RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS OF VARIOUS PEOPLE OF THE WORLD

Analysis of the growth of these religions in history

The world's religious faithful account for 83% of the global population; the great majority of
these fall under twelve classical religions:

Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Baha'i, Zoroastrianism, Shinto, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,

Sikhism, Confucianism, Taoism

These twelve religions are the most prominent spiritual traditions that still exist. There are many
smaller or less well-known religions.

However, due to how much (or how little) different religions are represented in different
communities.

Let us look at each one of these.

1. Judaism

Judaism is the oldest of the monotheistic faiths.

It affirms the existence of one God, Yahweh, who entered into covenant with the descendants of
Abraham, God's chosen people.

Judaism's holy writings reveal how God has been present with them throughout their history.

These writings are known as the Torah, specifically the five books of Moses, but most broadly
conceived as the Hebrew Scriptures (traditionally called the Old Testament by Christians) and
the compilation of oral tradition known as the Talmud (which includes the Mishnah, the oral
law).

According to Scripture, the Hebrew patriarch Abraham founded the faith that would become
known as Judaism.

He obeyed the call of God to depart northern Mesopotamia and travel to Canaan.

God promised to bless his descendants if they remained faithful in worship.

Abraham's line descended through Isaac, then Jacob (also called Israel; his descendants came to
be called Israelites).

According to Scripture, 12 families that descended from Jacob migrated to Egypt, where they
were enslaved.

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They were led out of bondage by Moses, who united them in the worship of Yahweh.

The Hebrews returned to Canaan after a 40-year sojourn in the desert, conquering from the local
peoples the ―promised land‖ that God had provided for them.

The 12 tribes of Israel lived in a covenant association during the period of the judges (around
1200–1000 B.C.), leaders known for wisdom and heroism.

Saul first established a monarchy (r. 1025–1005 B.C.); his successor, David (r. 1005–96 B.C.),
unified the land of Israel and made Jerusalem its religious and political center.

Under his son, Solomon (r. 968–928 B.C.), a golden era culminated in the building of a temple,
replacing the portable sanctuary in use until that time.

Following Solomon's death, the kingdom was split into Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
Political conflicts resulted in the conquest of Israel by Assyria (721 B.C.) and the defeat of Judah
by Babylon (586 B.C.).

Jerusalem and its temple were destroyed, and many Judeans were exiled to Babylon.

During the era of the kings, the prophets were active in Israel and Judah. Their writings
emphasize faith in Yahweh as God of Israel and of the entire universe, and they warn of the
dangers of worshiping other gods. They also cry out for social justice.

The Judeans were permitted to return in 539 B.C. to Judea, where they were ruled as a Persian
province.

Though temple and cult were restored in Jerusalem, during the exile a new class of religious
leaders had emerged—the scribes.

They became rivals to the temple hierarchy and would eventually evolve into the party known as
the Pharisees.

Persian rule ended when Alexander the Great conquered Palestine in 332 B.C.

After his death, rule of Judea alternated between Egypt and Syria.

When the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to prevent the practice of Judaism, a revolt
was led by the Maccabees (a Jewish family), winning Jewish independence in 128 B.C. The
Romans conquered Jerusalem in 63 B.C.

During this period the Sadducees (temple priests) and the Pharisees (teachers of the law in the
synagogues) offered different interpretations of Judaism.

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Smaller groups that emerged were the Essenes, a religious order; the Apocalyptists, who
expected divine deliverance led by the Messiah; and the Zealots, who were prepared to fight for
national independence.

Hellenism also influenced Judaism at this time.

When the Zealots revolted, the Roman armies destroyed Jerusalem and its temple (A.D. 70).

The Jews were scattered in the Diaspora (dispersion) and experienced much persecution.

Rabbinic Judaism, developed according to Pharisaic practice and centered on Torah and
synagogue, became the primary expression of faith.

The Scriptures became codified, and the Talmud took shape.

In the 12th century Maimonides formulated the influential 13 Articles of Faith, including:

 Belief in God,

 God's oneness and lack of physical or other form,

 The changelessness of Torah,

 Restoration of the monarchy under the Messiah, and

 Resurrection of the dead.

Two branches of European Judaism developed during the Middle Ages: the Sephardic, based in
Spain and with an affinity to Babylonian Jews; and the Ashkenazic, based in Franco-German
lands and affiliated with Rome and Palestine.

Two forms of Jewish mysticism also arose at this time: medieval Hasidism and attention to the
Kabbalah (a mystical interpretation of Scripture).

After a respite during the 18th-century Enlightenment, anti-Semitism again plagued European
Jews in the 19th century, sparking the Zionist movement that culminated in the founding of the
state of Israel in 1948.

The Holocaust of World War II took the lives of more than 6 million Jews.

Jews today continue synagogue worship, which includes:

Readings from the Law and the Prophets and prayers, such as the Shema (Hear, O Israel) and the
Amidah (the 18 Benedictions)
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Religious life is guided by the commandments of the Torah, which include the practice of
circumcision and Sabbath observance.

Present-day Judaism has three main expressions:

1. Orthodox,

2. Conservative, and

3. Reform.

Reform movements, resulting from the Haskala (Jewish Enlightenment) of the 18th century,
began in western Europe but took root in North America.

Reform Jews do not hold the oral law (Talmud) to be a divine revelation, and they emphasize
ethical and moral teachings.

Orthodox Jews follow the traditional faith and practice with great seriousness. They follow a
strict kosher diet and keep the Sabbath with care.

Conservative Judaism, which developed in the mid-18th century, holds the Talmud to be
authoritative and follows most traditional practices, yet tries to make Judaism relevant for each
generation, believing that change and tradition can complement each other.

Because a Jewish identity is not dependent upon accepting the Torah, a strong secular movement
also exists within Jewish life, including atheist and agnostic elements.

2. Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered around the personage of Jesus of Nazareth, or

Jesus Christ. Christianity arose in the 30s–50s CE as a religious offshoot of Judaism based on the
teachings of Jesus, who was himself Jewish. Early Christianity rejected many of the social,
cultural, and religious institutions of Judaism and pursued radically different strains of spiritual
thought. Within a century a recognizable Church was founded. The texts of the faith and its most
important creeds were codified in the 300s CE.

Despite persecution, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire and all of its
inheritors, and in the time since the different Christian denominations have collectively become
the largest faith in the world by a wide margin.

After his death his followers came to believe in him as the Christ, the Messiah. The Gospels
report his resurrection and how the risen Jesus was witnessed by many of his followers. The
apostle Paul helped spread the new faith in his missionary travels. Historically, Christianity arose

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out of Judaism and claims that Jesus fulfilled many of the promises of the Hebrew Scripture
(often referred to as the Old Testament).

The new religion spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire. In its first two centuries,
Christianity began to take shape as an organization, developing distinctive doctrine, liturgy, and
ministry. By the fourth century the Christian church had taken root in countries stretching from
Spain in the West to Persia and India in the East. Christians had been subject to persecution by
the Roman state, but gained tolerance under Constantine the Great (A.D. 313). The church
became favored under his successors, and in 380 the emperor Theodosius proclaimed
Christianity the state religion. Other religions were suppressed.

Because differences in doctrine threatened to divide the church, a standard Christian creed was
formulated by bishops at successive ecumenical councils, the first of which was held in A.D. 325
(Nicaea). Important doctrines were defined concerning the Trinity—in other words, that there is
one God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Constantinople, A.D. 381), and the
nature of Christ as both divine and human (Chalcedon, A.D. 541).

Christians came to accept both Hebrew Scripture and the New Testament as authoritative.

The New Testament comprises four Gospels (narratives of Jesus' life), 21 Epistles, The Acts of
the Apostles, and Revelation.

Because of differences between Christians of the East and West, the unity of the church was
broken in 1054. The religious center for the Eastern Orthodox Church was Constantinople, and
the Roman Catholic Church defined doctrine and practice for Christians in the West. In 1517 the
Reformation began, which ultimately caused a schism in the Western church. Reformers wished
to correct certain practices within the Roman church, but they also came to view the Christian
faith in a distinctly new way. The major Protestant denominations (Lutheran, Presbyterian,
Reformed, and Anglican [Episcopalian]) thus came into being. Over the centuries, numerous
denominations have broken with these major traditions, resulting in a spectrum of Christian
expression.

In the 21st century, many Christians hope to regain a sense of unity through dialogue and
cooperation among different traditions. The ecumenical movement led to the formation of the
World Council of Churches in 1948 (Amsterdam), which has since been joined by many
denominations.

Through its missionary activity Christianity has spread to most parts of the globe.

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3. Islam

Pre-Islamic Arabia /also known as the Jahiliya Period

The background setting of the Arabian Peninsula (Arab speaking Middle East) of the seventh
century reflected traditional tribal societies ruled by tribal kings. The prevalent Arabica language
appears not to have a written literature.

But if you look at the Quran, there seems to have been an orally laid sophistication of thought
forms almost similar to the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
This is reflected in (Quran 29:61, 63, 31:25, 39:38, 43:9, 87).
Surat Al-`Ankabut [29:61] - The Noble Qur'an

If you asked them, "Who created the heavens and earth and subjected the sun and the moon?"
they would surely say, "Allah." Then how are they deluded?

Surah Al-'Ankabut - 63

If you ask them, 'Who sends water down from the sky and gives life with it to the earth after it
has died?' they are sure to say, 'God.' Say, 'Praise belongs to ...

Before emergence of Islam, there was well entrenched paganism that is native to the Arabs (Arab
Polytheism). In spite of the centuries-old Arab contact with monotheistic religions, isolation had
persisted and knowledge of the existence of the abstracts of the neighboring high cultures were
limited.

Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia was a mix of polytheism, Christianity, Judaism, and Iranian
religions. Arab polytheism, the dominant belief system, was based on the belief in deities and
other supernatural beings such as djinn . Gods and goddesses were worshipped at local shrines,
such as the Kaaba in Mecca.

While the traditions of Islamic origins point to Arabia and the Arabs, to find the religious and
cultural context in which Islam took shape we must turn to north. The true incubator of Islam
was the rich civilization of the Near East. On the eve of the rise of Islam, the Near East was
dominated by two great empires, the Eastern Roman/or Byzantine Empire, centered on
Constantinople, and the Persian or Sāsānian Empire, with its capital at Ctesiphone near present
day Baghdad (The capital of Iraq).

The two empires were remarkable for their success in mainly training political and
administrative unity, for their intense military rivalry with one another, and for a growing role as
patrons and protectors of orthodox Christianity and the Sāsanians as Patrons of Zoroastrian
orthodoxy for all these reasons – their success, their unity, their rivalry, and their confessional
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stance. The picture painted here is of a two great empires of the time i.e. two great monolithic
states engaged in a sixth century version of cold war and pitting Greek against Persian,
Christian against Zoroastrian, civil state against militaristic, West against East.

The reality is bleak. History indicates that by the end of the sixth century, there was an
increasing patchwork of ethnicities, languages and religious alliance being formed. The
Byzantine emperors reigned over the Greeks, Syriac, Aramaic, Arabic and Coptic speakers,
while a befitted rulers of the New Rome, conducted their own business in Latin (Brown
1971:138).

Christendom included significant numbers of Jacobites, Monophysites, Coptic Monophysites and

Nestorians. Other small but widely distributed heresies dotted the religious landscape among
them the Donatists , Montanists , Marcionites , Melitians , Quartodecimans and Luciferians .

In the Persian Empire, Aramaic speakers outnumbered Persian speakers, and imperial subjects
included Arabs, Armenians, Daylamites, Khwarazmians and Kurds.

The official creed of the empire Zoroastrianism, had to contend with Nestorian Christians, Jews,
Manichaeans, Buddhists, Hindus and followers of the fifth century communist prophet Mazdak.

If we are to understand the religious environment in which Islam grew to maturity it is not to the
comparative simple and uncluttered desert world of Arabia that we should look but to this
colorful and complex patchwork of creeds, sects, prophets, and saints that make up the
religious life of the Near East.

The following characteristics permeated the religious mosaic of the pre Islamic Arabia

In the 7th century, one can speak of an Arabian religion (din al´arab) whose beliefs and rituals
were centred on a pantheon of interrelated tribal gods.

These gods had their sanctuaries in the territory of a tribe, and were usually shared by allied
tribes or those in the vicinity able to visit them. Such sharing of the divinities, and participation
in common fairs and festivals around their sanctuaries, made for religious-cultural unity
(Chelhod 1955: 123-25).

The sacred enclave was called hijr, where common rituals of initiation, pilgrimage to and
circumambulation of the sanctuary shrine with shaven heads were performed (Retsö 2002: 587,
624).

The most important divinities were Manât, the goddess of the tribes of Aws, Khazraj and
Ghassân, the Lât, goddess of the Thaqif, and the ´Uzzâ, goddess of Muhammad‘s tribe, the
Quraysh, as well as the Kinâna, the Khuzâ`a and all of the Mudar confederacy.
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The three goddesses were considered the daughters of the paramount god, Allâh. Muhammad‘s
ancestor, Qusayy, had settled the Quraysh in the sacred enclave (haram) of Mecca just over a
century before his birth.

The custodianship (hijâba) of the House of Allâh, the Ka´ba, was secured for the Quraysh, and
made them beneficiary of sacred immunity from attacks by other tribes

Even though the custodial functions became divided among his descendants through the lines of
Hâshim and ´Abd al-Dâr, Qurayy‘s cultic reforms had a lasting effect, making him the ―unifier‖
(mujamma´) of the tribal union of the Quraysh on behalf of Allâh

Furthermore, Qurayy‘s descendants succeeded in creating a supra-tribal collective identity by

founding or reconstructing a cultic union, the hums.

The Qur`ân characterizes the Arabian form of polytheism as ‗associationism‘ (shirk), and its
description of the Arabian tribes as ―associationists‖ or believers in divine partnership
(mushrikun) is quite precise.

Medina was still tribally organized, with each clan ―in charge of the management of its affairs,‖
joint payment of blood-monies and collective responsibility for ransoming its prisoners.

Arabian Customary laws practised infanticides, (killing of babies), lame, born out of incest,
deformed, twins, girls and some other reasons.

Islam would be a revolution to the illiterate, isolated tribal kingdoms of idol worship.

Emergency of Islam (The Life of Muhammad; 570-632 AD.)

It is difficult to discuss the birth of Islam without talking about the life of Prophet Muhammad.

Orphaned at 6, Muhammad was saved from a life of slavery by his uncle who gave him a job in
his successful caravan business. Married to a successful businesswoman in her own right,
Muhammad saw firsthand how the leading families of the Quraysh lived. They were arrogant,
reckless, ungenerous and egotistical, believed only in riches, and took no responsibility for
people outside their immediate, elite circle.

Muhammad saw this decline in traditional values as a threat to the very existence of his tribe. He
was sure that social reform had to be based on a new spiritual foundation, though before the
revelations, he had no idea that his destiny would be to implement these changes.

Less than one hundred years after Muhammad‘s death in 632 the first Muslim historians began to
write about his life. These were Muhammad ibn Ishaq (d. 767), Muhammad ibn ‗Umar al-
Waqidi (d. ca 820); Muhammad ibn Sa‘d (d. 845); and Abu Jarir at-Tabari (d. 923). These

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scholars reconstructed their narrative from oral traditions and early documents, and through their
effort we know more about Muhammad than we do of any other Prophet.

About Islam

Islam is a strictly monotheistic faith founded by the prophet Muhammad in the year 610 AD in
present-day Saudi Arabia.

His teachings, collected in the Quran, claim common descent with many Jewish and Christian
beliefs.

Muhammad preached monotheism in the city of Mecca despite opposition from local polytheists,
and quickly built a religious community of early Muslims.

The Islamic community was forced to relocate to Medina in 622, after which the group codified
and began their expansion across the Arabian peninsula.

Nearly all of Arabia converted to Islam by 632, the year of Muhammad's death, and in the years
since it has grown to become the world's second largest religion, mostly concentrated in the
Middle East and Southeast Asia.

The Hegira (Hijra, meaning "emigration") of Muhammad from Mecca, where he was not
honored, to Medina, where he was well received, occurred in 622 and marks the beginning of the
Muslim era.

After a number of military conflicts with Mecca, in 630 he marched on Mecca and conquered it.
Muhammad died at Medina in 632.

His grave there has since been a place of pilgrimage.

Muhammad's followers, called Muslims, revered him as the prophet of Allah (God), the only
God. Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last in the line of prophets that included Abraham
and Jesus.

Islam spread quickly, stretching from Spain in the west to India in the east within a century after
the prophet's death.

Sources of the Islamic faith are:

 The Qur'an (Koran), regarded as the uncreated, eternal Word of God, and;

 Tradition (hadith) regarding sayings and deeds of the prophet.

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Islam means "surrender to the will of Allah," the all-powerful, who determines humanity's fate.
Good deeds will be rewarded at the Last Judgment in paradise, and evil deeds will be punished in
hell.

The Five Pillars, or primary duties, of Islam are:

 Profession of faith;

 Prayer, to be performed five times a day;

 Almsgiving to the poor and the mosque (house of worship);

 Fasting during daylight hours in the month of Ramadan; and

 Pilgrimage to Mecca (the hajj) at least once in a Muslim's lifetime, if it is physically and
financially possible. The pilgrimage includes homage to the ancient shrine of the Ka'aba,
the most sacred site in Islam.

Muslims gather for corporate worship on Fridays.

Prayers and a sermon take place at the mosque, which is also a center for teaching of the Qur'an.
The community leader, the imam, is considered a teacher and prayer leader.

Islam succeeded in uniting an Arab world of separate tribes and castes, but disagreements
concerning the succession of the prophet caused a division in Islam between two groups, Sunnis
and Shi'ites.

The Shi'ites rejected the first three successors to Muhammad as usurpers, claiming the fourth,
Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, as the rightful leader.

The Sunnis (from the word tradition), the largest division of Islam (today more than 87%),
believe in the legitimacy of the first three successors. Among these, other sects arose (such as the
conservative Wahhabi of Saudi Arabia), as well as different schools of theology.

Another development within Islam, beginning in the eighth and ninth centuries, was Sufism, a
form of mysticism. This movement was influential for many centuries and was instrumental in
the spread of Islam in Asia and Africa.

Islam has expanded greatly under Muhammad's successors. It is the principal religion of the
Middle East, Asia, and the northern half of Africa.

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4. Baha'i

Baha'i is the youngest major world religion, founded in 1863 by the prophet Bahá'u'lláh.

Baha'i grew out of the earlier religion of Babism, whose founder the Bab presaged the coming of
another great prophet like the coming of Muhammad.

Baha'i originated in Iran, although its current center is in Haifa, Israel.

Baha'i is a monotheistic religion, but it teaches that religious truth is manifested and revealed by
the founders of all the major world religions, including Jesus Christ and the Buddha.

Baha'is believe that the different cultural interpretations of religion all have the same goal, and
they strive for prosperity across faiths.

In Kenya

In 1945, the first Bahá‘ís settled in Sotik, Kenya.

Today, the Kenyan community has more than 180 local Bahá‘í administrative councils, known
as Local Spiritual Assemblies.

The Bahá‘í community in Kenya is known for its work in promoting social and economic
development activities such as building skills in weaving and health care.

A Bahá‘í inspired organization called ―The Livelihood Foundation‖ carries out activities related
to health care and education. Through this project, a health centre with maternity wards has been
constructed and is operational. The Foundation also promotes education on AIDS for local
people.

Brief history

The Bahá‘í Faith traces its origin to 1844 and the announcement by a young man, Siyyid ‗Alí-
Muhammad, in Shiraz, Persia (now Iran), that He had been sent by God to prepare humanity for
a new age and the imminent appearance of another Messenger even greater than Himself.

Siyyid ‗Alí-Muhammad took the title of the Báb (meaning ―Gate‖ in Arabic) and said the one
whose coming He foretold would be the universal Manifestation of God sent to inaugurate an
age of peace and enlightenment as promised in all the world‘s religions.

The Báb‘s teachings, which spread rapidly, were viewed as heretical by the clergy and
government of Persia. More than 20,000 of His followers, known as Bábís, perished in a series of
massacres throughout the country.

The Báb Himself was publicly executed in the city of Tabriz on 9 July 1850.
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Bahá‘ís consider the Báb to be both an independent Messenger of God and the forerunner of
Bahá‘u‘lláh (―the Glory of God‖ in Arabic), who is the founder of the Bahá‘í Faith.

Bahá‘u‘lláh, whose name was Mírzá Husayn ‗Alí, was born into a noble family in Tehran on 12
November 1817. In His mid-20s, He declined a life of privilege and became one of the leading
disciples of the Báb.

In 1852, in the course of the persecution of the Bábís, He was arrested, beaten, and thrown into
an infamous dungeon in Tehran. After four months, He was released and banished from His
native land – the beginning of 40 years of exile and imprisonment.

He was first sent to Baghdad, where He and His companions stayed for 10 years. In 1863, on the
eve of His further banishment to what is now Turkey and then to the Holy Land, Bahá‘u‘lláh
announced that He was the Universal Messenger of God foretold by the Báb.

In 1868, Bahá‘u‘lláh arrived in the Holy Land with about 70 family members and followers,
sentenced by the Ottoman authorities to perpetual confinement in the penal colony of Acre. The
order of confinement was never lifted, but because of the growing recognition of His outstanding
character, He eventually was able to move outside the walls of the prison city. He lived His final
years at a country home called Bahjí, where He passed away in 1892. He was interred there, and
His shrine is the holiest place on earth for Bahá‘ís.

During the 40 years of His exile, Bahá‘u‘lláh revealed a series of books, tablets, and letters that
today form the core of the holy writings of the Bahá‘í Faith. Comprising the equivalent of some
100 volumes, the writings of Bahá‘u‘lláh describe the nature of God and the purpose of human
existence, give new religious laws, and outline a vision for creating a peaceful and prosperous
global society.

In His will, Bahá‘u‘lláh named His eldest son, ‗Abbás Effendi (1844-1921), as the head of the
Bahá‘í Faith and authorized interpreter of His teachings. ‗Abbás Effendi, known to Bahá‘ís as
‗Abdu‘l-Bahá (―Servant of Bahá‖), became well-known in the Haifa-Acre area for his charitable
works, and he also traveled through Europe and North America to encourage nascent Bahá‘í
communities and to proclaim Bahá‘u‘lláh‘s teachings to the general public.

The writings of ‗Abdu‘l-Bahá are considered part of the sacred scriptures of the Bahá‘í Faith.

‗Abdu‘l-Bahá passed away in 1921. In his will he had designated his grandson Shoghi Effendi
(1897-1957) as his successor, with the title of Guardian of the Bahá‘í Faith. During the ministry
of Shoghi Effendi, the religion spread around the world, and its local and national administrative
institutions were established. With the passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, the line of hereditary
leaders of the Bahá‘í Faith came to an end.

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Following provisions established by Bahá‘u‘lláh, in 1963 the Universal House of Justice was
elected to direct the affairs of the worldwide Bahá‘í community. The nine members of the
Universal House of Justice are elected every five years by the members of the Bahá‘í national
administrative bodies around the world.

There are around eight million Baha'is today, who indirectly vote for the leaders of their religion
every few years.

Belief

 Bahá‘u‘lláh and His Covenant

 Bahá‘u‘lláh and His Covenant

 God and His Creation

 Essential Relationships
 Universal Peace
In thousands upon thousands of locations around the world, the teachings of the Bahá‘í Faith
inspire individuals and communities as they work to improve their own lives and contribute to
the advancement of civilization.

Bahá‘í beliefs address such essential themes as the oneness of God and religion, the oneness of
humanity and freedom from prejudice, the inherent nobility of the human being, the progressive
revelation of religious truth, the development of spiritual qualities, the integration of worship and
service, the fundamental equality of the sexes, the harmony between religion and science, the
centrality of justice to all human endeavours, the importance of education, and the dynamics of
the relationships that are to bind together individuals, communities, and institutions as humanity
advances towards its collective maturity.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religion, founded by the Persian prophet
Zoroaster.

It is first recorded in the 500s BCE, but many historians believe it was founded as early as the
900s BCE.

Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion of the vast Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and it
continued to play an important part in the region until the ascent of Islam in the 700s CE.

Many credit Zoroastrianism with affecting the development of other major religions.

Zoroastrianism declined through the medieval era, and today there are fewer than 200,000
Zoroastrians as of the last reputable survey.

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However, there are some indications that many Kurds are converting to Zoroastrianism, which
they see as an ancestral religion, which may reverse the long declining population.

Shinto

Shinto is the traditional religion of Japan, which incorporates a vast array of local beliefs and
customs across the nation. These traditions were collected and described as something like
Shinto in the 800s CE, although the different beliefs predate this. Shinto is, for the most part, not
an organized religion, and is instead the foundation of many cultural practices in Japan.
Likewise, it's difficult to produce a number of people who follow Shinto; based off of
membership in Shinto organizations, only 4% of Japan follows the religion. However, up to 80%
of Japanese people (even ones who proclaim no religious belief) still keep shrines and make
Shinto prayers. The intimately cultural quality of Shinto means that it is limited almost entirely
to Japan.

Under the reign of the emperor Meiji (1868–1912), Shinto became the official state religion.
State Shinto, the national cult, emphasized the divinity of the emperor, whose succession was
traced back to the first emperor, Jimmu (660 B.C.), and beyond him to the sun goddess
Amaterasu-o-mi-kami. State Shinto was disestablished after World War II.

Sect Shinto, deriving from sects that developed during the 19th and 20th centuries, continues to
thrive in Japan. Shrines dedicated to particular kami are visited by parishioners for prayer and
traditional ceremonies, such as presenting a newborn child to the kami. Traditional festivals
celebrated at the shrines include purification rites, presentation of food offerings, prayer, sacred
music and dance, and a feast.

No particular day of the week is set aside for prayer. A person may visit a shrine at will, entering
through the torii (gateway). It is believed that the kami can respond to prayer and can offer
protection and guidance.

A variety of Shinto sects and practices exist today. Ten-rikyo emphasizes faith healing. Folk
Shinto is characterized by veneration of roadside shrines and rites related to agriculture. Buddhist
priests serve at many Shinto shrines, and many families keep a small shrine, or god-shelf, at
home. Veneration of ancestors and pilgrimage are also common practices.

Hinduism

Hinduism is by many accounts the oldest religion in the world, due to its origins in Vedic beliefs
dating as far back as the 1500s BCE.

The religion has no founder, and is a synthesis of many different Indian religious traditions.

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The religion waxed and waned in competition with Jainism and Buddhism throughout Indian
history, before seeing a huge resurgence after the medieval period.

Thereafter it became the dominant religion on the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is one of the
most geographically concentrated of the major world religions—of the world's 1.12 billion
Hindus, 1.07 billion live in India and Nepal. The sheer number of practitioners, however, makes
Hinduism the world's third largest religion.

The most ancient sacred texts of the Hindu religion are written in Sanskrit and called the Vedas
(vedah means ―knowledge‖). There are four Vedic books, of which the Rig-Veda is the oldest. It
discusses multiple gods, the universe, and creation. The dates of these works are unknown (1000
B.C.?). Present-day Hindus rarely refer to these texts but do venerate them.

The Upanishads (dated 1000–300 B.C.), commentaries on the Vedic texts, speculate on the
origin of the universe and the nature of deity, and atman (the individual soul) and its relationship
to Brahman (the universal soul). They introduce the doctrine of karma and recommend
meditation and the practice of yoga.

Further important sacred writings include the Epics, which contain legendary stories about gods
and humans. They are the Mahabharata (composed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200) and the
Ramayana. The former includes the Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), an influential text that
describes the three paths to salvation. The Puranas (stories in verse, probably written between the
6th and 13th centuries) detail myths of Hindu gods and heroes and also comment on religious
practice and cosmology.

According to Hindu beliefs, Brahman is the principle and source of the universe. This divine
intelligence pervades all beings, including the individual soul. Thus the many Hindu deities are
manifestations of the one Brahman. Hinduism is based on the concept of reincarnation, in which
all living beings, from plants on earth to gods above, are caught in a cosmic cycle of becoming
and perishing.

Life is determined by the law of karma—one is reborn to a higher level of existence based on
moral behavior in a previous phase of existence. Life on earth is regarded as transient and a
burden. The goal of existence is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death and entrance into
the indescribable state of moksha (liberation).

The practice of Hinduism consists of rites and ceremonies centering on birth, marriage, and
death. There are many Hindu temples, which are considered to be dwelling places of the deities
and to which people bring offerings. Places of pilgrimage include Benares on the Ganges, the
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most sacred river in India. Of the many Hindu deities, the most popular are the cults of Vishnu,
Shiva, and Shakti, and their various incarnations. Also important is Brahma, the creator god.
Hindus also venerate human saints.

Orthodox Hindu society in India was divided into four major hereditary classes: (1) the Brahmin
(priestly and learned class); (2) the Kshatriya (military, professional, ruling, and governing
occupations); (3) the Vaishya (landowners, merchants, and business occupations); and (4) the
Sudra (artisans, laborers, and peasants). Below the Sudra was a fifth group, the Untouchables
(lowest menial occupations and no social standing). The Indian government banned
discrimination against the Untouchables in the constitution of India in 1950. Observance of class
and caste distinctions varies throughout India.

In modern times work has been done to reform and revive Hinduism. One of the outstanding
reformers was Ramakrishna (1836–1886), who inspired many followers, one of whom founded
the Ramakrishna mission. The mission is active both in India and in other countries and is known
for its scholarly and humanitarian works.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religious tradition founded by Gautama Buddha in the early 400s BCE, drawing
from (or opposing) many of the same Vedic traditions that inform Hinduism. Buddhists engaged
Hindus and Jains in religious dialogues for centuries, developing mutual competing traditions
and beliefs. Buddhism flourished in India, receiving support from several powerful leaders,
before declining during the medieval period. Buddhism continued to grow and develop in East
Asia, having a profound impact on the cultural landscape of the entire region. Buddhism is today
the fourth largest religion in the world, being the majority religion of many countries in
Southeast Asia, and with nearly 200 million practitioners in China.

Brief history

Buddhism was founded in the fourth or fifth century B.C. in northern India by a man known
traditionally as Siddhartha Gautama, the son of a warrior prince. Some scholars believe that he
lived from 563 to 483 B.C., though his exact life span is uncertain. Troubled by the inevitability
of suffering in human life, he left his birthplace in Nepal and a pampered life at the age of 29 to
wander as an ascetic, seeking religious insight and a solution to the struggles of human existence.
He passed through many trials and practiced extreme self-denial. Finally, while meditating under
the bodhi tree (―tree of perfect knowledge‖), he reached enlightenment and taught his followers
about his new spiritual understanding.

Important Concepts

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Buddhist teachings differed from the Hindu faith prevalent in India at the time. Whereas in
Hinduism the Brahmin caste alone performed religious functions and attained the highest
spiritual understanding, Gautama's beliefs were more egalitarian, accessible to all who wished to
be enlightened.

At the core of his understanding were the Four Noble Truths:

(1) all living beings suffer;

(2) the cause of suffering is desire—for material possessions, power, and so on;

(3) desire can be overcome and;

(4) There is a path that leads to release from desire.

This way is called the Noble Eightfold Path, or just the Eightfold Path: right views, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and right
ecstasy.

Gautama promoted the concept of anatman (that a person has no actual self) and the idea that
existence is impermanent. This realization helps one let go of desire for transient things.

Still, Gautama did not recommend extreme self-denial but rather a disciplined life called the
Middle Way.

Like the Hindus, he believed that existence consisted of reincarnation, a cycle of rebirth and
death. He held that it could be broken only by reaching complete detachment from worldly cares.
Then the soul could be released into nirvana (literally ―blowing out‖)—an indescribable state of
total transcendence. Gautama traveled to preach the dharma (sacred truth) and was recognized as
the Buddha (enlightened one). After his death his followers continued to develop doctrine and
practice, which came to center on the Three Jewels: the dharma (the sacred teachings of
Buddhism), the sangha (the community of followers, which now includes buddhist monks, nuns,
and laity), and the Buddha. Under the patronage of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (third century
B.C.), Buddhism spread throughout India and to other parts of Asia. Monasteries were
established, as well as temples dedicated to Buddha. At shrines, often known as stupas, his relics
were venerated. Though by the fourth century A.D. Buddhist presence in India had dwindled, it
flourished in other parts of Asia.

Schools of Thought

Numerous Buddhist traditions have emerged. The oldest, called

the Theravada (Way of the Elders) tradition, interprets Buddha as a great sage but not a deity.

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It emphasizes meditation and ritual practices that help the individual become an arhat, an
enlightened being.

Its followers emphasize the authority of the earliest Buddhist scriptures, the Tripitaka (Three
Baskets) or Tipitaka, a compilation of sermons, rules for celibates, and doctrine.

The Tripitaka as held by Theravadins is also called the Pali Canon, since it is written in Pali as
well as Sanskrit.

This tradition is prevalent in Southeast Asia. Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (formerly
Burma) and Vietnam--and Sri Lanka.

It is sometimes called the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) tradition (once considered a pejorative
term).

Between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D., the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
tradition refocused Buddhism to concentrate less on individual attainment of enlightenment and
more on concern for humanity.

It promotes the ideal of the bodhisattva (enlightened being), who shuns entering nirvana until all
sentient beings can do so as well, willingly remaining in the painful cycle of birth and death to
perform works of compassion.

Members of this tradition conceive of Buddha as an eternal being to whom prayers can be made;
other Buddhas are revered as well, adding a polytheistic dimension to the religion.

Numerous sects have developed from the Mahayana tradition, which has been influential in
China, Korea, and Japan.

A third broad tradition, variously called Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), Mantrayana (Vehicle of
the Mantra), or Tantric Buddhism, offers a quicker, more demanding way to achieve nirvana.

Because of its level of challenge—enabling one to reach enlightenment in one lifetime—it

requires the guidance of a spiritual leader. It is most prominent in Tibet and Mongolia. Buddhism
as practiced in Tibet is often called simply Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is most
identified with its leader, the Dalai Lama.

Zen Buddhism encourages individuals to seek the Buddha nature within themselves and to
practice a disciplined form of sitting meditation in order to reach satori—spiritual enlightenment.

Buddhism is often practiced and learned through knowledge of the different sutras, or suttas.

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Jainism

Jainism is an ancient religious tradition from India; per its practitioners Jainism is eternal, or at
least older than Hinduism, but many historical estimates will place it contemporary with
Buddhism as a Classical offshoot of old Vedic tradition.

Like Buddhism, Jainism received varying degrees of support or opposition from powerful
sponsors, and was in constant dialogue with India's other religious traditions. Unlike Buddhism,
Jainism didn't spread far outside of its home in India, and today the vast majority of the world's
4-5 million Jains live in India. The Jain community enjoys a large profile, however, due to their
high literacy rates and the esteem Mohandas Gandhi professed for Jain teachings and beliefs.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a young religion founded in the early 1500s CE in Punjab (Northern India) by the
Guru Nanak. Guru Nanak was raised as a Hindu in the Muslim-ruled Mughal Empire, but he
rejected both dominant faiths and began preaching his own religion. A community formed
around him. Over the next two centuries, the Sikhs would be led by nine more gurus. The last
living guru named the Sikh holy book, Guru Granth Sahib, as his successor, and there has since
been no single leader of the Sikh community. Despite being a religious minority, the Sikhs
overthrew the Mughals and founded a major empire in Northern India in the 1800s. By different
definitions Sikhism is either the fifth or eighth largest religion in the world, mostly concentrated
in their home region of Punjab.

The disciples of Guru Nanak

A major religion of India and the fifth-largest faith in the world, Sikhism emerged in the Punjab
under the guidance of the guru Nanak (1469–1539?). This region had been influenced by the
Hindu bhakti movement, which promoted both the idea that God comprises one reality alone as
well as the practice of devotional singing and prayer. The Muslim mystical tradition of Sufism,
with its emphasis on meditation, also had some prominence there. Drawing on these resources,
Nanak forged a new spiritual path.

In his youth, Nanak began to compose hymns. At the age of 29, he had a mystical experience
that led him to proclaim ―There is no Hindu; there is no Muslim.‖ A strict monotheist, he
rejected Hindu polytheism but accepted the Hindu concept of life as a cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth; moksha, release from this cycle into unity with God, could be achieved only with the
help of a guru, or spiritual teacher. Nanak believed that communion with God could be gained
through devotional repetition of the divine name, singing of hymns and praises, and adherence to
a demanding ethical code. He rejected idols and the Hindu caste system; it became a custom for
Sikhs of all social ranks to take meals together. These beliefs are still central to modern Sikhism.

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Nanak was first in a line of ten gurus who shaped and inspired Sikhism. The fifth, Arjun (1563–
1606), compiled hymns and other writings by earlier Sikh gurus, as well as medieval Hindu and
Muslim saints, in the Adi Granth (First Book), or Guru Granth Sahib (the Granth Personified).
This book became the sacred scripture of Sikhism. In addition to his spiritual leadership, Arjun
wielded considerable secular power as he grappled with leaders of the Mughal Empire.

The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1666–1708), was both a scholar and a military hero. He
established the Khalsa (community of pure ones), an order that combined spiritual devotion,
personal discipline, and ideals of military valor. Baptism initiates new members into the Khalsa.
The Adi Granth took its final form under the supervision of Gobind Singh, as did the Dasam
Granth (Tenth Book), a collection of prayers, poetry, and narrative. After the deaths of his four
sons, Gobind Singh declared the line of gurus at an end. The Adi Granth would instead be
reverenced in houses of worship, taking the place of a living guru.

Today, Sikhs worship at gurdwaras (temples), where the Adi Granth is the object of devotion.
This book is consulted regarding questions of faith and practice. On certain occasions, it is
recited in its entirety (requiring more than a day) or carried in procession; offerings may be
placed before it. Worshipful singing, meditation, and focus on the divine name remain essential
to spiritual life. Some Sikhs undertake pilgrimages to historical gurdwaras, such as the Golden
Temple of Amritsar, that are associated with the gurus. Some become disciples of living saints.
There is no established Sikh priesthood.

Confucianism

Confucianism, it must be said, is not a religion in a strict sense. It is a philosophy that draws on
the folk religion of China. Confucianism as a school of thought was founded by the Chinese
philosopher Kng Qi (), better known as Master Kng or Kngz (), during China's Spring and
Autumn period in the 500s BCE. It quickly became the preeminent of the "Hundred Schools of
Thought" and became the foundation of the later imperial government of China. The Chinese
folk religion that Confucianism draws on is still concentrated in China, but its teachings are
widespread throughout East Asia. Note: Kngz, or the more honorific Kng Fz () was latinized as
Confucius by Jesuit missionaries in the 1600s.

Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu), born in the state of Lu (northern China), lived from 551 to 479 B.C.
He was a brilliant teacher, viewing education not merely as the accumulation of knowledge but
as a means of self-transformation. His legacy was a system of thought emphasizing education,
proper behavior, and loyalty. His effect on Chinese culture was immense.

The teachings of Confucius are contained in the Analects, a collection of his sayings as
remembered by his students. They were further developed by philosophers such as Mencius
(Meng Tse, fl. 400 B.C.). Confucianism is little concerned with metaphysical discussion of

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religion or with spiritual attainments. It instead emphasizes moral conduct and right relationships
in the human sphere.

Cultivation of virtue is a central tenet of Confucianism. Two important virtues are jen, a
benevolent and humanitarian attitude, and li, maintaining proper relationships and rituals that
enhance the life of the individual, the family, and the state. The ―five relations,‖ between king
and subject, father and son, man and wife, older and younger brother, and friend and friend, are
of utmost importance. These relationships are reinforced by participation in rituals, including the
formal procedures of court life and religious rituals such as ancestor worship.

Confucius revolutionized educational thought in China. He believed that learning was not to be
focused only on attaining the skills for a particular profession, but for growth in moral judgment
and self-realization. Confucius's standards for the proper conduct of government shaped the
statecraft of China for centuries. Hundreds of temples in honor of Confucius testify to his stature
as sage and teacher.

Confucianism was far less dominant in 20th-century China, at least on an official level. The state
cult of Confucius was ended in 1911. Still, Confucian traditions and moral standards are part of
the cultural essence of China and other East Asian countries.

Taoism

Taoism is a philosophy and religion originating in China around the same time as Confucianism,
and was the primary rival to Confucian thought out of the Hundred Schools. Taoism claims
descent from the (perhaps mythical) figure Loz (), which literally means "Old Master." Taoism
shares some common elements with Chinese folk religion, but the core teachings differ (unlike
Confucianism). Taoism has been immensely influential on Chinese and East Asian cultures, with
Taoist thought influencing everything from literature to medicine to martial arts. Due to the
syncretic interactions of Taoism with Chan Buddhism and Confucianism, it is hard to find a hard
number of Taoists, but Chinese religions collectively are the fifth largest religion in the world.

Taoism, one of the major religions of China, is based on ancient philosophical works, primarily
the Tao Te Ching, ―Classic of Tao and Its Virtue.‖ Traditionally, this book was thought to be the
work of Lao-tzu, a quasi-historical philosopher of the 6th century B.C.; scholars now believe that
the book dates from about the 3rd century B.C. The philosopher Chuang Tzu (4th–3rd centuries
B.C.) also contributed to the seminal ideas of Taoism.

Tao, ―the Way,‖ is the ultimate reality of the universe, according to Taoism. It is a creative
process, and humans can live in harmony with it by clearing the self of obstacles. By cultivating
wu-wei, a type of inaction characterized by humility and prudence, a person can participate in
the simplicity and spontaneity of Tao. Striving to attain virtue or achievement is
counterproductive and unnecessary. Taoism values mystical contemplation and balance. The
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human being is viewed as a microcosm of the universe, and the Chinese principle of yin-yang,
complementary duality, is a model of harmony.

The religious practices of Taoism emerged from these ancient philosophies and from Chinese
shamanistic tradition; by the 2nd century A.D., it constituted an organized religion. Longevity
and immortality were sought through regulating the energies of the body through breathing
exercises, meditation, and use of medicinal plants, talismans, and magical formulas. A cult of
immortals, including the divinized Lao-tzu, also developed. Influenced by Buddhism, Taoists
organized monastic orders. Temple worship and forms of divination, including the I ching, were
practiced.

Since its beginnings, many sects have arisen within Taoism. All subscribe to the philosophical
origins of the religion; some have emphasized faith healing, exorcism, the worship of the
immortals, meditation, or alchemy. Buddhism and Confucianism influenced some sects; some
operated as secret societies.

Though the present Chinese government has tried to suppress it, Taoism is still practiced in
mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. It profoundly influenced Chinese art and literature,
and Taoist ideas have become popular in the West.

African Traditional Religion(s) (ATRs)

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