Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) Experiment and Modeling: A

research proposal

1. Executive Summary:

Provide a concise overview of the proposed CCUS experiment, its objectives, expected outcomes, and
significance.

2. Introduction:

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a greenhouse gas that traps heat and warms the planet and, for over a hundred
years, it has been extracted from the Earth’s core, instigating climate change. CO₂ is not the only gases
contributing to climate change. Still, it accounts for 81 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions and can
linger in the atmosphere for thousands of years (i.e., methane has a lifetime of a decade). While it’s true
that plants, trees, and algae transform CO₂ into oxygen through photosynthesis, the ocean absorbs and
stores CO₂ in ocean sinks. It is also true that nature cannot bear the rising levels of human-made
emissions and that is why, in addition to efforts that reduce emissions, we need to capture and remove
CO₂ from the air.

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is a technology that aims to capture carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from industrial processes and power generation and store them underground or utilize
them for other purposes. There are many sedimentary regions suitable for CO2 storage, which have
enough capacities: depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, unmineable coal seams and deep
oceans.

 Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are one of the prospective geological structures for CO2 storage.
The first advantage of them is that the oil and gas reservoirs were studied in depth and the
characteristics and properties of the reservoirs were well understood, which are essential for the
implementation of CCS project and the safety of long-time storage. And for the future trends of
reservoirs, simulation methods developed can be used to predict the movement, displacement
and trapping of hydrocarbons. The second advantage is the reservoirs’ integrity is guaranteed
because oil and gas has been trapped over millions of years, making it safe for CO2 storage. The
next point is that the infrastructures already constructed can be used in CO2 injection process.
Finally, CCS project can also be optimized to enhance oil and gas in the future (Metz et al., n.d.).
 Saline aquifer is a geological formation of porous sedimentary rocks containing salt water and
they are usually deeper than freshwater aquifers. These aquifers are widespread all over the
world so it will make the transportation process convenient if they’re used as storage sites. But
the study into saline aquifers is not enough so far and will cause uncertainties after CO2 injection
(Definition > Saline Aquifer, n.d.). The Sleipner Project in the North Sea is the best example for
CO2 storage in a saline aquifer. From a hydrodynamic point of view, saline aquifers and reservoirs
are at the same level. Porosity and permeability characteristics are similar, but the type of fluids
 present in the pore space are different. Another important distinction between
reservoirs and saline aquifers is the spatially discrete and discontinuous nature of the oil
and gas reservoirs, but the opposite of the aquifers (Bachu et al., 2007).
 Unmineable coal seams are another promising choice for CO2 storage because there are large
unmineable coal seams can store large volumes of CO2 (90 billion metric tons) directly from
power plants with long-distance transportation. And CO2 can be used for enhanced coalbed
methane production (ECBM). At the same time, at least two or three molecules of CO2 can be
adsorbed onto the coal when one molecule of methane is released. But it was found that CO2
storage in unmineable coal seams may have the potential of causing environmental issues
(Hedges et al., 2007).
 Besides geological storage, an alternative of deep ocean has possibility of CO2 storage. This kind
of sites are in enclosed basins on the deep (> 4 km) and very deep (>6 km) ocean floor. If liquid
CO2 is placed in the trench under 6 km depth, it would be 7% denser than seawater and could
stay at that depth permanently as a lake of liquid CO2. And it has the possibility of becoming a
hydrate solid in the future, which could separate itself better from seawater. The deep ocean
sites have a vast capacity of CO2 storage all over the world. For example, the Indonesian Sunda
trench has the capacity for 19,000 Gt of liquid CO2 and the Puerto Rico trench has the capacity
of 24,000 Gt of liquid CO2. But it is still considered an infeasible option because of possible
ocean acidification, negative impacts on marine species, risk of CO2 release due to seismic
activities (Goldthorpe, 2017) and technological challenges.
CCUS Experiment and Modeling typically revolve around studying and advancing the understanding of
carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of Carbon
Dioxide Underground Capture and Storage (CCUS) in geological formations. Core flooding is a crucial
aspect of CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage) projects, particularly in the context of CO2
storage. Core flooding experiments involve injecting CO2 or CO2-rich fluids into rock samples (cores) to
simulate and study the behavior of CO2 within subsurface reservoirs. Here are the key roles and benefits
of core flooding in CCUS projects:

 Reservoir Characterization: Core flooding experiments provide valuable data for

reservoir characterization. By analyzing the response of rock samples to CO2 injection,
researchers can understand important reservoir parameters such as porosity,
permeability, and capillary pressure. This information helps in assessing the suitability of
a reservoir for CO2 storage and predicting the flow behavior of CO2 within the
subsurface.
 Fluid-Rock Interactions: Core flooding allows scientists to study the interaction between
CO2 and reservoir rocks. It helps evaluate the potential for mineral trapping, where CO2
reacts with certain minerals in the subsurface to form stable carbonate minerals,
permanently trapping CO2. Understanding these fluid-rock interactions helps in
assessing the long-term storage capacity and security of CO2 storage sites.
 Monitoring and Validation: Core flooding experiments provide a means to monitor and
validate CO2 storage processes. By injecting tracers or other markers along with CO2 into
 the cores, researchers can track the movement and fate of CO2 within the rock samples.
This information is crucial for verifying the effectiveness and integrity of CO2 storage and
assessing any potential risks associated with leakage or migration.
 Process Optimization: Core flooding helps optimize CO2 storage processes by evaluating
various injection strategies, such as injection rates, pressures, and CO2 compositions.
These experiments allow researchers to analyze the efficiency of CO2 trapping
mechanisms and identify the optimal conditions for maximizing CO2 storage capacity.
 Technology Development: Core flooding experiments contribute to the development
and refinement of CO2 storage technologies. The data generated from these
experiments helps in improving modeling and simulation tools, which are used to
predict the behavior of CO2 in larger-scale storage sites. This knowledge aids in the
design and implementation of effective CO2 storage projects.
Overview on CCUS situation in the world

In 1938, the first carbon capture facility was conceived, and in 1972, the Sharon Ridge oilfield in Texas
became the first large-scale effort to pump CO2 into the earth. Around 24 years later, in the North Sea,
Norway launched Sleipner, the world's first comprehensive carbon capture and storage project (Global
CCS Institute). Around the globe, there are 43 commercial large-scale carbon capture and storage plants.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), large-scale CCUS plants capture over 30 million tons
of CO2 per year. More than 70% of this is completed in North America.

 One notable CO2 storage project in the world is the Sleipner field located in the North
Sea, operated by Equinor (formerly Statoil). The Sleipner field is an offshore natural gas
field situated off the coast of Norway. Since 1996, the field has been producing natural
gas, but it also contains a high concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2). To mitigate CO2
emissions, Equinor implemented a pioneering carbon capture and storage (CCS) project
at the Sleipner field. The CO2 is separated from the natural gas production stream and
compressed before being injected into a deep saline aquifer called the Utsira Formation,
located approximately 1,000 meters beneath the seabed. The Utsira Formation has
porous rocks that can trap and store the injected CO2 securely. The Sleipner CCS project
has been operational since 1996 and has successfully stored over one million tons of
CO2 per year. The project has contributed significantly to reducing Norway's carbon
footprint. Equinor continues to monitor and study the storage site to ensure the long-
term integrity and effectiveness of the CO2 storage. The Sleipner CCS project has served
as an inspiration and reference for other CO2 storage projects worldwide, showcasing
the technical feasibility and environmental benefits of CCS technology in mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Weyburn-Midale CO2 Project (Canada): The Weyburn-Midale CO2 Project is located in
Saskatchewan, Canada. It involves capturing CO2 from a coal gasification plant in North
Dakota, USA, and transporting it via pipeline to the Weyburn oil field for injection and
storage. The project, which started in 2000, has been successful in storing millions of
tons of CO2 in the oil reservoir while enhancing oil recovery.
  Gorgon CO2 Injection Project (Australia): The Gorgon CO2 Injection Project is operated
by Chevron, in partnership with ExxonMobil and Shell, and is located on Barrow Island
off the coast of Western Australia. The project captures CO2 from the natural gas
processing facility on the island and injects it into deep underground reservoirs for
permanent storage. The Gorgon project aims to store around 3-4 million tons of CO2 per
year.
 Petra Nova Carbon Capture and Storage Project (USA): The Petra Nova project is situated
in Thompsons, Texas, and is a joint venture between NRG Energy and JX Nippon. It
involves capturing CO2 from a coal-fired power plant and transporting it via pipeline to
the West Ranch oilfield for enhanced oil recovery and storage. The project began
operations in 2017 and has the capacity to capture and store around 1.6 million tons of
CO2 annually.
 Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project (Canada): The Quest project is located in
Alberta, Canada, and is operated by Shell. It captures CO2 emissions from the Scotford
Upgrader, an oil sands processing facility, and stores the CO2 deep underground in a
saline aquifer. Quest can capture and store up to 1 million tons of CO2 annually, reducing
the facility's greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
Overview on CCUS situation in the world

Although CCUS technology hasn’t been extensively developed in Vietnam, the Vietnam Oil and Gas
Group (PVN) has undertaken some research and pilot projects related to CCUS implementation. The
most comprehensive research project on CCS potential in Vietnam was funded by the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) and carried out by the Energy Institute and the Vietnam Petroleum Institute
from 2010 to 2012.

According to the latest data, the estimated theoretical total storage potential for saline aquifers, oil and
gas fields, and enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) in coal seams is about 12 gigatons (Gt) of CO2.
Among these, the saline aquifers have the highest storage potential, accounting for over 10 Gt [2].
However, there is currently limited research, assessment, and information on CCS/CCUS projects
specifically targeting saline aquifers globally.
Figure 1: Ranking of oil and gas fields according to CO2 storage capacity and suitability [2].

A total of 34 offshore oil and gas fields in Vietnam have been evaluated for their CO2 storage potential.
When considering fields with storage potential greater than 10 million tons of CO2, the effective storage
capacity of the four producing sedimentary basins in Vietnam (Cuulong, Malay-Tho Chu, Nam Con Son,
Song Hong) is estimated to be 1.15 Gt CO2, with the largest field having a storage potential of over 300
million tons of CO2. This storage capacity could be utilized when the fields are depleted or when
enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) techniques are implemented. Oil and gas fields are considered
favorable storage options due to their potential for cost offset through increased hydrocarbon
production.

From October 2008 to March 2010, PVN, the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC),
and JX Nippon Oil Exploration (JX-NOEX) collaborated on a feasibility study for CO2-EOR implementation
at the Rang Dong oil field (Block 15-2). Phase 1 of the study involved in-depth laboratory experiments
and simulation research. The CO2 injection was estimated to contribute to an additional production of
over 32 million barrels of oil, with an estimated cost of approximately 1 billion USD for CO2 separation,
recovery, transportation, and modification of existing production infrastructure.

However, it is worth noting that applying CO2-EOR on a field scale at the Rang Dong field under the
conditions of 2010 (including oil prices, practical considerations, and production sharing contract terms)
posed challenges. Therefore, a CO2 Huff n Puff Pilot Test was designed to evaluate the technical
feasibility of CO2-EOR and prepare for future field-scale implementation [3].
On February 15, 2011, PVN, JOGMEC, and the Japan Vietnam Petroleum Company (JVPC) signed a joint
research agreement to conduct a CO2 injection test in the lower Miocene oil-bearing formation of the
Rang Dong field, Block 15-2 in the Cuu Long Basin. This marked the first application of CO2-EOR in an
offshore field in the Southeast Asia region.

The CO2-EOR Huff n Puff Pilot Test conducted from May 19 to June 6, 2011, yielded positive results with
an increased oil production rate from 950 barrels per day to 1,500 barrels per day [3]. JOGMEC
recommended further conducting a preliminary design study for future testing and implementation.

Reservoir simulation plays a critical role in CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage) projects,
particularly in the context of CO2 storage. It involves the use of mathematical models and computer
simulations to predict and analyze the behavior of CO2 within subsurface reservoirs. Here are the key
roles and benefits of reservoir simulation in CCUS projects:

 Storage Capacity Assessment: Reservoir simulation helps estimate the storage capacity
of a reservoir for CO2. By incorporating geological and reservoir data, such as rock
properties, fluid behavior, and reservoir geometry, simulation models can predict the
CO2 distribution and saturation within the storage reservoir. This assessment is crucial
for identifying suitable sites and evaluating the potential for long-term CO2 storage.
 Performance Evaluation: Reservoir simulation allows for the evaluation of CO2 injection
and storage performance over time. It can simulate various scenarios, including different
injection rates, pressures, and well configurations, to assess the effectiveness of CO2
trapping mechanisms and the overall efficiency of the storage operation. Performance
evaluations help optimize the injection strategy and ensure the long-term containment
of CO2.
 Risk Assessment and Monitoring: Reservoir simulation aids in assessing potential risks
associated with CO2 storage. It can simulate and predict the behavior of CO2 plumes,
evaluate the potential for leakage or migration, and identify areas of concern. By
incorporating monitoring data and updating the simulation models, reservoir engineers
can continuously assess the integrity of the storage site and implement mitigation
measures if necessary.
 Wellbore and Infrastructure Design: Reservoir simulation helps in designing wellbores
and infrastructure for CO2 injection and storage. It provides insights into well placement,
injection rates, and pressure profiles, which are crucial for optimizing injection efficiency
and preventing operational issues, such as well interference or unwanted pressure
buildup.
 Decision Support and Scenario Analysis: Reservoir simulation serves as a decision
support tool for CCUS projects. It allows for scenario analysis and sensitivity studies to
evaluate different reservoir parameters, injection strategies, and operational scenarios.
 This helps project stakeholders make informed decisions regarding site selection,
operational planning, and risk management.
 Technology Development: Reservoir simulation supports the development and
improvement of CO2 storage technologies. By integrating experimental data and field
observations, simulation models can be calibrated and refined, enhancing their
predictive capabilities. This, in turn, aids in the development of more accurate and
reliable tools for assessing and implementing CO2 storage projects.

3. Objectives and scopes

The main objective of this project is to conduct comprehensive core testing and simulation studies to
assess the feasibility and effectiveness of Carbon Dioxide Underground Capture and Storage (CCUS) in
geological formations. The specific goals include:

1. Evaluate the geological storage potential: Assess the suitability of potential storage sites by
characterizing the geological formations, including their porosity, permeability, and storage capacity.
Determine the ability of these formations to safely and securely store CO2 for extended periods.

2. Understand CO2 behavior: Investigate the physical and chemical interactions between injected CO2
and the reservoir rocks and fluids. Gain insights into CO2 trapping mechanisms, dissolution, and
potential reactions with minerals to ensure long-term storage stability.

3. Assess storage efficiency: Quantify the storage efficiency and CO2 migration patterns within the
reservoirs through simulation studies. Evaluate the distribution and spreading of CO2 over time, taking
into account factors such as reservoir heterogeneity, injection rates, and pressure build-up.

4. Identify potential risks and mitigation strategies: Identify potential risks associated with CO2 storage,
such as leakage pathways, fault activation, or induced seismicity. Develop mitigation strategies and
monitoring techniques to ensure the safe and environmentally responsible storage of CO2.

Scope:

The proposed project will encompass the following scope:

1. Networking study via workshops and exchange training staffs within the partners such as
PTTEP, AIT and the other organization.
2. Reviewing the existing CCUS project all over the world and find out the appropriate
screening criteria for CCUS which is suitable for Vietnamese basins,

3. Core sample collection and analysis: Finding the representative core samples from
potential storage formations. In this project, the core samples from Tien Hai field will be
collected and analyzed for further CO2 injection testing.
 4. Collecting the physical properties of these samples, including porosity, permeability,
mineralogy, and geochemical characteristics, to assess their suitability for CO2 storage.
5. Laboratory experiments and testing: Perform laboratory experiments to investigate CO2-
rock interactions, including dissolution experiments, geochemical modeling, and
measurement of key parameters such as solubility, trapping mechanisms, and mineral
reactions. These experiments will provide insights into the behavior of CO2 under
reservoir conditions.
6. Simulation modeling: Develop numerical models to simulate the injection and migration
of CO2 in the targeted reservoirs. Incorporate data from core sample analysis, laboratory
experiments, and site-specific geological information to simulate the behavior of CO2
over extended periods. Assess the storage capacity, CO2 distribution, and potential risks
associated with the storage operation.
7. Reporting and publishing: Document and publishing the findings and recommendations
based on the core testing and simulation results. Provide insights and guidelines for
future CCUS projects, including best practices for site selection, storage design.

By addressing the objectives and scopes outlined above, this project proposal aims to enhance our
understanding of CO2 storage mechanisms, evaluate the feasibility of CCUS, and contribute to the
development of safe and effective strategies for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Experimental Design:

Detail the experimental setup, equipment, and methodologies that will be used to capture, utilize, and
store carbon dioxide. This section should cover:

Carbon capture techniques (solvent-based, membrane-based, etc.).

Utilization methods (e.g., converting CO2 into valuable products).

Storage techniques (geological storage, enhanced oil recovery, etc.).

Safety protocols and risk assessment.

5. Modeling and Simulation:

Describe the computational models and simulations that will complement the experimental work. This
includes:

Numerical simulations of carbon capture and storage processes.

Predictive modeling of CO2 behavior and interaction with storage reservoirs.

Integration of experimental and simulation results to validate the model.

6. Research Plan:
Present a detailed timeline of the proposed activities, from experimental setup and data collection to
modeling and analysis. This should also include milestones and anticipated completion dates.

7. Expected Outcomes:

Discuss the anticipated results and their significance. Address how the experiment and modeling will
contribute to advancing CCUS technologies and knowledge.

8. Budget and Resources:

Provide an itemized budget that covers equipment, materials, personnel, and other associated costs.
Also, mention any available resources or collaborations.

9. References:

Include a list of references and resources cited in the proposal.