11 Wave Motion |. Wave Motion. II persons are familiar with the waves, produced on the surface of sr. We know that sound and light energy are transmitted from one to another in the form of waves. This concept of waves is very jamental in nature and is one of the most important means of ferring of energy. We shall first discuss how the waves are produced medium. t us suppose a number of particles in an elastic medium (such as so that one of them cannot move without disturbing its neighbouring icles. Thus, any how if a particle is displaced then a disturbance will roduced in the medium which will be handed on from particle to icle till all of them have suffered greater or less displacements. Now, e particle performs periodic oscillatory motion, then other particles e medium perform the same type of motion with the phase differing larly from one particle to next. Such a disturbance is called wave ion. Thus, @ wave motion may be regurded as a disturbance which is. ied by the particles of an elastic medium executing definite periodic tions about their mean positions, the phase varying particle to particle Which travels with a definite velocity, depending upon the density and elasticity of the medium. 1fthe-disturbance.or state ‘of motion is inuously transmitted along the same direction, then itis called a ¢ is no bodily transfer of the pagates. What travels forward in the passed on from one particle to the the propagation of the wave, the th are thrown into vibrations in energy from one particle to next ium through which the wave pro} ium is a state of motion which is tas the wave advances, Since during icles of the medium lying in its pa ion, obviously the waves pass on fr i x ig their line of eal: Hence in a progressive wave motion there is a transmission of energy along the direction of propagation of the » In stationary waves (which will be discussed later on), the energy lot transfer from one place to another. here are two distinct types of the 505 ¢ motions ; (i) Transverse @ scanned with OKEN Scanner506 | MECHANICS i ecutes oscillatory moy, cle of the medium & illatory mcg ne Orton perpendicular to the eae Of wae | ‘propagation. Ripples on the surface ‘of water, c ee ES Waves produced by the transverse vibrations o a bey e anicle of Gamble a such waves, (ii) Longitudinal wave, in which eae € medium executes > ‘motion about its mean position along the direction op in the air, and the . jot ves, produced in the alr, | the waves wave _propagation.-Sound wa Pp by compressing its one end they wave, in which each about its mean position i transmitted along a stretched spring Oy al waves. releasing it, are the examples of long fu a ae ‘ aie front is a Mteface at every point of which particles of the medium are in the same phase of vibration. Let a disturbance start from any point, Then at any time ¢, it will spread to a sphere of radius vt, where v is the speed of the wave. Obviously all points on this sphere will be in ‘bration and therefore the wave fronts are spherical, the same phase of vil Front Such waves, produced at a point source are spherical in nature. If the points on a plane surface, taken perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, are at any instant jn the same phases, then the wave fronts plane and the waves are said to be plane. Such waves are produced, if either the source is plane (like the vibration of a piston in a gas cylinder) or it is very far off. 4 2. General Equation of Wave Motion. Let a wave train move along the direction of X-axis with velocity v. If we assume the source of wave or any point of X-axis as the origin (t=0), then at any thstant ¢ the displacement of a J particle, situated at the origin, can be represented by the z relation 2 yO where f(@) is any & function of time. This P wave will reach a point P, 4 x distant x from O, after ~ <——___ > x/v seconds. Hence at i any instant = ¢ — the ree displacement y of the particle at P at the origin x/v seconds earlier i.e, J =f (tx) 0 This is the equati Co X-axis with conctant eer aves tavelling along the positive directio® : size of the wave. Similars. the oo eect” F determines the sa negative direction sft cette, eauation of a wave moving along must be the same as the displace he @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 507 y=f(t+x/) e@) Thus, the general equation of a wave, moving along X-axis, may be essed as y =f t-2x/v) +8 ¢+x/) Aae(E)) ere f and g are any two functions. In eq. (1) or (2) y is the function of and distance both. Now partially differentiating eq. (1), we get cee) he ey ny ek ed ar ere f' and /”' are the first and second differentials of f . From q. (4), we have eee De a vat? a ae © This dy/dt represents the particle velocity at the time ¢ and distant x m the origin and dy/ax is the slope of the y-x curve at the same instant d at the same point. Hence, for those waves, travelling along +ve lirection of X-axis, we have Particle velocity = — wave velocity x slope of y - x curve. From eq. (5), we have ay 1, | Wop a? vat ( | This is called one dimensional differential equation of wave motion is is a very important equation. The striking feature of this equation is at the coefficient of derivative on the right hand side represents the are of the wave velocity so that we need not to solve the equation to tain the velocity of propagation of the wave. | In general, when we talk of wave motion, it is not understood that a hysical displacement y must be associated with all waves. The common ture of all waves is the transmission of some sort of disturbance with a locity characteristic of the medium. For example, in the representation f electromagnetic waves, y corresponds to the intensity of electric field or magnetic field (H) and in pressure variation in sound waves y responds to the pressure at a point. This disturbance is represented by eneral symbol y and is the function (t4x/v). Therefore, we can write yp = (x/¥) the solution of the one dimensional wave equation ee (Ta)* If we differentiate partially eq. (3). we will get similarly eq.(7). @ scanned with OKEN Scanner808 | MECHANICS fy 1 ay 1 ae oP 1°) ‘This quantity » is called the wave funetion of the wave and ifthe vayy function is determined for a particular situation,we can know the form of the wave and its wavelength, 11.3. Plane Progressive Harmonic Wave. i ' The simplest and most important type of wave is the simple harmonic wave in which the displacement of a particle is a simple harmonic o¢ sinusoidal function of time and distance both. Such waves are produced by vibrating bodies, which execute simple harmonic motion. Let the source of the wave be situated at the origin O(x = 0) and let a regular train of plane waves travel in the positive direction of X-axis [Fig. 11.2]. Since the source of waves performing simple harmonic motion at any instant ¢ the displacement of a particle at O will be given by Yo =asinwt ++ (8) where a is the amplitude of the vibration and w/2z is the frequency, If the wave velocity is v, then the disturbance, produced at O, will-reach at the point P distant x in x/v seconds. Hence the displacement of the particle P at any instant ¢ will be given by y =a sin w(t — x/v) 0) ‘This equation represents the displacement of a Particle at any time ¢ andis of the same form as eq. (1) and it is one of the solutions of general differential one y dimensional wave equation (7). Thus it is the equation of a simple harmonic wave travelling with velocity v along the positive direction of X-axis, Similarly the equation y =asinw (+ x/v) will represent a wave travelling in the negative direction of X-axis with velocity v, Fig. 11.2 The frequency of the wave is « illati _ The freq qual to the fir lating body, hence the frequency of the wavs n= w/a. where Tis Be period. ie. in peri << 9 In one vibration J iod T) the wave Moves distance equal to wavelength A, hence v = 4/T — ao through . mative forms of the equati + Now the various alte ion of wave motion can be written as | @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 509 y = asin 2xn (t—x/v) ... (9a) y =asin (#2) : t | wasin Ix (5 ~F) ---b) J yo asin (¢-*) 20 : y = asinz (vu —x) -.. (9c) The quantity 2x/A= 207 =k is called the Propagation constant, where 7 = 1/A is the wave number. : y = asin (wt — kx) . (9d) Ifgis the phase constant, then y =asin (wt — kx + $) =. (9e) Taree dimensional wave. If a wave is moving in any direction (such a wave iscaled three dimensional wave), the wave equation (7) can be written as fy Py, ey _1 oy 2 Bie coat +++ (10a) ar a a at vy 44 ... (10b) One of the solutions of this equation is a three dimensional plane bamonic wave, in which the displacement (or disturbance) at time f and Hapointr =x 7+ y 7 +z ke is given by p =A sin (wt — kx — kay — kz + ¢) w= Asin (wt -k-r+¢) ...(11)* Mee k= iy ky7+4,% is called the propagation vector. The son of this vector is the direction of wave motion and its magnitude 2, the propagation constant. = vg tiple of superposition, A very important characteristic of all the nunge® the Drineiple of superposition. This principle states that when a "eaten pent ae simultancously propagated tough a medium, the cis B ysical disturbance (e.g, displacement) at any point is the sum of, ‘ances due to separate waves, i.e, \ apt Yat Y3 + ow .. 2) bance at a point due to different waves, urbances separately at the same point. ete. are the or * Station fora harmonic wave fs writen inthe complex form a5 Pa AdOm“KE Dory aw AcED HOt @ scanned with OKEN Scanner510 | MECHANICS displacements at a point duc to separate waves, then the Festan, displacement duc to all waves is yentytyat - poe Bie 1.A simple harmonic wave train is travelling in the positive X direction wig, velocity 100 misec. The amplitude of the wave is 2 cir, ‘and frequency 409 Calculate (a) the displacement y, (b) the particle velocity and (Cc) the panic), acceleration at x= 2m from the origin at t =Ssec. Sol. The equation of a simple harmonic wave Is given by : x a y = asin ( —x) = asin 2xn (#7) (esmy where y is the displacement of a particle at a distance + from the arbitrary origin x=0. Here, a =0-02m,n = 100 Hz, v =100 m/sec andx =2m. y =0-02sin 2x x 100 (5 ~ 490) =28i0 (2x x 496)=0, Particle velocity U = ay/at = 2an a cos 2xn (t rv x/v) Here, sin 2x n (¢ —x/v) = or cos 2xn (t-x/v) = 1 o U = 2ana = 2x 3-14 x 100 x 0-02 =12-56 m/sec. Particle acceleration 42y/at? =—4x"n? sin 2an (t -/x/v) = 0. Ex. 2. The equation of a progressive wave is y =8sin [2x (qos 95") + ZJom Find the amplitude, frequency, velocity, wavelength and wave number. (Agra 1995) Sol. The general equation of a harmonic wave is given by y =asin [For -y +6] where ¢ is a constant. : Here y =8sin [2 x 0-5 (Tyg -*) +2] amplitude a = 8 em. 2n/h=2n x05, +. wavelength = 2 em. Velocity v =1/0-025 = 400 cm/sec. 400 Frequency n =v/A 2 200 Hz Wave number 7'= 1/4 = 1/2 = 0-Sem. Ex. 3. Which of the following are the solutions to the one dimensional wave equation : @y =2sinx cos w (ii) y =5 sin 2x cos wt Gii)y =? - 2 (iv) y =2e - St. Sol. One dimensional wave equation is 2 ph ae @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 511 @ Differentiate Q. (i) twice partially with respect to # and.x separately, i.e. 2, *y and 22 =-y a? 2 ax’ Hence (i) is the solution to the one dimensional wave equation. “ * ona 2 = ny =-y are & vy . ar 4 a2 Hence (ii) is not the solution of one dimensional wave equation. In the same way do for (iii) and (iv). Eq. (iii) is not the solution and eq. (iv) is the solution of the wave equation. Be 4. Find the frequency, period and wave number for a light of wavelength Sol. Velocity of light c=» 4, where » is the frequency of light wave and 2 the wavelength. _—3x108 6000 x 10710 —1_ = 2x 107 second. 5x 104 =—1_ 6000 x 1071 Ex. 5.4 continuous sinusoidal longitudinal wave is transmitted along a spring by an oscillating source, attached to it. Find the velocity of the wave, if the frequency of vibration is 50 Hz and the distance between two successive condensations is 0-05 m If the wave is proceeding towards the positive X-axis and the amplitude of longitudinal vibrations of the particles of the spring is 0-02 m, find the equation of the wave, Assume that the source is situated at x =0 and the displacement y =0 at x=0, Sol. The distance between two successive condensations i.c., the wavelength 4 Of the longitudinal wave is 0-05 m, and its frequency (n) of vibration is 50. «. Velocity of the wave v =n A = 50 x 0-05 =2°5 m/sec. Equation of the required wave is =5x10!4 Hz Wave number 7 =b-7x 108m, y asin (ut -x) a4 sin geys 2°54 =x) = 4 sin 40x (2-5t-x). 14, Energy Density for a Plane Progressive Wave. oo, When a progressive wave moves in the forward direction, “new cessive particles of the medium start to vibrate. This means that the @ scanned with OKEN Scanner$12 | MECHANICS energy has been supplied by the incoming wave. This wave receives th energy from the source. Consequently when the wave travels forward there is a transfer of energy from one part of the medium to another j the direction of propagation of the wave. The total energy of the particles of the medium, through which the waves are passing, is partly kinetic ang partly potential. Let us calculate the total energy per unit volume i.e,, the energy density. Let the equation of the progressive wave be _ 2 y =asin Z(t —*) 2 ©. Velocity of any particle 2 = 2 cos T(t -¥) Now, let us consider an infinitely thin layer of the medium parallel to the wave front at a distance x from the origin. Let the aréa of the layer be unity and its thickness ox. Mass of thelayer = dx X 1 x p =p 6, where p is the density of the medium. As the layer is very thin we can assume _ the velocity of its particles to be the same. Fig. 11.3 KE. of the layer K =3 p dx(@y/@t)” 2nva \2 a 2% (7) cos? J (vt — x) .. (14) “Force acting om the layer F = px #y/3t? 2 2 = — pax 2} asin 2 (—x) ~péx (2wv/hyy If the layer is displaced through a distance dy, then amount of work pe _pP 2a \2 ott done = ff Fay = Sede (")"y ay = 50 (2aw/A)?y? dx This work done on the layer 6 it tid hi layer bécqines its potential energy a ' displacement y. _ PE. _ 2 / WvaNna 2 Wn PEE. ofthe layer U = & (ey sin? FE (ot = 8x Od) “. Total energy of the layer (per unit area) = K + U =P 5, (2eay2 2dr” é ' Gar (78)? cos? F(t — 2) +e (2) sin? 2 (n -9) @ scanned with OKEN Scanner7 WAVE MOTION | 513 = 3 2nnay* pix Total energy per unit volume of the medium wi 7 i e essi im will tegating the expression (16) between the tints oO ames owas by =fii 2 1 aoe E = J, Gray Pde =5Crnayp =ahtety | ay This is the expression for total eng fare ensity. Thus, we sce that the cnery istance x and time ¢. Further, Ict us find the average kinetic and potential energies per unit lume where the average is to be taken over a wavelength, i. z 2 Kay = 8 C2) cos? 3 (vt — 2) ae we a1 4x = Gates [p+ cos (=a) dr = 2p .A/2 = wap «.(18) ere the valuc of the integral of the cosine term is zero.” = 2Qnva\2. 920 Similarly,» Var =} S58 (7H)? sin? 2 (or — ay de = war 2. (19) +. Average total energy per unit volume = 0 'na'p + ap = wrap - (20) This means that in a harmonic progressive wave, average kinetic energy is 0 average potential energy and their sum is equal fo the total : Energy flux or energy current. For a Progressive wave, the quantity tgy flux or energy current is more important than energy density. The Of transmission of energy across unit area of the wave front is called the flux or energy current. As the wave travels a distance v Per second idently the energy current is equal to the product of the energy density Wave velocity, i.c., Energy current = 2an’py , +. (21) S. Intensity of Wave and Spherical Waves. in Intensity of a wave is defined as the amount of incident energy per Sheostt (tx de = + [sin Eo -o}} ax -4 [sin Eo =ay-sin Eve] a [sin (SE rar) ~sin Ev] @ scanned with OKEN Scanner514 | MECHANICS ui . the rate of energy flow per unit area unit area per unit-time, i.e., the rate is call the art of the wave. Hence, it 1s equal to the energy current, d 22,2 Intensity J = 2n°a'n’pv 5 Q) Thus Toca? ot (amplitude)? In case of a plane wavefront, the amplitude and intensity do iy change with distance. Now, let us suppose a point source cmit spherical waves and giving out W energy per unit time. Assuming thy point source as the centre if we take a spherical surface of radius r, they its surface area will be 417”, Hence the intensity / at this surface, distant, from the source, is given by — incident energy per unit time _ W_ 8 : 4n? ® area Thus, [&1/?, which is inverse square law. ‘The waves emitted from a point source are spherical in shape and they consist of spherical, expanding wavefronts. In case of plane waves, amplitude @ is constant and the displacement is given by y=a sin 2x/A(vt —x). But for spherical waves Te1/? and Jad’. ‘Therefore, the spherical waves amplitude a=A/r, where A is a constant. Hence the equation of a spherical wave is given by A. y =F sin TF (vt -2). (4) Ex. 1. If in air a plane wave of frequency 256 Hz and amplitude 1/1000 mm is produced, calculate the radiated energy per unit volume and the energy curren. (Velocity of sound =332 msec and density of air = 1-29 kg/m), Sol. Energy density F = 277a?n?p =2.x G14? x (1075? x (256)? x 1-29 =1-666 x 10~8}/m3, Energy current =2xa?n?py =Ey =1-666%10~§ x 332 =5-53 x 1074 Jm~?s~*. Ex. 2 Spherical waves are emitted from a 1 watt point source in an isotropi ‘mediwn. Calculate the intensity of the wave at | metre distance from the source. Sol. Intensity = Wnsident energy per see — Lwatt 4x(1)? = 0-08 watt/m?, 6. Transverse Waves in Stretched Strings, To study the propagation of transverse waves in a string, first we must define a string. By a string or wire in acoustics we mean a cord or wire ae @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | StS large compared to its diameter, a i ye compared , and which i yible. The string is stretched between two nc tension 0 that the effects of gravitational joe ae © jing be stretched between A and B points with . contly displaced oe a tension T. If i sign e p to one side at the centre and then released, to its 11.4). Let Karis direction of undisplaced rag and the the Fig. 11.4 origin. Let P'Q' be the displaced position of the element at any he string is perfectly flexible, the of the string along the tangent at tion of the string, the inclination ‘ierent at different points of the string. If and 9 + 39, (where 45 velf very small) be the inclination with X-axis of the tangents at P’ #4()' points respectively, then resolving the tensions acting at P’ and Q thogX and Y axes, we have ETy = T cos (# + 9b) — Tos? (¢ + 5) = Tsing _ rom 1, vith a displacement y. As t ZT) = ‘Asp and 6g are small, cos (p + bp) =cos p, sin (p + O9)=P +59 andsing =¢ ; 2T_=0 and ETy =. r (o 4 = T3e ; ‘small angles, _ = tan ¢. B ence the resultant force along Y-axis : = 78 (tang) =78 (2) te (2) br ee ‘then the mass of smut th of the string, th Hm ‘of this element at tne bint is the mass. per unit Jengt ld will he: mdx. If the acceleration @ scanned with OKEN Scanner516 | MEGHANICS displacement y be ay/ at, then according to Newton’s second law of motion 2, 2, a mor 22 = Yas at ax ay Tay or Ht I sc a This is the different e a of a vibrating string. Comparing this equation with the differential equation of a wave motion ay/ar =v? ay/ax”, we get act vt -. 5) m This equation gives us the velocity of transverse waves moving along the string. Thus, the velocity of transverse waves in a stretched string depends only on the applied tension and mass per unit length. The differential equation for the vibrating string can always be satisfied by the general solution y =f -x/v) + gt +x) «++ (26) The first part of this equation represents a disturbance (wave) travelling towards the positive direction of X-axis with speed v and the second part represents a disturbance, travelling towards the negative direction of X-axis with the same speed. v’ 7, Modes of Transverse Vibrations of String. Let us consider a string of length / between two fixed points, under a tension 7, When the string is slightly displaced to one side and then released, it executes transverse vibrations. Waves travelling along the string are reflected successively from its each fixed end and on account of the superposition of incident and reflected waves, stationary waves are set up along the string. If the string is vibrating in one loop, then the nodes (points of zero displacement), are formed at the fixed points and one antinode (point of maximum displacement) at the middle point and the wavelength A of the waves established in the string is equal to two times the length (/) of the string, i.c., A=4. (rama rt VE wiensesn = VE) -.@ The frequency represented by this expression is called the fundamental frequency of vibration. The vibration of the string into one segment is called fundamen mode of vibration. ‘The vibration of the same length of string into two segments is called nd mode of vibration. In this case the frequency of vibration is given by @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 517 ~34/T 7 n=3 mn = 2+-(29) This 's called second overtone. If the string is vibrating in p segments, nF - VE on +. G0) wencies of these Overtones ii » in the ratio 1:2:3,. the: If the freq shown above, fundamental. Thus (28), (29), .... (30) are Tepresenting second, third... and pth harmonic respectively, Ex. L. 4 metal wire of mass 9-8 between two rigid ~ the wire will have maximum | amplitude when the fre: is equal to the frequency of the quency f of A.C. applied wire, ic., Vn Here m=9-8 x 1073 kgim, T =10 x 9-8 newtons and? = 1m. 10x98 _ soy 2x1 ¥ 0-0098 * i i ib./sec under a Ex. 2.4 wire of mass 1 gm and length 75 cm is making 256 vi ei tension supplied ie brass weight hanging vertically. On immersion the weight into water, the vibrating length of the wire is shortened by 5 cm to regain its original itch. What is the density of brass ? Sol, n= n LD op 7 =4P mn? im Here n =256 vib,sec.,/ = 0-75 m,m =1079/0-75 = 30 kai 7 T =4 x 0-75 x 0-75 x (1/750) x 256 x =196-61 newtons. ; eae Let on immersion in water the tension be aes hig T’. To regain Value fn, the length of wire / = 75 = 70cm = 7 ane ° T’=5 x (0-72 x (1/750) x (256)? =171 ni Loss in weight due to immersion is @ scanned with OKEN Scanner518 | MECHANICS =(196-61 — 171) = 25-61 newtons, ; Wt. in air ‘The relative density of brass = [pss7q wi. due to immersion = ep eB A TT | e Density of brass = 7.657 kg/m?. . Ex. 3. Two wires of the same material and of the same cross-section ary suspended on a sonometer. One is loaded with 16 kg, and the other with 4 ke. The {first wire is tuned to the second harmonic of the second wire. If the second wire iy 1m in length, what is the length of the first wire. Sol. The fundamental frequency 71 of the first wire is given by 1 m=—y mY ™ . The two wires are made of the same material and of same cross-section, therefore mass per unit length m of the two wires is the same. Now, the seoond harmonic 23 of the second wire is a) nm, “e te - i) Since first wire is tuned to the second harmonic of the second wire, m=mie, PVE -2y2 1=n2tes Vim “2 Vm Given T1=16 kg-wt; T2= 4 kg-wt; h= 2; 2= 100cm. 2 f4 _ 14/16 _ TxTV im = IV mg OHH Am Ex. 4, The frequency of the fourth harmonic in a stretched string of length 20 cm is 600 per sec. What is the velocity of the wave in the string ? If now the tension of the string is doubled, what will be the final velocity of the waves ? Sol. Frequency of the 4th harmonic = 600 Ait is four times the frequency of the fundamental, :. frequency of the fundamental = 600/4 = 150 Velocity v=VI7m@ =ni sn x2t = 150 x 2 x 0-2 = 60ms~1 Finally tension is doubled, then vsV20/m =VE x VT/m = V2 x 60= 85 ms}. Ex. 5. Show that when progressive waves of amplitude a and frequency n travel along a stretched string the average energy passing through any point in unit time (or average power) =27a7n?mv, where m is the mass per unit length and v the velocity of the waves in the string. Sol. A progressive harmonic wave of frequency m and amplitude a, moving along the positive direction of X-axis, is represented as @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 519 ya sin 2% (wy x) @ icine string at any, point is inclined at angle ¢ to the X-axis then th yom ie jeft of the point exerts a force T'sin » downwards on the strin; on the earn grtne point. Thus llr ide F=-Tsing all, hence sin ¢ = ¢ = tan} = ay/ax Fa-T (w/a) moves a distance dy in time 41, hence the energy supplied by the : iin! A “il | ne Relat ofthe point wil be equal to the work done by fore inthis time, uote 9 am | eld energy » * =Fey= =(-7® way Pye = (TE) ae wah the help of the equation (i) substituting the values of ay/ax and ay/at, we ye supplied energy in dt time | =@xa/iy? vI cos? 2 (nt —2y 38 ‘Hence energy passing through the point in one period + is =(32)*v. 793 [1 + BE wn] a = (2na/2PVT 2/2. .. Average rate of transfer of energy = Qna/ty » T/2 = 20a? v TA? = 2n2nta?m/v [in=vA] =20n?a? my. [ive vI7@ oT = mv?) fee Waves in Rods. When longitudinal vibrations are produced in a solid rod, its every seaion vibrates to and fro about its mean position along the axis of the ttd, provided that the rod has the sufficient Iength in comparison to its ameter, wy +éy Let us suppose __that yy — longitudinal waves are travelling ‘long an elastic solid rod. Now, ‘onsider two close planes A and getPendicular to the rod at_ n ee and x + dx respectively TL Some arbitrary origin [Fig. 4° © Suppose that at any instant B' are the positions of the +—— AB iM x x + ox i ; tend and B respectively. Then, Fig. 11.5 Places i AA teary dy iey + by (BB sce the initial length AB between the Blanes = dy. Change in this length = A’! — AB = Gx +) — 482 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner520 | MECHANICS @ +6) +048) — & FY) sary = dy/ox = dy/de : 8 Longitudinal strain a) The change in length AB of the rod occurs ~ e the difference force acting on the two planes. The force acting o PI 5S given by Fa =stress X arca of cross-section of the rod, 7 If cris the area of cross-section of the rod, the Young’s modulus of y, material is given by Fa @ stress -y® o S=y2 = SHES or stress = strain de PEE Fa=aY dy/de Similarly the force acting on the plane o is given by d Fo=Fa + 0(Fa) =Fa + Gy (Fay oe =a vt + avthax 2 Resultant force on AB = Fy — Fy = a¥ “2 dx. ae Ifp is the density of material of the rod, then the mass of the element AB=pocx. If the acceleration of this small clement AB is dy/dr?, then according to Newton’s second law of motion, we have 2, 2, 2, poset? =avérZd o, YY dy 8) dt de dP? P ae This is the differential equation for the longitudinal waves in a 104. Comparing this with the differential equation of wave motion 2, 2. o @y/ar=v @y/de, the velocity of the longitudinal waves in the solid 10! is given by or |v @ Thus, the velocity of longitudinal waves i u a aves the dens ‘Young's modulus ofits material tod depends 4 1, fee afalanel vee in Gases-Pressure Variations for Plane Wav’ the prema Paar, oBtesive longitudinal wave™ moves through 2° of promagalion of the Rae ee harmonic motion along the direct! The distante between ie he phases of these particles vary reg! at © Particles so changes that at any insta Only longitudinal waves can pronaggCg—_—_—___~™ can propagate through gases, @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 521 articles are alternately crowded and spreaded out. Hence pressure faries from particle to particle inside the gas, Let a progressive wave be moving along the positive dircction of x-axis. Now, imagine cylindrical gas column of cross-sectional area a “long X-axis. Let us consider in equilibrium position, two right planes A and B (being very close to each other) of the gas column, situated at x and x + 6x distances respectively from the origin [Fig. 11.5]. At some later instant, when the wave propagates, the particles of the plane A are displaced by an amount y to the position A’ and those of the plane B are displaced by an amount y + dy to the position B’. As dy/dx is the rate of change of displacement with distance, 3 y + dy =y + G/dvox Initial volume of the gas column between the plane.A and B X~ = a(AB) =adx Its final volume = @(A‘B") =a(dx + dy) = a[ar+ (4) «] Change in volume = & () dr dr ay Thus, Vol in = cael * oy Us, ‘olume strain = —\ z «+. (34) IFE is the bulk modulus of the gas, then volume stress _ decrease in pressure _ _—p ~ volume strain volume strain ~ dy/de » 4 Eo --@5) which represents the variation of pressure in case of a longitudinal Progressive wave travelling through a gas. Herc the negative sign shows that an increase in volume is caused by a decrease in pressure. If there is a decrease in volume, p will be positive but negative sign will stil b there, If the equation of the plane waves is taken to be y=a sine (Wt - x) Den ye B® = 78 cos Fon -2) 2 Soe 2 - =-52 = EE cos (ot —#) =Pocos F (v1 ~ vy ee @ scanned with OKEN Scanner522 | MECHANICS . the wave amplitude. The quay, where v is the wave velocity and a the i Po = 2xaE/1. is called the pressure amplitude. : y But j) =dy/dt represents the particle velocity, hence y =P cos F(t = 9) p=Ee vy If the rate of change of pressure is dp/dr, then the pressure differenc, across the small element AB is =(2) ox (2) dy Hence the force on this element = dp X & = (2) adx = aie E (-#@t) --atceS, Ifp is the density of the gas, then the mass of the element =adxp. ‘As the force on the element is in the direction B’A’, hence the acceleration due to this force will be —d’y/di. Now acco _Newton’s law of motion fi ae P ae This is the differential equation -for the waves travelling in a g% ‘oimparing it with the standard differential equation of wave motion, We get - 8) Jasticity and the density of the me waves in a gas depends upon im, de ete Naa the velocity of sound in a gas was first of all Seed that daa gant $0 it is called Newton’s formula. News! ‘when'a'sounid elie Eatin compressions and rarefactions occuftilé remains constant. Theretore ne nah “a.gaseous medium, the tempera” E, which is equa! to the pressure Pots satisemal value of the elastisld <== = te US. VP7p. sii @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTION | 523 calculation of velocity of sound in air at N-T.P. At 0°C, the normal ste 0-76 X 13,600 x 9-8 n/m? and density of air =1-293 kg/m’, 0:76 x 1 x9 ; oan = 280 metres/sec. (approx.) ut the experimental value of the velocity of sound in air is 332 m/sec sear, Which does not agree with the theoretical value, as obtained by _ Newton. The first satisfactory explanation of this large discrepancy between the calculated and observed values for the velocity of sound was given by Laplace in 1817. Laplace pointed out that the compressions and rarefactions in sound yaves occur so rapidly that (the heat produced during the compression and cooling produced during the compression) the heat cannot go out or come in. Thus the temperature does not remain constant and the change is adiabatic. In adiabatic conditions E=yP, where y = C,/C, = 1-41 for air, Hence the velocity of sound in air according to Laplace is given by y =VyP/p = 280V1-41 = 3325 m/sec. This agrees closely with the ‘observed value and therefore the Laplace’s correction is correct. For one gram molecule M of a gas, PY=RT, where M is the inolecular weight of the gas. Hence Vee Ree MP PM «. Velocity of sound v = +// = =V we ... 9) Hence the velocity of sound does not ‘depend on the pressure and it is of the absolute temperature (i.e. vx VT). Proportional to the square root a Ifthe velocity of sound at 0°C (ie. at ‘absolute temperature Tp ),is vo and_ YaLPC (ce, at absolute temperature 273 + ¢ = 7), then evidently ofl --. (40) vo To* 5 n/m? for a plane harmonic sound wave ‘what are its displacement and velocity 08 n/m’, y = 1-4 and velocity of Ex. 1. If the pressure amplitude is 0 Ff frequency 1000 per second in air, amplitudes ? (Atmospheric pressure =1-01 * \ Sound in air = 3-4 x 10? m/sec.) 278 cos FE (ut 2) Here, pressure amplitude = E 2x a/A = 0-5 1d xe 1.01 x 10° ne Sol. p= Now, E @ scanned with OKEN Scanner524 | MECHANICS 4x10? _ and ag 034m OSA 0-5 x 0:34 =1-9x 1077 m, 23-14 x 1-4 x 1-01 x 10° This is the displacement amplitude, 7 2s Vetocity Y= 2 9 cos 2% (yr - x) (vy=asin 2 ory) Velocity amplitude = 2nva/A = 2nna =2x3- 14x 1000 x 1-0x1077 =1-2 x 107m/sec. Ex. 2. Plane harmonic waves of frequency 500 Hz are produced in air wih displacement amplitude 1-00 x 10~> cm. Deduce (i) the pressure amplitude, (i) energy density, (il) energy lex in the waves (Density of air = 1-29 gmilitre, speed of sound in air = 340 msec.) Sol. (i) The equation of a plane progressive wave is given by * y = asin 2 4 —x) When the wave travels through a medium of elasticity £, the increase in pressure is given by 4 P =-E dy/dx, where dy/de is the strain. mE 274. 2H SEF cos F (vt — x) Pressure amplitude = vp. 2na/a = vp x 22an [v vem] =340 x 1-29 x 2x 3-14 x 1 x 1075 x 500 =13-8 n/m? (ii) Energy density Eo = 2pa?n’n? =2 x 1-29 x (10752 x B14 x (500)? = 64x 1074 jm? : Gi), Energy flux = 2pa2n2n2y = Ev = 6-4 x 10-4 x 340 = 0.22 ym? 1 . in = 0:22 Ym*sec. Ex". The maximum variation po that the ear can tolerate in loud sounds is ie of normal atmospheric pressure is 10° nt/metre? in air. (Density of air =1-22 kg/metre? and veloci = Sai pcre any a cud = 34 mie) P =pocos * (vt ~ x), where po But the velocity of sound is given by v =VE7p or E=v%, +» Maximum pressure variation pp = 2#_ ,2 2xaE a -o ati @ scanned with OKEN ScannerTensile stress y% = tol, x0. ‘01 x 13 COs (13x) sin (200 sperefore, at 0-04 m the maximum tensile Stress m G0 =10 001K Bx v2 fe Cos (13x) =cos 30°] = 11-26 x 10° wm? {(12.Fourier’s Theorem. In 1822, Fourier stated a very important theorem, with the help of wich any complex periodic function can be analysed. According to this theorem any finite single valued periodic function, whatever, can be apressed as @ summation of simple harmonic terms which have frequencies, being integral multiples of that of the given function. The series, obtained, is called Fourier’s series. _ Mathematically Fourier’s theorem can be represented by the series ~ ae eee @ scanned with OKEN ScannerS¥ | MECHANICS y =f (wt) = Ao +A} sin ot +By cos wt + B2c + Azsin Wot +... + Ar sin rot 4 + By cos rut +... os Zot +...+ Br + 54.59) = Ao + DArsinrot + > Br cos rot r=1 r= i is lex periodic vibrati where y=f(wt) is the displacement of complex p vibration of eee oe at any instant ¢, Here the periodic function has been enpressed as the summation of sine and cosine components, which hayg frequencies, multiples of »/2. Evaluation of the values of Ag Ar» +++ Ari Br» Bz» ++. Br To find Ag, multiply equation (50) by de and integrate for complete vibration, ie, from 0 to T (= 21/w), we get : Si ya = Ag fi dt + At SF sim con $e FArS sin ror T $F BLS) cosetde +... + Brf cosrot dt +... = AoT _igr Ao= zhyyat +1) To find the value of A,, multiply equation (50) by sinrwt dt and integrate for complete vibration, then we get Ti. T T < Sy sin rot at =A0S, sin rot dt +aiS, sin wf sin nwt dt +... T Ar J) sin? rot dt +... + By J" sin not cos.at T +... + Br J, sin rot cos rot dt + a Ar pT = FI (1 - cos 2nwt) at a4 xt a2 fT ys 2 (T, . dan Ar=p Joy sinrot dt == J) y sin at .- (52) Similarly values of B, can be found by multiplying eq. (50) Cos rwt dt and then on integrating we will get B, 2 (T 267 2Qnnt Fy cosrat dt = 2 fy cos 2 at 8) Thus if we put r coefficients dy 4, ey” 64. (52) and (53) we ean calculate the +B), Bz,... of sine and cosi Incase, ify = 4 and cosine terms. ify = f(&) is a periodic function of variable x of period £ thet @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWAVE MOTOIN | 535 Ag => Si $08) de y= fE f(4) sin 2 ae Lo = Lro tai B a2 ph dare =Z Sy f@ cose ae path series is ) 1 hod ~ y-ile) =A0-+ ¥Arsin™™ de + 5 By cos de. (4) 1 r= Conditions for the applicability of Fourier’s theorem. A given paiodic function is capable of Fourier’s analysis only if it satisfies the following restrictions : (1) The function should be single-valued. This means that the displacement should procced only in one direction so that at any time there may not be two or more values of the displacement. (2) The function should always be finite. This means that the placement during oscillations should always remain finite and it should not be infinite at any time. Moreover, the function should not have an infinite number of discontinuities and it should have a finite number of maxima and minima in the interval of one oscillation, 7. The above conditions are always satisfied by waveforms of sounds. Below, we will use the Fourier’s theorem for the analysis of square and saw-tooth waves. (1) Square wave. As shown in fig. 11.7, tonsider any physical quantity y (such as placement or electric current) varying Periodically. Here, y remains constant from ¢ ef =0 to (7/2 and then remains zero yt lor the half period. Hence we may express gOS function as follows : - y=a,t=0 to t=T/2 y=0, t= T/2to t= + We have to find the Fourier’s series of the function. According to Fourier’s theorem we have y = Ap + Ai sinot + Azsin2at + - + By cosa + - Fig. 11.7 .Arsin rot +... + Brcosrot +... ia 1 pT 1 pt ~4y2_ Ao=FSoyat = zSq atom 72 2 (TP 4 sim rot dt Ara fT? ysinrordt +0= FJq 25 =% [ 4 cos rot | Fa @ scanned with OKEN Scanneryo Aq SUL “BY UL UMOYs st onsno que nsaz (ce) : ey (goquowuey say) Isiy Insox ‘[(¢¢)-ba] sous ssounog ( Pue queisuos) suioy Anoy Buryey, “(Lxq Mojaq 998) o19z s1 0; onpea ou)‘ [eA ‘9 anes ofesoae 9Y} SI (7/2 0} jenbo 2194) OY IY) IR9[D osye st sys, (Z¢ wojqord poajosun 998) soras oy) UI su119} aUIS09 AfUO an? 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Hence, the Fourier’s series in this case is a.ay,. 2m 1. 4 1. bat ( sin + read a = gmt vis T qsin-p +38 1, 2m 57 +5 sin +.) ..- (57) We note that in this seri ics are present, having : at in this series all the harmonics are p a ltd Proportional to 1/r. Hence the value of the amplitude ty aa for higher harmonics. 7 mee Velocity and Group Velocity. IB Brine __tun harmonic Wave, travelling along ® scanned with OKEN Scanner