakers are typically installed four high in a vertical section, individually
mounted. Each circuit breaker is separated by solid barriers from other breakers and
from the rest of the assembly. In a typical switchgear assembly, the horizontal and vertical
buses are enclosed in a bus compartment to the rear of the breaker compartments and
this bus compartment is isolated from the rest of the assembly using insulating barriers.

Finally, the cable connections are in the rear compartment, which is isolated from the
bus compartment with an insulating barrier. These separations and barriers, prescribed
by UL 1558, are intended to increase the reliability and maintainability of switchgear by
limiting the possibility of contact between conductors attached to adjacent breakers
during installations or maintenance and to minimize any damage to adjacent compo-
nents in the event that an arcing fault should develop. Switchboards, under UL 891, are
not required to provide the same level of isolation between components. 24
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

Circuit breakers installed in LV switchgear are required to meet UL 1066: Standard for  Back to TOC
Low-Voltage AC and DC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures. This standard
requires that circuit breakers have a 30-cycle withstand rating, describing the level of
fault current that they can tolerate for 0.5 seconds without damage. The instantaneous
trip function can thus be delayed, to allow downstream breakers to clear a fault without
tripping the switchgear breaker, facilitating selective coordination.

The switchboard standard allows breakers built to UL 489: Molded-Case Circuit Break-
ers, Molded-Case Switches and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures. Breakers built to this stan-
dard are required only to have a 3-cycle withstand, 0.05 seconds. For these breakers,
the instantaneous trip function cannot be delayed to facilitate selective coordination.
Use of fused switches is also allowed. The applicable standard for enclosed switches is
NEMA KS1: Heavy Duty Enclosed and Dead-Front Switches.

Switchgear ratings include:

• Insulation level. • Maximum continuous current.

• Maximum voltage. • Power frequency.

• Short-circuit withstand current. • Short time withstand current.

In a typical installation, LV switchgear is connected to the secondary of a power trans-

former — either the utility’s service transformer or a facility transformer. Where service
is at medium voltage, a power transformer may be close-coupled to the switchgear,
with the two assemblies bolted together to form a single unit. The resulting assembly
25
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

is called a “unit substation.” The distribution breakers of the switchgear will typically  Back to TOC
serve feeders to large facility loads, such as chillers, large transformers or large UPSs
— or other distribution equipment, such as switchboards, motor control centers, pan-
elboards or, rarely, other switchgear assemblies.

Switchgear has definite advantages over switchboard construction in terms of reliability

and maintainability. The decision of which system to use on a particular project will de-
pend on a variety of factors. Switchboard construction requires a considerably smaller
footprint to provide the same distribution and protection functions, so available space
will have an impact on the selection. Switchgear is considerably more expensive, with a
cost penalty on the order of 60% to 100%, so a tight project budget will bias the deci-
sion toward switchboard constructions. And, in projects where selective coordination is
challenging, particularly on an emergency system where strict coordination is required
by NEC Article 700.28, switchgear may be the necessary solution.

Transformers
A transformer is an alternating-current electromagnetic device that magnetically moves
power from one or more primary circuits to one or more secondary circuits. The pri-
mary and secondary circuits secondary circuits typically operate different voltages and
currents, with the ratio between them determined by the transformer’s characteristics.
Requirements for transformers are described in NEC Article 450.

Transformers are ubiquitous in modern life, with a variety of characteristics, ratings and
uses. On the high-power end of the scale, electric utilities use large power transform-
ers to connect transmission systems operating at different voltages. On the small end,
tiny signal transformers are used to connect communication equipment to Ethernet
26
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

systems and microscopic transformers have even been printed in integrated circuits.  Back to TOC
Transformers used in facility distribution systems fall between those extremes.

A transformer operates on the principle of magnetic induction, an electromagnetic

principle that states that a voltage will develop across a conductor in the presence of
a changing magnetic field. Magnetic induction was discovered and quantified in the
19th century by scientists whose contributions were so significant that their names have
been attached to electrical units of measure and laws of physics. A thorough treatment
of magnetic induction would require many times the space available here, so it will be
treated qualitatively in this discussion of transformer operation.

In an elementary implementation, a simple transformer might consist of an iron ring,

called the “core,” with one primary and one secondary each making multiple loops
around the ring, called “coils.”. When the primary is energized with alternating current,
the primary coil generates a magnetic field that varies in magnitude and direction with
the input power.

In theory, that magnetic field exists throughout all space, but the magnetic characteristics
of the iron core concentrate nearly all of the magnetic field within the body of the ring,
where it passes through both the primary and secondary coils. The time-varying magnetic
field running through the secondary coil induces a voltage across those coils by magnet-
ic induction. The quotient of the number of primary loops and the number of secondary
loops is called the “turns ratio,” where turns refers to turns of wire around the core. In the
end, the secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage divided by the turns ratio.

Real-world transformers are much more complex than the naïve implementation de-
scribed here. For example, most transformers installed in facilities are three-phase 27
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

units, whose core geometry must accommodate three primary and three secondary  Back to TOC
coils. Transformers are often provided with taps on the secondary coil — additional
connection points whose output voltage is slightly higher or lower than the nominal
voltage, for use in applications where voltages lower or higher than normal chronical-
ly occur due to system loading, utility voltage levels or for other reasons. Transformer
cores are typically made from sheets of specialty steel, bonded together with an insu-
lating adhesive, rather than solid iron or steel, to reduced magnetically induced cur-
rents that circulate in the core during operation. A typical facility transformer is mount-
ed inside a metal enclosure, usually with openings for ventilation.

No conductive connection exists between the primary and secondary coils of a trans-
former. The magnetic interaction between the coils forces the voltage between the
secondary conductors to a specific value, but the voltage between either conductor
and its surroundings is, in theory, undefined. For most systems, one of the secondary
conductors must be intentionally connected to ground, to ensure that the voltage on
the secondary doesn’t stray too far from earth potential. Exceptions to that rule are
systems that must be tolerant of a single ground fault, such as isolated power systems
in medical facilities.

Transformer ratings include:

• Capacity, typically expressed in kilovolt amperes, the maximum apparent power

that the transformer can supply to its loads.

• Primary voltage or line voltage — the operating voltage of the primary coil.

28
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

• Secondary voltage or load voltage — the operating voltage of the secondary coil.  Back to TOC

• Temperature rise, typically expressed in degrees Celsius — the difference between

the temperature of the transformer coils and ambient temperature when the trans-
former operates at full load.

Other features of transformers that normally appear in specifications are number of

phases, number and spacing of transformer taps, enclosure characteristics, insulation
medium, impedance and efficiency.

Transformers are not 100% efficient. While most of the input power is delivered to the
secondary terminals, some is lost as heat. These losses can be characterized as load
losses, primarily due to resistance of the coil conductors and no-load losses, primarily
due to magnetic effects inside and outside of the core. These two types of losses are
interdependent, in that designing to reduce one type of losses can raise the other.
For example, load losses can be reduced by constructing the coils from larger wire,
reducing their series resistance. However, larger conductors will place outside layers
further from the core, reducing the effectiveness of magnetic coupling between the
coil and core and raising no-load losses. For most transformers, Department of Ener-
gy rules describe required efficiency levels and specify that transformer efficiency will
be optimized at a load level at or near 35%. Those regulations generally dictate what
trade-offs are between load losses and no-load losses are permissible.

Uninterruptible power supplies

A UPS is an electrical assembly that is designed to provide nearly perfect alternating
current power continuously, with nearly 100% reliability. A UPS is typically deployed to
29
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

support electrical loads that are critical to the business conducted in a facility. UPSs are  Back to TOC
available in very small desktop units to power loads in hundreds of volt-amperes, to
very large enterprise systems rated in thousands of kilowatts.

The function of a UPS is to provide high-quality power to its load when the primary pow-
er source, usually an electric utility, fails or becomes unacceptable. A UPS maintains pow-
er to its load during blackouts, brownouts, voltage sags and swells, loss of a single phase
and other system disturbances, protecting from both loss of power and from damage.

All UPSs contain an energy storage system, most often in the form of chemical batter-
ies (lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion). When the input power fails, a UPS draws
energy from its batteries, converts it to AC and delivers it to the load. A number of
schemes for providing replacement power, called “topologies,” are in common use.

A “double-conversion” UPS, also called an online UPS, continuously converts incoming

AC to direct current using an internal rectifier. The resulting DC power is used to gener-
ate AC power for the load, using an internal inverter and to maintain the charge on the
system batteries. Should the AC input be disrupted, the batteries provide power to the
DC bus and the conversion to AC and delivery to the load continue without interruption.

The term “double-conversion” refers to the fact that the UPS continuously converts
AC to DC and then converts that DC back to AC. With this scheme, the quality of the
output AC does not depend on the quality of the input power, since the output is
independently generated from the DC bus. Because conversion is continuous, there is
no requirement for detection of input power disturbances in order to protect the load.
This topology is seen as highly reliable. It is also generally more expensive and less
efficient, than the alternatives. 30
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

Because a double-conversion UPS continuously generates the output AC, a failure  Back to TOC
inside the UPS can put the continuity of power to the critical load at risk. To address
this vulnerability, these units typically include a static switch — a high-speed electronic
switch connected between input and output — that will connect the input power di-
rectly to the load. The UPS monitors its own output and, should the output fall out of
acceptable limits, the UPS closes the static switch and disconnects itself from the load.

A “single-conversion” or “standby” UPS continuously passes its input power directly

to the load, while the input is acceptable. The UPS monitors the input power for dis-
turbances and, should any appear, it disconnects input power and begins to serve the
load from its batteries through its inverter. This process necessitates a delay between
the input disturbance and the commencement of replacement power, for detection,
realignment of the system and starting the inverter. A standby UPS is therefore applica-
ble to loads with a higher tolerance for system disturbances. This topology is seen as
less reliable than double conversion. It is, however, more efficient, since it doesn’t incur
losses in its rectifier or its inverter in normal operation.

Ratings for uninterruptible power systems include:

• Full load runtime — a function of the battery capacity.

• Input voltage.

• Maximum output apparent power, expressed in volt-amperes.

• Maximum output wattage, expressed in watts.

31
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs

• Output voltages.  Back to TOC

A UPS is typically sized at about 125% of its expected maximum load, estimated for its
entire life cycle. Data center applications call for estimates of aggressive load growth
that sometimes don’t materialize, stranding excess capacity. To address this issue,
some systems are available with modular, hot-swappable power supply and battery
modules to allow incremental capacity and runtime upgrades as load increases.

UPSs require routine maintenance and, like everything else, they sometimes fail in
service. For some systems, a wrap-around maintenance bypass, connecting the load
directly to utility power, is an adequate provision for maintenance and repair activities.
More sensitive systems will require a level of redundancy. Units can be connected in
parallel or in series to provide redundant capacity, with communication and monitoring
among redundant units.

Tom Divine, PE, LEED AP

Tom Divine is a senior electrical engineer at Johnston, LLC.

32
Why short circuit current matters
 Back to TOC
Short circuit current analysis is an essential part of the design and safe
operation of electrical systems and obtaining the right equipment is a
crucial step.

S hort circuit current analysis is an essential part of the design and safe operation of
electrical systems. Many companies have put together arc flash studies and com-
pleted labeling to increase electrical safety, but did you know obtaining equipment
properly rated for a short circuit is just as important as knowing about and mitigating
arc flash dangers?

It’s in the details

As an electrical concept, a short circuit is when an electrical current flows down an un-
intended path with very low impedance. This results in an extremely high current flow-
ing through the circuit. The available short circuit calculated at a point in the system
represents the maximum current flow the system can deliver to that point. The short
circuit rating of an electrical component is then designed and tested for the maximum
current flow that the device can safely withstand.

The National Electric Code says that you must label service equipment with the avail-
able short circuit. Industrial control panels shall not be installed where the available
short circuit current exceeds the listed rating. Systems can act unpredictably when the
available short circuit energy exceeds the listed rating of the equipment.

What could go wrong? The contacts inside a circuit breaker could fuse and not allow
the breaker to clear the fault. Mechanical stresses on the busbars inside a switchboard
could cause them to break their supports and trigger an arc flash event. Equipment in 33
Why short circuit current matters

 Back to TOC

a control panel could “burn up” and no longer function properly. In each of these cas-
es, it can endanger the health of the equipment, safety of personnel, and ability of the
plant to operate normally.

Keeping your plant safe

To avoid these situations, consider these best practices when making modifications to
the electrical system:

• Replacement parts should be identical to the original not to alter the short circuit
rating of the repaired equipment.

34
Why short circuit current matters

• Complete a rudimentary short circuit analysis before ordering new equipment and  Back to TOC
work with the manufacturer to achieve a rating sufficient for the installation.

• Adjust the design of the electrical system to reduce the available short circuit cur-
rent to align with the ratings of the equipment.

As an example, think about a facility considering an air compressor upgrade. The short
circuit analysis would return the following data points:

• The 2500 kVA transformer can deliver approximately 53,000 A of short circuit current.

• The 3000 A switchboard is chosen to be rated at 65 kA to align with the available

system current.

• The 600 A MDP is calculated to have approximately 37,000 A of short circuit cur-
rent available, so the panel is purchased with a 42 kA rating to align with the avail-
able system current.

• The calculated available short circuit current at the 200 A air compressor is ap-
proximately 23,000 A, so the manufacturer supplies a 30 kA rated air compressor
to align with the available system current instead of the typical 5 kA rating for that
machine.

Sam Fopma
Sam Fopma, P.E., senior project engineer, Interstates.

35
 Arc Flash &
Electrical Safety
Content Archive
2023 Summer Edition
Thank you for visiting the Arc Flash & Electrical Safety eBook!
2023 Spring Edition

If you have any questions or feedback about the contents

in this eBook, please contact CFE Media at
customerservice@cfemedia.com

We would love to hear from you!