A p p e n d i x B.4. Directors of the O t t o m a n Statistical O f f i c e , 1892-1916 (R.

1308-1332)

Year
Rumi , Miladi
or or General Director Assistant to the
Hicri Mali A. D of Statistics General Director
1310 1308 1892 Nuri Bey
1311 1309 1393 Fethi Bey
3 T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N
1312 1310 1894 Fethi Bey OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N :
1313 1311 1895 Fethi Franko Bey
1314 1312 1896 Fethi Franko Bey A N O V E R V I E W ,
1315 1313 1897 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi
1316 1314 1898 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1317 1315 1899 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1318 1316 1900 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1319 1317 1091 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1320 1318 1902 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1321 1319 1903 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1322 1320 1904 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1323 1321 1905 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1324 1322 1906 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1325 1323 1907 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey Introduction sources d e a l i n g w i t h the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of
1326 1324 1908 Mehmet Behiç Bey the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans there is a s t o u n d i n g
1327 1325 1909 Mehmet Behiç Bey U n t i l the census o f 1881/82, d e s p i t e occasional a l l u s i o n s v a r i a t i o n . T h e f i g u r e s g i v e n f o r the p r o p o r t i o n of Bulgar-
1328 :
1326 1910 Mehmet Behiç Bey
to ethnic g r o u p s (as i n t h e 1831 census), O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l ians i n the E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s r a n g e f r o m 24 to 39 percent;
1329 1327 1911 Mehmet Behiç Bey
1330 1328 1912 Mehmet Behiç Bey statistics classified t h e p o p u l a t i o n o n l y a c c o r d i n g t o r e l i - of Greeks, f r o m 9 to 16 p e r c e n t ; of T u r k s , f r o m 11 to 24
1331 1329 1913 Mehmet Behiç Bey g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n — e x c e p t f o r a f e w e t h n i c categories i n - percent; a n d so o n , despite considerabl e a g r e e m e nt about
1332 1330 1914 Mehmet Behiç Bey c l u d e d i n s o m e of the p r o v i n c i a l sahinmes, c h i e f l y after 1868. the total size (10 to 14 m i l l i o n ) of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n
1333 1331 1915 Despite the absence of a n y actual c o u n t of e t h n i c g r o u p s , the Balkans. Table 3 . 1 , w h i c h c o m p a r e s the f i g u r e s g i v e n by
1334 1332 1915
Europeans divided and subdivided t h e ' n o n - M u s l i m Ravenstein a n d b y K i e p e r t a n d B i a n c o n i , s h o w s t h e effect
Source: Salnames of H. 1310-1334 (1892/93—1915/16). It is interesting to observe the effort made by these officials to disseminate informa- p o p u l a t i o n , c h i e f l y the C h r i s t i a n s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i r of the use o f biased a n d p u r p o s e l y false i n f o r m a t i o n about
Notes: It should be noted that for fifteen out of the twenty-three years for which tion about statistics. Mehmet Behiç Bey, who served first as assistant director and then n a t i o n a l interests a n d subjective preferences . H o w e v e r , aft- the size of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Balkans.
precise information is available, the director was a non-Muslim, and for eleven of those as general director and came to be a good statistician in his own right, produced er 1868 p r o v i n c i a l y e a r b o o k s (vilayet salnamcleri), a l t h o u g h Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s dis-
years, he was foreign also. Fethi Bey apparently was Jewish. Migirdig Sinabyan Efendi several works. One of his publications giving demographic, economic, financial, and
was an Armenian who had served as assistant director of trade from 1892 until he other data for the Ottoman state in 1310 (1894) begins with a general introduction issued s o m e w h a t i r r e g u l a r l y , b e g a n to p r o v i d e , a l o n g w i t h t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the A s i a n p r o v i n c e s
assumed the statistics post in 1897 and who after 1902 returned to the trade ministry discussing the meaning and importance of statistics; see IUKTY 9075, Yevmiye Kalibi general p o p u l a t i o n statistics f o r the i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i n c e s , are f e w e r t h a n f o r the Balkans. T h e y are g e n e r a l l y i n agree-
as assistant minister (the statistical office was placed under the jurisdiction of the trade Mehmet Behiq Tarafindan Tanzim Olunan Istatistik Defteri. solid data o n the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s . ment that M u s l i m s constituted an o v e r w h e l m i n g majority
ministry in 1910). Rober (Robert) Efendi was apparently an American.
This n e w source o f d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s used i n A s i a , a l t h o u g h there is s o m e d i s a g r e e m e n t as to the exact
p r o p e r l y o n l y b y the serious a n d i m p a r t i a l E u r o p e a n schol- ratio of M u s l i m s to C h r i s t i a n s , especially i n areas subject to
ars a n d s t a t e s m e n ; t h e o t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to r e l y o n f a u l t y — p o l i t i c a l claims.''
o f t e n w h o l l y f i c t i t i o u s — d a t a . T h u s , f o r o b v i o u s reasons, The p r o b l e m of n a t i o n a l i t y i n the O t t o m a n state acquired
the p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d b v those w h o i g n o r e d a n e w d i m e n s i o n after 1878 as the n e w i n d e p e n d e n t or
O t t o m a n statistics v a r i e d g r e a t l y f r o m the f i g u r e s g i v e n b y a u t o n o m o u s states i n the Balkans—Serbia, B u l g a r i a , M o n -
the m o r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s r e p o r t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , E. G . tenegro, R o m a n i a , a n d G r e e c e — s o u g h t to a c q u i r e i a d d i t i o n -
Ravenstein, despite hi s o u t s p o k e n s v m p a t h v f o r the C h r i s - al t e r r i t o r i e s , to w h i c h t h e y c l a i m e d to h a v e h i s t o r i c a l
tians, used statistics f r o m several sources, s o m e o f w h i c h r i g h t s . These states h a d e m e r g e d d e s p i t e the M u s l i m pre-
relied o n O t t o m a n d a t a , to s h o w t h a t the M u s l i m s i n the p o n d e r a n c e i n areas such as D o b r u c a a n d t h e sancaks of
Balkans ( e x c l u d i n g Bosnia) c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t 43 p e r c e n t of eastern Bulgaria . O t h e r C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s , f o r e x a m p l e , the
(he t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ; F. B i a n c o n i , u s i n g sources of i n -
1
A r m e n i a n s , e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e success o f t h e B a l k a n
f o r m a t i o n t h a t are h i g h l y suspect a n d f i g u r e s t h a t w e r e Christians i n achieving statehood, sought their o w n inde-
a p p a r e n t l y i m a g i n a r y , placed t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n at a pendence, again i g n o r i n g the w i s h e s o f the o v e r w h e l m i n g
mere 16 p e r c e n t . T h e r e p o r t p r e p a r e d b v H e i n r i c h K i e p e r t
2
M u s l i m m a j o r i t y . Some M u s l i m s — e . g . , the K u r d s ( w h o i n -
for the use of Russian delegates at the I s t a n b u l conferenc e habited m o r e or less the same areas as those c l a i m e d bv the
i n 1876 r e l i e d m a i n l y o n Slavic sources a n d o n B i a n c o n i ' s A r m e n i a n s ) , the A l b a n i a n s i n the Balkans, a n d the A r a b s i n
false statistics a n d o v e r e s t i m a t e d the Slavic p o p u l a t i o n to Syria—began also to advance d e m a n d s for a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
the d e t r i m e n t o f all o t h e r g r o u p s . A m o n g the t h i r t v - t h r e e
3
a u t o n o m y . T h e r i s i n g f e e l i n g of n a t i o n a l consciousnes s

1. "Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe Overrun
bv Turks, " The Geographical Magazine 3 (1876): 260.
2. Ethnographic el statistique de la Tunpiie d'Europe ct de la Grece
(Paris, 1877), pp. 50 ff.
3. See Das Aiisland, no. 20 (20 May 1878): 393-116. It was com-
mon practice for "authorities" on Ottoman population simply to
copy, without regard for the authenticity or accuracy of the i n -
formation, the figures of other "authorities," and i r i s interesting to
see in this article what in general were the sources that Kiepert
drew upon and, especially, the manner in which he treated Bianco-
ni as a great authority on the Ottoman population.
4. See Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of
Anatolia at the End oi the Empire (New York: New York University
Press, 1983).

44 45
 T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N 47
46 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914

i n E u r o p e a n - p r o d u c e d figure s was f u l l v c o m p e n s a t e d for tries. The w e s t e r n i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h ancient Greece t h u s p l a n of c o l o n i z a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h such a scheme d i d e v e n t u a l -

Table 3 . 1 . Ethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n
bv the i m p r o v e m e n t i n the q u a l i t y a n d coverage of the sprang n o t o n l y f r o m historica l r o m a n t i c i s m b u t also f r o m l y take shape) b u t m e r e l y the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c
i n the Balkans, 18/6-18/ S
O t t o m a n s ' o w n statistics after 1881 a n d bv the field reports strong e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A s t h e beneficiaries of t h is o p p o r t u n i t y . I n t o w n s near I z m i r the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s -
According to Ravenstein c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l , n a t i o n a l , a n d e c o n o m i c forces, l i m s decreased c o n s i d e r a b l y . For e x a m p l e , i n a p e r i o d of
of British consular agents a n d special m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l
Total Population Muslims w h o v i s i t e d each area a n d c o m p i l e d v o l u m i n o u s data. The and aide d b y a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n i n the O t t o m a n hier- n i n e t e e n years f r o m 1305 to 1326 (1887-1908), t h e M u s l i m s
British r e m a i n e d i n t e r e s t e d i n p o p u l a t i o n figures for the archy, the G r e e k s w e r e able to create a f a s t - e x p a n d i n g m i d - w e n t f r o m 19.1 p e r c e n t of the p o p u l a t i o n of Ç e ş m e to o n l y
Number % Number
provinces of eastern A n a t o l i a w h e r e A r m e n i a n s claimed to dle class w h i c h , i n t u r n , caused an increase i n the size of 16 percent; f r o m 20.6 to 12.4 p e r c e n t i n U r l a ; a n d f r o m 64.5
Turks (Tatars) V. 388.000 17 1,388.000 39
be a large p o r t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n because of t h e i r respon- the G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d o f g r o u p s t h a t i d e n - to 58.6 p e r c e n t i n S e f e r i h i s a r . T h i s p a t t e r n p r e v a i l e d
Circassians i 144.000 2 144.000 4
sibility for r e f o r m s there. tified w i t h the G r e e k Patriarchate, regardless of t h e i r e t h n i c t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the kaza. D u r i n g t h e same n i n e t e e n -
Arabs 3.000 — 3.000 —
Greeks 1.120.000 14 38.000 1 origins. year p e r i o d a n d i n t h e same area, the p r o p o r t i o n of the
I n this chapter I s u r v e y the G r e e k , B u l g a r i a n , A r m e n i a n ,
Albanians 1.031.000 13 723.000 20 Before the m i d d l e of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the G r e e k T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n is also s h o w n to h a v e decreased: i n
a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n s of b o t h E u r o p e a n d Asia, e m -
Romanians 200.000 2 — — p o p u l a t i o n of A n a t o l i a a p p a r e n t l y w a s r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t Ç e ş m e , f r o m - 1 2 to 10.9 p e r c e n t ; i n U r l a , f r o m 34.9 to 24.7
Bulgarians 2.861,000 35 790.000 22 p l o y i n g statistics f r o m O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s — m a n y u n -
p u b l i s h e d u n t i l n o w — a n d f r o m the special B r i t i s h reports in size. I n 1830 t h e p o p u l a t i o n of I z m i r wa s e s t i m a t e d to percent; a n d i n Seferihisar, f r o m 82.1 to 74 p e r c e n t . 8

Serbians 1.114.000 13 442.000 12

Russians 10,000 — — — on Ottoman population. 6 have consisted of 80,000 T u r k s a n d 20,000 Greeks; h o w e v - M e a n w h i l e , r i c h Greeks sent t h e i r c h i l d r e n f o r e d u c a t i o n
Armenians 100,000 1 — — er, i n 1860 there w e r e 75,000 G r e e k s to 41,000 T u r k s ( M u s - to h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s of l e a r n i n g f r o m w h i c h
Jews 72,000 1 — — lims). Because of t h e favorabl e c o n d i t i o n s created b y t h e
Gypsies 104.000 1 52,000 1 these y o u n g m e n r e t u r n e d as d o c t o r s , m e r c h a n t s , or
The Greeks edicts of 1839 a n d 1856, the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of the
Foreigners 60.000 1 5,000 — schoolmasters to s t i m u l a t e o t h e r s by t h e i r e x a m p l e .
Aegean I s l a n d s h a d b e g u n to increase r a p i d l y . U n a b l e to T h e y h a v e a n a r d e n t love a n d y e a r n i n g for l i b e r t y , a
Total 8,207,000 100 3,585.000 100
The H e l l e n es i n the O t t o m a n state e n j o y e d , u n t i l the f i n d e m p l o y m e n t , m a n y m i g r a t e d to w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a a n d deep-seated i n t o l e r a n ce of f o r e i g n r u l e , a n d , i f the
According to Sianconi and Kiepert settled t h e r e . A B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agent e s t i m a t e d i n 1880
Greek u p r i s i n g of 1821, a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n u n s u r p a s s e d present m o v e m e n t c o n t i n u e s f o r a n o t h e r f i f t y years, a
Muslims Number Christians Number that the n u m b e r of these m i g r a n t s w a s as h i g h as 200,000 p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n of the h i g h e s t i n t e r e s t a n d i m p o r t a n c e
by a n y other e t h n ic g r o u p — i n c l u d i n g the T u r k s , w h o s e
Turks and Tatars 750.000 Pure Greeks 3.000,000 claims to n a t i o n a l s u p r e m a c y h a d l o n g since been sub- over a p e r i o d of n o t q u i t e t w e n t y years. w i l l arise f o r s o l u t i o n . 9

Circassians 200,000 Greeks-Albanians 630,000 m e r g e d b y M u s l i m u n i v e r s a l i s m a n d the O t t o m a n - M u s l i m The G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s w e r e f a v o r e d b y e c o n o m i c c o n d i -

150,000 Greeks-Wallachs 70,000 I n d e e d , some t h i r t y - f i v e years later the success of the G r e e k
Bosnians tions. T h e y w e r e n o t subject to c o n s c r i p t i o n or v a r i o u s
i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m p r o m o t e d b y the s u l t a n . Because of their migration into Anatolia culminated in invasion by Athens
Pomaks 140,000 Bulgarians (Orthodox) 3,000.000
h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e P a t r i a r c h a t e , t h e Greeks other h e a v y o b l i g a t i o n s . W h i l e t h e M u s l i m , h a r d p r e s s e d
Albanians and Greeks 170,000 Bulgarians (Catholic) 100,000 a n d the b l o o d y T u r k o - G r e e k W a r of 1919-1922.
Albanians (Orthodox) 290.000 came to represent, a n d to speak o n b e h a l f of, the entire by e c o n o m i c d i f f i c u l t i e s , k e p t h i s f a m i l y s m a l l b y e v e r y
Total 1,410,000 T h e G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n state i n the p e r i o d
Albanians (Catholic) 80,000 Orthodox Christendom in Europe a n d Asia. The Orthodox possible m e a n s , i n c l u d i n g a b o r t i o n a n d , i n s o m e cases, i n -
f r o m 1860 t o 1870 w a s e s t i m a t e d at a b o u t 1 m i l l i o n i n
Croatians (in Bosnia) 75,000 Patriarchate, s h i e l d e d b y O t t o m a n m i g h t , e n j o y e d p o w e r fanticide, the Greeks, free of m i l i t a r y obligations a n d
Herzegovinians 140,000 E u r o p e (Greece p r o p e r excepted) a n d a b o u t 1 m i l l i o n also
a n d prestige to a degree u n k n o w n e v e n d u r i n g the h e y d a y p a y i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t taxes i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r i n c o m e s ,
Serbians (in Bosnia) 550,000 i n A n a t o l i a ; t h e f i g u r e for E u r o p e w a s o b v i o u s l y s o m e w h a t
of B y z a n t i u m . A s late as the 1840s the O t t o m a n g o v e r n - c o u l d a f f o r d t o raise large f a m i l i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o a B r i t i s h
Armenians 110.000 l o w . T h e o p p o s i t e wa s t r u e for t h e p r e - B e r l i n C o n g r e s s
Vlahs (Romanians) 90,000 m e n t still r e f e r r ed to all the C h r i s t i a n O r t h o d o x i n the r e a l m consular r e p o r t , e v e r y w h e r e i n western Anatoli a the
statistics d e s i g n e d to s h o w t h a t G r e e k s f o r m e d a large p a r t
Total 8,135,000 as R u m , or R o m a n s . A s a n e t h n i c g r o u p , t h e Greeks w e r e Greeks replace d t h e T u r k s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r :
of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n of T h r a c e , M a c e d o n i a , a n d east-
the first to be g i v e n p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n the h i g h O t t o m a n
Sources: E. G. Ravenstein, "Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe A G r e e k arrives i n a M u s l i m v i l l a g e a n d c o m m e n c e s life e r n R u m e l i a , all s c h e d u l e d for i n c l u s i o n i n B u l g a r i a . The
bureaucracy w i t h o u t h a v i n g to c o n v e r t to I s l a m , first as as a small t r a d e s m a n . H e g r a d u a l l y g r o w s r i c h w h i l s t
Overrun by Turks," The Geographical Magazine 3 (October 1876): 260: F. Bianconi, p u b l i c a t i o n Gobi w a s able, t h r o u g h m a n y sensational a r t i -
Ethnographie et statistique de la Turguie d'Europe et de la Grèce (Paris. 1877), pp. 50 interpreters a n d t h e n , f r o m 1711 to 1821, as r u l e r s ( k n o w n the peasants b e c o m e p o o r ; e v e n t u a l l y he is j o i n e d b y cles, to c o n v i n c e the B r i t i s h that t h e G r e e k s w e r e a b o u t to
ff.: Heinrich Kiepert, Das Ausland, no. 20 (20 May 1878): 393-416. as phanariots) of W a l l a c h ia a n d M o l d a v i a . T h e Greeks were f r i e n d s or relatives a n d t h e p o v e r t y of the peasant suffer a great i n j u s t i c e . T h e i n f l a t e d statistics s u b m i t t e d to
also the f i r s t to embrace the E u r o p e a n capitalist system, increases, u n t i l a succession of b a d h a r v e s t s forces t h e m the B r i t i s h to s h o w the size of t h e G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n as
a n d t h e y became its m a i n p r o p o n e n t s a n d beneficiaries. to p a r t w i t h t h e i r l a n d s a n d m o v e f u r t h e r i n l a n d .
a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s after 1878 s t e m m e d essen- c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of o t h e r r e l i g i o u s - n a t i o n a l g r o u p s i n
T h e rise of a G r e e k m e r c h a n t elite i n the O t t o m a n state, A m o n g s t t h e w e a l t h y M o s l e m s the process is m u c h t h e
t i a l l y f r o m e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c a t t a c h m e n t s . Each e t h n i c the E u r o p e a n d o m a i n s of the O t t o m a n state are r e p r o d u c e d
same . . . i n n e a r l y every t o w n M o s l e m s are now to be 7

g r o u p , c o n s c i o u s l y or n o t , became i n t e r e s t e d i n its o w n a n d its v i t a l role i n the e m e r g e n c e of a secular f o r m of i n Table 3 . 2 . 1 0

numerical strength.
T h r e e m a j o r a r e a s — M a c e d o n i a , eastern A n a t o l i a , a n d , to
a s o m e w h a t lesser extent, Thrac e a n d w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a —
became the b a t t l e g r o u n d of c o n f l i c t i n g n a t i o n a l a m b i t i o n s .
P o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e the f i r s t w e a p o n s i n the battle
that wa s later carried f o r w a r d w i t h g u n s a n d b u l l e t s . T h e
p o p u l a t i o n statistics w a r p r o d u c e d a mass of i n f o r m a t i o n
n o t o n l y a b o u t the size of v a r i o u s e t h n i c - r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s
b u t also a b o u t the social, e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n
of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e i n general . A f t e r 1878 the E u r o -
peans' interest i n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n slackened c o n -
siderably, as the c h i e f s t i m u l u s of this interest, that is, the
q u e s t i o n of the fate of the B a l k a n C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n , h a d
been r e m o v e d b y the B e r l i n treaty: the " E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n "
h a d a l w a y s been essentially a " C h r i s t i a n P o p u l a t i o n Q u e s -
t i o n . " W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Felix K a n i t z ' s studies a n d a f e w
others, the v o l u m e a n d q u a l i t y of E u r o p e a n w o r k s o n O t t o -
m a n p o p u l a t i o n after 1878 is scarcelv c o m p a r a b l e w i t h that
p u b l i s h e d just p r i o r to t h e Berli n C o n g r e s s . T h e deficiency
3
h e l l e n i s m ( w h i c h came i n t o c o n f l i c t s h a r p l y w i t h the Istan-
b u l Patriarchate's r e l i g i o u s d r e a m of a B y z a n t i n e n a t i o n a l
revival), r e s u l t e d f r o m e c o n o m i c forces g e n e r a t e d b y the
e x p a n d i n g E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l i s m. B o t h the English and
French, w h o h a d d i s c o v e r e d the c u l t u r a l r o o ts of the West
i n the ancient c i v i l i z a t i o n of Greece, w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the
economic role w h i c h a n i n d e p e n d e n t Greece c o u l d plav i n
d i s t r i b u t i n g to the East g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r e d b y their i n d u s -
5. A good source was the Österreichische Monatsschrift für den
Orient, which continued to publish articles on Ottoman popula-
tion, many written by pre-1878 authors such as Hugo Kutschern
(see his "Geographisch-ethnographische Ubersicht," Österreichis-
che Monatsschrift 8 [1882]: 149-52).
6. For bibliographical references, see my "Population Move-
ments in the Ottoman State in the Nineteenth Century: A n Out-
line," in Contributions i ! I'Histoire Econotuique et Sociale de l'Empire
Ottoman, Collection Turcica, v o l . 3, ed. Jean-Louis Bacque-
Gramont and Paul Dumont (Istanbul, Paris, London, 1983).
f o u n d , i n a state of p o v e r t y , w h o a f e w years ago w e r e
comparatively wealthy m e n /
The i n f l u x of Greek colonists was not c o n f i n e d to
seashore t o w n s s u ch as A y v a l i k ( w h i c h i n a m a t t e r of t h i r t y
years h a d b e c o m e a m a j o r G r e e k c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l
center i n h a b i t e d b y 40,000 p e o p l e , a n d d o t t e d w i t h h o s p i -
tals a n d schools a n d h a r b o r i n g 2,000 ships); the Greeks also
settled i n t h e i n t e r i o r t o w n s s u c h as M a n i s a , A k ş e h i r ,
A v d i n a n d m a n y other places b e n e f i t i n g f r o m the Greek -
m a n a g e d e c o n o m i c b o o m . I n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of Asia
M i n o r , Greeks f r o m the i n t e r i o r m o v e d to the seaports of
T r a b z o n a n d G i r e s u n to create i n these cities a s m a l l econo-
mic r e v o l u t i o n based o n free e n t e r p r i se a n d f o r e i g n t r a d e .
The d i s p l a c e m e n t of M u s l i m s b y G r e e k m i g r a n t s c h a n g e d
the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of e n t i re t o w n s a n d villages i n a f e w
years' t i m e i n a process w h i c h i n v o l v e d no p r e d e t e r m i n e d
7. HCAP 100 44 (1881), pp. 389-90 (Wilson to Goschen).
A . S y n v e t c o n d u c t e d a s u r v e y of the G r e ek p o p u l a t i o n
based p a r t l y o n the G r e e k c o m m u n i t y registers b u t m o s t l y
o n the p o p u l a t i o n statistics a c c u m u l a t e d b y the svllogues.
Svnvet d i d n o t t r u s t the c o m m u n i t y registers because t h e y
gave o n l y the n u m b e r of houses a n d the n u m b e r of m a r r i e d
people a n d because, i n a d d i t i o n , there w e r e m a n v people
w h o a v o i d e d such r e g i s t r a t i o n i n o r d e r n o t to p a v taxes to
the ecclesiasts. The svllogues w e r e ostensibly l i t e r a r y a n d
8. See Tuncer Baykara, "XIX Yuzyilda Urla Yarimadasinda
Nüfus H a r e k e t l e r i , " i n Social and Economic History of Turken
1071-1910, ed. O. Okyar and Halil Inalcik (Ankara, 1980), p. 283.
9. HCAP 100 44 (1881), p. 287 (Wilson to Goschen); for a more
detailed view of this process, see mv An Inquiry into the Social
Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: Trow. Social Estates to
Classes, from Millets to Xations, Research Monograph no. 39, Center
of International Studies, Princeton University (Princeton, 1973).
10. FO 78 2784.
 48
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
Table 3.2. C r e e k P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n T u r k e y , 1878
the B r i t i s h vice-consul Stanislas Recchioli h a d alreadv re-
p o r t e d t h a t i n 1878 the D r a m a sancak h a d a p o p u l a t i o n of
Thr2ce (including Istanbul. Macedonia (Salónica.
chiefly Edirne vilayet) Drama. Serres. Monastin 314,747 (males a n d females), of w h o m 270,998 w e r e M u s -
lims (249,165 of these b e i n g e t h n i c T u r k s ) a n d o n l v 43,549
Greeks 743.900
705.500
Bulgarians 315.520 Christians.
140.500
1 3
Muslims , 558.300 349.000 The O t t o m a n census of 1881:82-1893 gave the first t r u l y
Others i 223.000 100,000
c o m p r e h e n s i v e account of the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n still l i v i n g
Foreigners 132,000 35.000
in the O t t o m a n state. It s h o w e d , first, that Svnvet's statis-
Total 1,972,720 1.330,000
tics w e r e w r o n g . It also s h o w e d t h a t the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n
Source' FO 78 2784. was spread t h r o u g h o u t the O t t o m a n d o m a i n s , its heaviest
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e i n g i n the vilayets of Y a n y a , the A e g e a n
s c i e n t i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e s i g n e d to p r o m o t e e d u c a t i o n
Islands, E d i r n e , Selanik, M a n a s t i r , T r a b z o n , a n d I s t a n b u l .
a m o n g the Greeks; t h e y w e r e s u p p o r t e d by rich Greek mer-
The t o t a l Greek p o p u l a t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g o f 1,234,550 males
chants, i n c l u d i n g s u c h p r o m i n e n t O t t o m a n financiers as
a n d 1,097,641 females, w a s 2,332,191. ( A n o t h e r total f i g u r e
C h r i s t a k i E f e n d i , Z o g r a p h o s , a n d G . Z a r i f i . A c t u a l l y they
of 2,666,628 was o b t a i n e d b y r o u n d i n g o f f the total for
were p o l i t i c a l - l i t e r a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a i m e d at a w a k e n i n g a
females a n d a d d i n g 8 percent f o r e r r o r . ) Later the O t t o m a n
n a t i o n a l consciousnes s a m o n g G r e e k s a n d at p r o v i d i n g
officia l p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r 1895 s h o w e d t h at the Greek
s u p p o r t f o r the Patriarchate's endea v o r to h e l l e n i z e the
p o p u l a t i o n h a d risen to 2,377,343 ( u n a d j u s t e d ) . F i n a l l y , the
Bulgarians, Serbs, R o m a n i a n s , a n d o t h e r O r t h o d o x C h r i s -
census f i g u r e s for 1914, after Y a n y a ( J a n i n a ) , E p i r , M a c e d o -
tians. S y n v e t , w h o s e statistics d r e w sharp r e b u t t a l , gave
nia, Thrace, a n d the I s l a n d s w e r e lost to Serbia a n d Greece
the total n u m b e r o f Greeks i n the entire O t t o m a n r e a l m as
(1912-1913) a n d A l b a n i a h a d b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t , s h o w
over 4 m i l l i o n ; see Table 3 . 3 . u
t h a t t h e G r e e k s s t i l l n u m b e r e d 1,729,65 7 ( u n a d j u s t e d
f i g u r e s ) , o r r o u g h l y a b o u t 9 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n
Table 3.3. Greek P o p u l a t i o n i n the O t t o m a n State i n 1878
of t h e O t t o m a n state. A t t h a t t i m e m o s t o f t h e G r e e k '
( A c c o r d i n g to S y n v e t )
p o p u l a t i o n (that is, o v e r 50 percent) was c o n c e n t r a t ed i n
Thrace the vilayets o f E d i r n e , A y d i n ( I z m i r ) , T r a b z o n , C a n i k (Sam-
728.747
Macedonia 587,860 s u n ) , K a r e s i , a n d I s t a n b u l , w h i c h w e r e t h e m o s t prosper-
Epirus
617.892 ous a n d c o m m e r c i a l l y active p r o v i n c e s (see the statistical
Tessaly 247,776
a p p e n d i c e s , 1.8 a n d 14).
Other European areas 70,000
T h e f i n a l page i n the b o o k o f T u r k i s h - G r e e k p o l i t i c a l rela¬
Aegean Islands 724,000
Asia 1,188,094 tions i n v o l v i n g issues r e l a t e d to p o p u l a t i o n was w r i t t e n i n
Syria
125.000 1926—that is, after the G r e e k i n v a s i o n of A n a t o l i a was re-'-
Greek Catholics 35.000
p e l l e d i n the b l o o d y w a r of 1919-1922. T h e r e w a s an ex-
Total
4,324,369 change of p o p u l a t i o n , the G r e e k s of A n a t o l i a b e i n g ex-
Source: A. Synvet, Les Grecs de l'Empire ottoman (Paris, 1878), p. 8 c h a n g e d f o r the T u r k s of t h a t p a r t of M a c e d o n i a w h i c h
became p a r t o f Greece (Salonica) a n d of eastern Thrace; the
H o w e v e r , H . S y n g e , a m i l i t a r y officer sent especially by G r e e k s i n h a b i t i n g I s t a n b u l a n d t h e M u s l i m s of w e s t e r n
the B r i t i s h embassy i n I s t a n b u l to f i n d o u t the exact n u m b e r Thrace w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s e x c h a n g e .
of the M a c e d o n i a n p o p u l a t i o n , stated i n a p r e l i m i n a r y re-
p o r t t h a t the t o t a l G r e e k m a l e p o p u l a t i o n of Selanik, M a n -
The Bulgarians
astir, Serez, a n d D r a m a a m o u n t e d i n 1878 to o n l y 166,964,
as agajnst 116,024 B u l g a r i a n s , 50,152 V l a h s (Romanians),'
a n d 25,043 A l b a n i a n s ( w h o also r e c o g n i z e d the Greek Pa- A S l a v i c - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e w i t h T u r a n i c r o o t s , the Bulgar-
triarchate i n I s t a n b u l ) . A t o t a l of 67,042 Bulgarians h a d ians i n h a b i t e d c h i e f l y a q u a d r a n g l e of t e r r i t o r y s a n d w i c h e d
already o p t e d f o r the n e w establishe d (1870) B u l g a r i a n Ex- b e t w e e n the D a n u b e a n d the B a l k a n M o u n t a i n s a n d , as
archate. (Soon m a n y o t h e r B u l g a r i a ns w e r e to s h i f t their w e l l , the s o u t h e r n slopes of those m o u n t a i n s , w h i c h ex-
r e l i g i o u s a n d also n a t i o n a l allegianc e to the Exarchate, t e n d e d s o u t h w a r d to T h r a c e a n d to M a c e d o n i a , the ethnic-
c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l i t y h a v i n g c o m e to coincide.) c h a r a c t e r of the l a t t e r b e i n g d i s p u t e d b y Serbians a n d
T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to S y n g e , the tota l n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s G r e e k s . T h u s the O t t o m a n D a n u b e p r o v i n c e c o n t a i n e d a
1 4
(males) l i v i n g i n M a c e d o n i a w a s 425,225, as against 310,441
M u s l i m s a n d 28,122 J e w s . 1 2
13. FO 78/2787 (Recchioli to Barker, 21 A p r i l 1887).
14. The literature on the Bulgarians during the Ottoman era is
As u s u a l , there w a s n o t m u c h a t t e n t i o n p a i d to the M u s -
too rich to be cited in detail. For bibliographical references, see
l i m s , a l t h o u g h Synge r e p o r t e d t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n of D r a -
Nikola V. Mikhov, Naseleniento na Turtsii i Bulgarii prez XVI1I-XIX
ma consisted of 112,487 persons, of w h o m 88,620 w e r e
v., 5 vols. (Sofia, 1915-1968); Peter Sugar, Southeastern Europe Under
T u r k s a n d the rest w e r e Greeks a n d B u l g a r i a n s . A c t u a l l y
Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804 (Seattle; University of Washington Press,
1977); and my review in' American Historical Review 84 (1979):
U . See Les Crees de I'Empire ottoman (Paris, 1878) p 8
798-80; see also Stanley Lane Poole, The People of Turkey, vol. I
12. See FO 424/99, p. 226.
(London, 1878), and Daniel Panzac, "La population de i'Empire
49
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
A g a i n d i f f e r i n g f r o m the G r e e k s , w h o , after a p e r i o d of
, s t a n t i a l p a r t of the B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n . A
rut
f r i e n d s h i p w i t h the Czar, h a d o p t e d for the p a t r o n a g e of
L „ n u m b e r of B u l g a r i a n s i n the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s h a d
e
the B r i t i s h , the B u l g a r i a n s f r o m the b e g i n n i n g p i n n e d t h e i r
aep' e d I s ! a m i n t
s i x t e e n t h centurie s b u t
h e f i f t e e n t h a n d
a
hopes o n Russia. T h e Pan-Slavic m o v e m e n t o r i g i n a t i n g i n
a
t i n u e d to speak t h e i r n a t i v e t o n g u e . K n o w n as P o m a k s
o n
Moscow f o u n d ready adherents a m o ng t h e Bulgarian
("Helpers"), t h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d b y t h e O t t o m a n s as p a r t of
n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , m a n y of w h o m h a d b e e n e d u -
e M u s l i m g r o u p ; b u t later, after B u l g a r i a became i n d e -
tri
cated i n M o s c o w a n d o t h e r Russian c i t i e s — o f t e n as the
pendent a n d a c q u i r e d m o s t o f the areas i n h a b i t e d b y t h e
recipients of special f e l l o w s h i p s established by the Russian
Pomaks, t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d " B u l g a r i a n s " a n d subjected
Pan-Slavists. T h e n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , w h i c h at first h a d a
to a massive process of " n a t i o n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , " t h at is,
l i m i t e d f o l l o w i n g i n B u l g a r i a, came to s u d d e n f r u i t i o n i n
Bulgarization—at t i m e s C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n — a n d t h e i r M u s l i m
1877/78 after Russia, w i t h o u t real cause, declared w a r o n
names w e r e c h a n g e d to C h r i s t i a n n a m e s . (This process s t i l l
t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e czarist a r m i e s s w e p t
continues a n d has b e e n e x t e n d e d to the T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g
across the Balkans, s t o p p i n g at the gates of I s t a n b u l . D u r -
Muslims.) A h a r d - w o r k i n g a n d frugal people w i t h strong
i n g this m a r c h R u s s i a n soldiers a n d B u l g a r i a n b a n d s k i l l e d
group loyalties, t h e B u l g a r i a n s l i v e d m o s t l y i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
o u t r i g h t s o m e 200,000 to 300,000 M u s l i m s a n d u p r o o t e d
c o m m u n i t i e s b u t also e n g a g e d i n trad e a n d crafts i n the
m o r e t h a n a m i l l i o n w h o w e r e l i v i n g i n a n area s t r e t c h i n g
towns. A g r o u p of cattle m e r c h a n t s ( k n o w n as jelcp) h a d
all the w a y f r o m the D a n u b e to I s t a n b u l . T h e u p r o o t i n g of
been active as earl}' as the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n s u p p l y i n g
the M u s l i m s f r o m t h e D a n u b e a n d E d i r n e p r o v i n c e s i n
meat a n d d a i r y p r o d u c t s to t h e m a r k e t s i n I s t a n b u l .
1877/78 is described i n the g r i m m e s t d e t a i l i n the r e p o r t s of
B e g i n n i n g i n the second h a l f of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
the B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agents s t a t i o n e d i n P h i l i p p o p o l i s , Rus-
the B u l g a r i a n c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r w e n t a p r o f o u n d i n t e r n a l
çuk, V a r n a , Burgas, E d i r n e , etc. These r e p o r t s are available
economic a n d d e m o g r a p h i c r e v o l u t i o n ; a n d i n the
i n the B r i t i s h Publi c R e c o r d s . O f f i c e .
16
(See also C h a p t e r 4.)
nineteenth c e n t u r y the B u l g a r i a n m i d d l e classes, b e n e f i t -
W i t h the s i g n i n g of the B e r l i n treaty i n 1878, w h i c h oc-
ting f r o m t h e i r p r o x i m i t y to the O t t o m a n capital a n d f r o m
c u r r e d after t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the
the r e f o r m s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t (these
M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , the B u l g a r i a ns w e r e o f f i c i a l l y recog-
include a v a r i e t y of measures c o n c e r n i n g l a n d t e n u r e ) , de-
n i z e d as h a v i n g n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n the a u t o n o m o u s
veloped r a p i d l y a n d a c q u i r e d considerable e c o n o m i c p o w -
B u l g a r i a n p r i n c i p a l i t y a n d i n eastern R u m e l i a (the latter
er, w h i l e the peasants secured, d i r e c t l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y , c o n -
w a s a n n e x e d i n 1885 i n o u t r i g h t v i o l a t i o n of t h e t r e a t y ) .
trol of m u c h of the l a n d . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e measures i n t r o - 1 5
People s p e a k i n g a dialect of B u l g a r i a n r e m a i n e d u n d e r
duced b y M i t h a t Paşa i n t h e D a n u b e p r o v i n c e d u r i n g t h e
O t t o m a n r u l e i n M a c e d o n i a after 1878 a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y
second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y increased a g r i c u l t u r a l
became the subject of d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n B u l g a r i a , Serbia
production and i m p r o v e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i l e massive
(Yugoslavia after 1918), Greece, a n d t h e O t t o m a n s . T h e
g o v e r n m e n t m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e i n the area a d d e d to its
O t t o m a n s ceased to be a p a r t y to t h e d i s p u t e i n 1913, h a v -
p r o s p e r i t y . T h i s f u r t h e r s t i m u l a t e d the m i g r a t i o n of B u l g a -
i n g b e e n defeated i n the B a l k an W a r a n d r e l i n q u i s h e d a u -
rians f r o m m o u n t a i n o u s areas, first i n t o t h e v a l l e y s (a p r o -
t h o r i t y over M a c e d o n i a a n d m o s t of Thrace.
cess that h a d b e g u n earlier i n the R h o d o p e s , h a v i n g b e e n
caused i n i t i a l l y b y the K i r j a l i r e v o l t s ) a n d t h e n i n t o t h e The statistical h i s t o r y of the B u l g a r i a n s is a r a t h e r p e c u l -
t o w n s . T h u s , d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o m e sections iar o n e , as t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t r e g a r d e d t h e m as p a r t
of the B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d , b e c o m i n g of the O r t h o d o x millet a n d d i d n o t classify t h e m as a sepa-
u r b a n a n d d e v e l o p i n g a m e r c h a n t elite w h i c h became active rate e t h n i c g r o u p u n t i l the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h
in I s t a n b u l a n d even i n Russia, as w e l l as i n the D a n u b i a n c e n t u r y ( a l t h o u g h the census of 1831 occasionally refers to
p o r t s i n R o m a n i a . M e a n w h i l e , i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e there t h e m b y t h e i r e t h n i c n a m e ) . T h i s w a s d e s p i te t h e fact that
emerged a n a t i v e p e t t y l a n d l o r d class (sometime s r e f e r r e d travelers i n t h e Balkans i n the p r e v i o u s centuries h a d re-
to as Çorbaci) c o n s i s t i n g of c o m m u n a l leaders a n d notables peatedly r e f e r r e d to the B u l g a r i a n s as a separate n a t i o n a l -
w h o b o u g h t u p m u c h of t h e l a n d h e l d b y M u s l i m peasants i t y . A f t e r the c h u r c h of O h r i d a , c o n s i d e r e d to be the s y m b o l
a n d l a n d l o r d s . By the 1870s t h e B u l g a r i a n s h a d a w e l l - of B u l g a r i a n i d e n t i t y , w a s closed i n 1767 (largely t h r o u g h
r o u n d e d m i d d l e class of m e r c h a n t s a n d p r o d u c e r s w h o d i d the efforts o f the O r t h o d o x Patriarchate i n I s t a n b u l ) , the
not relv solely o n the exchange of g o o d s a n d a little m a n u - Bulgarians became subject to i n t e n s i v e h e l l e n i z a t i o n e f f o r t s
f a c t u r i n g , as d i d m o s t of t h e Greeks i n A n a t o l i a , b u t c h i e f l y by the Greek schools a n d c h u r c h e s . T h e h e l l e n i z a t i o n p r o -
o n the p r o d u c t i o n a n d exchange of t h e i r o w n p r o d u c t s . cess came to a s t a n d s t i l l after the B u l g a r i a n c o m m u n i t y i n
M o r e o v e r , m u c h of t h i s f a s t - d e v e l o p i n g B u l g a r i a n m i d d l e I s t a n b u l , l e d b y m e r c h a n t s a n d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of the
class l i v e d o n l a n d s w h i c h t h e y h a d i n h a b i t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y s u l t a n , i n i t i a t e d i n the 1850s a m o v e m e n t f o r a n a t i o n a l
a n d to w h i c h t h e y h a d h i s t o r i c a l c l a i m s . c h u r c h . T h e m o v e m e n t c u l m i n a t e d i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
a B u l g a r i a n Exarchate i n 1870. H e n c e f o r t h , t h e B u l g a r i a n
c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e free to choose the Exarchate or to r e m a i n
ottoman et de ses marges du X V " au XIX siècle: Bibliographie w i t h the Greek Patriarchate, m a k i n g i n effect a p o l i t i c a l
(1941-1980) et bilan provisoire,". Revue de l'Occident musulman et de declaration of B u l g a r i a n or Greek n a t i o n a l i t y . M o s t of the
la Méditerranée 31 (1981): 119-37.
15 See Slavka Draganova, Materials on the Danube Province [m 16. See FO 78 and 242, correspondence for 1S77-1879.
Bulgarian] (Sofia, 1980).
 50 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914 51
RELIGIOUS A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N or THE O T T O M A N POPULATION

Table 3.4. M a c e d o n i a n P o p u l a t i o n ( A c c o r d i n g to V a r i o u s Table 3.5. P o p u l a t i o n of Eastern R u m e l i a before a n d after

-j 924,638 ( w i t h o u t a d j u s t m e n t ) . A l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d The A r m e n i a n s
N a t i o n a l Statistics)
a s

the W a r of 1877-1878
Ottoman m e m o r a n d u m p r e p a r e d f o r the B e r l i n C o n g r e s s
Bulgarian Seroian Greek Statistics Before the War After the War e d the registers of the B u l g a r i a n Exarchate ( c o u n t i n g f i v e
u S
The A r m e n i a n s i n the O t t o m a n state w e r e at the h e a d of
Ethnic Groups Statistics Statistics (excluding Kosova) people per h o u s e ) a n d also t h e t o t a l f i g u r e s g i v e n b y t h e the millet b e a r i n g t h e i r n a m e a n d e n j o y e d a p r i v i l e g e d sta-
Turks 210.000 to 220.000 80,000 to 90,000
Turks (including many Russian T e p l o v t o e s t i m a t e t h a t B u l g a r i a n s w e r e i n the tus t h a t w a s e n h a n c e d after 1821 w h e n t h e y b e g a n to re-
Pomaks 20,000 to 25,000 20,000 to 24.000
non-Turkish Muslims) ? 499,204 231.400 634.017 Muslims • Tatars 5.000 to 10.000 5.000 to 8.000 majority i n a p r o p o r t i o n of 2:1.60 i n the kazas of V i d i n , place the Greeks i n the g o v e r n m e n t ' s o p i n i o n as t h e m o s t
Bulgarians 1.181,336 57,600 332.162 Circassians 6,000 to 10,000 Tjrnovo, Ni§, a n d Sofia b u t w e r e i n the m i n o r i t y i n R u § c u k , reliable C h r i s t i a n g r o u p i n the state. T h e socio-economi c
Greeks 228,700 201.140 652.797 Gypsies 24.000 to 25.000 15.000 to 16.000 d e v e l o p m e n t of the A r m e n i a n s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
Varna, Tulca, I s l i m i y e , a n d P h i l i p p o p o l i s ; these areas (ex-
2 0

Albanians 128,711 165.600 not indicated

Vlahs (Romanians) 80,767 69.665 25,101
Serbs 700 2.048.320 not indicated
Jews 67,840 64.645 53.147
Gypsies 54,557 28,730 8.911
Others 16.407 3.500 18.685
Total 2,258.222 2:870.600
1,724.820
Source: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Enquête dans les Balkans
(Paris: Centre Européen de la Dotation Carnegie. Edition Georges Cres et Cie. 1914),
pp. 9-10.
O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s i n T u n a P r o v i n c e a n d close to t w o -
t h i r d s of those i n M a c e d o n i a o p t e d for the Exarchate. ( A f t e r
m o s t of the B u l g a r i a n s h a d chosen t o a f f i l i a t e w i t h their
n a t i o n a l c h u r c h , t h e Patriarchate came t o represent c h i e f l y
the Greeks i n the O t t o m a n state, w h i l e a n i n d e p e n d e n t
Greek C h u r c h w a s established i n Greece itself.)
A s one w o u l d expect, there was a great deal of c o n f u s i o n
in national a nd religious identification. Some Bulgarian-
s p e a k i n g g r o u p s , especially i n Thrace, r e m a i n e d w i t h the
Patriarchate i n I s t a n b u l a n d w e r e r e g a r d e d as " B u l g a r i a n -
speaking Greeks," while a few Greek-speaking groups
o p t e d for the Exarchate a n d became " G r e e k - s p e a k i n g
B u l g a r i a n s . " T h e R o m a n i a n - s p e a k i n g V l a h s l a r g e l y re-
m a i n e d w i t h the Patriarchate a n d w e r e i n g o o d p a r t h e l l e n -
i z e d ; those c h o o s i n g the Exarchate w e r e b u l g a r i z e d . There
w e r e also a f e w C a t h o l i c C r e e k s a n d B u l g a r i a n s , w h o w e r e
classified i n accordance w i t h t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n .
T h i s c o n f u s i o n a n d c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r the n a t i o n a l i t y of
the O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s i n M a c e d o n i a was m a n i f e s t e d i n
the three d i f f e r e n t sets o f statistics s u b m i t t e d to the C a r n e -
gie m i s s i o n c h a r g e d w i t h i n v e s t i g a t i n g the atrocities of the
Balkan W a r of 1912-1913; these statistics are r e p r o d u c e d i n
Table 3 . 4 . 1 7
The exact n u m b e r o f the B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n for the
p e r i o d f r o m 1800 to 1878 p r o b a b l y w i l l n e v e r be k n o w n
because of the e x t r a o r d i n a r y circumstances a c c o m p a n y i n g
the emergenc e of the B u l g a r i a n n a t i o n - s t a t e . Some p r o -
Jews 8,000 to 9,000 7.000 to 8.000 cept for Tulca) w e r e all m a d e p a r t of B u l g a r i a .
Bulgarian Catholics 8.000 to 9,000 8,000 to 9.000 Reliable i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s
Bulgarian Exarchists 380,000 to 400.000 370.000 to 380.000 provided b y a n o f f i c i al census c o n d u c t e d b y the B u l g a r i a n
Greek Bulgarians 25,000 to 35.000 25,000 to 30.000
government itself i n 1888, t h a t is, t e n years after a u t o n o m y .
Christians Greeks 25.000 to 35.000 24,000 to 30.000
The census s h o w e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n of Bulgaria p r o p e r
Greek Viahs 1,000 to 2,000 1,000 to 2,000
Greek Albanians 1.000 to 2.000 1.000 to 2.000 was 2,193,434—an increase of 9.4 p e r c e n t over the t o t a l
Armenians 1,000 to 2,000 1,000 to 2,000 shown i n the 1881 c e n s u s — w h i l e t h a t of eastern R u m e l i a
was 960,941, f o r a g r a n d t o t a l of 3,154,375. O f these, t h e
Source: FO 424/75 (Drummons-Wolff to Salisbury, 26 September 1878),
T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s n u m b e r e d 607,372; the Greeks,
58,326; a n d " o t h e r s , " 162,453; i n a d d i t i o n there w e r e at
B u l g a r i a n s , t h e O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i cs are the best least 200,000 B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s . T h u s i t is
2 1
source, even t h o u g h t h e y d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h ethnic- shown t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e t h n i c Bulgarian s i n Bulgar-
n a t i o n a l g r o u p s b u t refer o n l y to O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s . ia p r o p e r a n d eastern R u m e l i a i n 1888 w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
O n e m a y a t t e m p t to d e t e r m i n e the t o t a l n u m b e r of the 2,130,000. These f i g u r e s are i n l i n e w i t h the earlier esti-
Bulgarians b y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c a l dis- mates based o n O t t o m a n f i g u r e s .
t r i b u t i o n . I t is c e r t a i n t h a t the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of the The O t t o m a n census of 1881/82-1893 p u t t h e t o t a l n u m -
O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n the T u n a vilayet w e r e Bulgar- ber o'f B u l g a r i a ns s t i l l l i v i n g i n the O t t o m a n state at 962,288
ians: the Salname of 1285 (1868) p l a c e d t h e t o t al n u m b e r of (figure a d j u s t e d ) . T h e s e w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d c h i e f l y i n t h e
C h r i s t i a n s (males) i n t h i s p r o v i n c e at 610,892 a n d of M u s - provinces of E d i r n e , Selanik, M a n a s t i r , a n d K o s o v a . T h e y
l i m s at 412,417. If o n e excludes Niş ( i n w h i c h a g o o d p a r t of did n o t f o r m a m a j o r i t y i n a n y of these areas, b e i n g o u t -
the p o p u l a t i o n was Serbian) a n d the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 21,000 n u m b e r e d i n each case b y t h e c o m b i n e d t o t a l of M u s l i m s
Greeks i n V a r n a , o n e can use this salname to estimate that and G r e e k s . I n K o s o v a t h e B u l g a r i a n s w e r e far m o r e
the t o t al n u m b e r of m a l e B u l g a r i a n s i n T u n a Province was n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e G r e e k s b u t d e f i n i t e l y fewrer t h a n t h e
490,467, as o p p o s e d to 359,907 M u s l i m s . ( I n fact, the n u m - Muslims, w h o were mostly Albanians. The Christian
ber of the M u s l i m s is g r o s s l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d because most p o p u l a t i o n of S e l a n i k, M a n a s t i r , a n d K o s o va w a s o f f i c i a l l y
of the 200,000 to 300,000 Circassians a n d C r i m e a n m i g r a n t s described as c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y of Greeks a n d B u l g a r i a n s ,
w h o w e r e settled a l o n g the D a n u b e i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1862 hut n o t Serbians; the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t classify
to 1878 w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m the c o u n t . ) A sizable .Bulgarian- this p o p u l a t i o n as M a c e d o n i a n , l a r g e l y i n o r d e r n o t t o
s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n also l i v e d i n E d i r n e , especially i n the antagonize b o t h t h e G r e e k s a n d t h e B u l g a r i a n s .
n o r t h e r n section also k n o w n as eastern R u m e l i a ; of the total
p o p u l a t i o n of this p r o v i n c e ( g i v e n b y A . Ritter z u r H e l l e In s u m , the t o t a l B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n of the Bal-
v o n Samo as 1,304,352 i n 1878), 810,294 w e r e C h r i s t i a n s k a n s — b o t h i n B u l g a r i a a n d o u t s i d e i t — a t the e n d of t h e
a n d 503,058 w e r e M u s l i m s . R o u g h l y 65 p e r c e n t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s a b o u t 3,100,000. A s the p o l i t i c a l
C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n E d i r n e Provinc e c o u l d be c o u n t e d as battle f o r M a c e d o n i a i n t e n s i f i e d , so d i d the e f f o r t to issue
Bulgarians. A n estimat e g i v e n i n a B r i t i s h c o u n s u l a r r e p o r t p o p u l a t i o n statistics exaggerated so as t o be favorable t o t h e
o n the p o p u l a t i o n of eastern R u m e l i a before a n d after the p o s i t i o n of e a c h of t h e n a t i o n a l g r o u p s ; b u t t h e m o r e
w a r of 1877-1878 is r e p r o d u c e d i n Table 3 . 5 . 19
f o l l o w e d i n t h e m a i n a course s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Greeks
a n d B u l g a r i a n s, a l t h o u g h it d i f f e r e d i n scope a n d i n t e n s i t y .
The A r m e n i a n s w e r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h e i r so-
cial o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l o u t l o o k , w i t h s h a r p d i f f e r -
ences b e t w e e n r e f i n e d u r b a n g r o u p s a n d t h e s i m p l e r u r a l
f o l k , the m e r c h a n t s , a n d the c r a f t s m e n . A r m e n i a n s c o u l d
be f o u n d i n all O t t o m a n areas, b u t t h e i r heaviest c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n w a s i n the six eastern p r o v i n c e s : E r z u r u m , Sivas, V a n ,
Elaziz, D i y a r b e k i r , a n d B i t l i s . (The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o u n d -
aries of these p r o v i n c e s w e r e established d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
f r o m 1864 t o 1870, t h e n c h a n g e d i n 1876/77.) T h e C h r i s t i a n
p o p u l a t i o n of these six vilayets, w h i c h became the subject of
political d i s p u t e after 1878, w a s l a r g e l y , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y ,
Armenian.
The statistics o n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n A s i a M i n o r
p r i o r t o 1878 are too f e w a n d too general to be of m u c h use.
I n 1867 S a l a h e d d i n Bey placed the t o t a l n u m b e r o f A r m e -
nians i n E u r o p e at 400,000 a n d those i n A s i a at 2 m i l l i o n (at
that date, K a r s , A r d a h a n , a n d B a t u m p r o v i n c e s h a d n o t yet
been lost t o Russia). R a v e n s t e i n , r e l y i n g o n w h a t statistics
he c o u l d f i n d i n 1878, e s t i m a t e d t h e n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s
i n E u r o p e a n d Asi a to be 112,200 a n d 760,000, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
for a t o t al O t t o m a n A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n of 872,200. H e l l e
v o n Samo, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , gave the total C h r i s t i a n
p o p u l a t i o n of the Sivas, E r z u r u m , a n d D i y a r b e k i r vilayets i n
1874 (before t h e y w e r e d i v i d e d u p i n t o six p r o v i n c e s ) as
601,244, of w h o m the m a j o r i t y m u s t h a v e been A r m e n i a n s .
The scarcity of p o p u l a t i o n statistics o n A r m e n i a n s . b e f o r e
1878 was m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y the f l o o d o f i n -
f o r m a t i o n generated after t h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s b y the s t r u g -
gle b e t w e e n Russia a n d E n g l a n d f o r i n f l u e n c e i n eastern
A n a t o l i a . ( B a t u m , Kars, a n d A r d a h a n , w h i c h c o m m a n d e d
the h i g h l a n d s f r o m w h i c h a descent u p o n the Persian G u l f
c o u l d easily be m a d e , already h a d g o n e to Russia.) T h e
A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h ' s statistics p u r p o r t i n g t o s h o w t h e
A r m e n i a n s as a substantial p r o p o r t i o n , i f n o t the m a j o r i t y ,

reasonable f i g u r e s d i d n o t d i f f e r t o o m u c h f r o m the O t t o - of the p o p u l a t i o n there of eastern A n a t o l i a w e r e soon c h a l -

B u l g a r i a n sources ( s u c h as A . N . M o s h n i n , V l a d i m i r Te-
p l o v , a n d K i e p e r t ) are too subjective , t h e i r figures b e i n g too
greatly exaggerated a n d l a c k i n g scientific bases (as is recog-
n i z e d t o d a y b y s o m e B u l g a r i a n scholars), to deserve de-
tailed s t u d y . K a n i t z ' w o r k , a l t h o u g h v e r y u s e f u l , does n o t
rest o n a n actual p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t except i n s o f a r as he used
officia l O t t o m a n s o u r c e s . For e s t i m a t i n g the n u m b e r of
18
17. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Enquête dans
les Balkans (Paris: Centre Européen de la Dotation Carnegie, Édi-
tion Georges Crès et Cie, 1914), pp. 9-10; for the controversy over'
nationality, see my "The Memoirs of N . Batzaria: The Young Turks
and N a t i o n a l i s m , " International journal of Middle East Studies 6
(1975): 276-99.
A f t e r r o u n d i n g o f f the n u m b e r of males a n d a d j u s t i n g for
error, o n e reaches a n e s t i m a t e o f a b o u t 1,800,000 as the
total n u m b e r of B u l g a r i a n s i n the O t t o m a n state (exclusive
o f M a c e d o n i a ) i n 1878. T h e S a l n a m e o f 1295 gave the
p o p u l a t i o n of the areas t h a t became p a r t of Bulgaria p r o p e r
18. See Donau-Bulgarien and der Balkan (Leipzig, 1875) and La
Bulgarie danubienne et le Balkan, Etudes de voyages (Paris, 1882).
19. See FO 424/75 (Drummons-Wolff to Salisbury, 26 September
1878). The report notes that there was great loss of life during war
and that a large group'of Muslims fled, only few of whom sub-
squently returned to their homes. "Greek A l b a n i a n" means a
Christian Orthodox Albanian recognizing the Patriarchate in Istan-
bul.
m a n official statistics.
20. FO 424/70 (Musurus Paşa to Salisbury, 11 April 1878; list
transmitted by Safvet Paşa).
21. See A . Ubicini, "La Principauté de Bulgarie," Revue de géo-
graphie 5 (1879): 86-91; and (no author), "Population of Bulgaria,"
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 55 (1892): 674-75. For the
population of Macedonia, see the excellent study by Fikret Adanir,
Die makedonische Fragc (Wiesbaden: Skiner, 1979), pp. 1-14 and
bibliography; see also Helle von Samo, Die Volkcr des osmanischen
Retches (Vienna, 1877), p. 117; S'alaheddin Bey, La Turquie l'exposi-
tion universelle de 1867,'p. V; and E. G. Ravenstein, "The Popula-
tions of Russia and Turkey," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 40
(1877): 456.
lenged a n d exposed as false by B r i t i s h agents s t a t i o n e d i n
the area.
The San Stefano treaty, s i g n e d u n d e r Russian pressure,
had i n c l u d e d a p r o v i s i o n (art. 16) that c h a r g e d t h e O t t o m a n
g o v e r n m e n t w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of c a r r y i n g o u t r e f o r m s
i n the strategic area s e p a r a t i ng Russia f r o m the Persian
G u l f , t h u s g i v i n g Russia a legal excuse t o i n t e r f e r e t h e r e .
Despite the E n g l i s h liberals' desire to p r o m o t e the a u t o n -
o m y a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , the i n d e p e n d e n c e of A r m e n i a , the
British g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t p u s h t h i s cause, f e e l i n g t h a t an
A r m e n i a n g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d n o t w i t h s t a n d the attacks of
the K u r d s , w h o w e r e a c o m p o n e n t of t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a -
t i o n i n the area. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the B r i t i s h s o u g h t to revise
the Treaty of San Stefano to g i v e t h e m s e l v e s the r e s p o n s i-

; L I B R A F, 7 j
 52
büıty for the six eastern p r o v i n c e s . The n e w treatv, s i g n ed
after the Congress of B e r l i n , i n c l u d e d a p r o v i s i o n (art. 61)
c a l l i n g for r e f o r m i n the A r m e n i a n - i n h a b i t e d p r o v i n c e s .
M e a n w h i l e , the B r i t i s h i n d u c e d the s u l t a n to p r o m i s e to
carry o u t u n s p e c i f i e d r e f o r m s , w h i c h w e r e to be agreed
u p o n at a later d a t e , a n d t h e y t h e m s e l v e s p r o m i s e d to
oppose by a r m s f u t u r e e n c r o a c h m e n t s of Russia u p o n O t t o -
m a n t e r r i t o r y . I n exchange f o r her p r o m i s e of p r o t e c t i o n ,
Britain received the i s l a n d of C y p r u s ; hence the O t t o m a n -
British a g r e e m e n t o n the r e f o r m s i n eastern A n a t o l i a is
called the C y p r u s C o n v e n t i o n . A s a r e s u l t of these m a n -
i p u l a t i o n s , the B r i t i sh f o u n d themselves b u r d e n e d w i t h the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of seeing t h a t the desired changes w e r e car-
ried o u t — a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that w a s seen as necessary. T h e
d i s m a n t l i n g of the O t t o m a n territories i n E u r o pe w a s p r o o f
that Palmerston's p o l i c y , i n i t i a t e d i n 1841, of m a i n t a i n i n g
O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y against Russian e x p a n s i o n h a d
f a i l e d . E n g l a n d felt that she h a d to assume, d i r e c t l y or b v
p r o x y , c o n t r o l of the areas m o s t v i t a l to her strategic i n -
terest. T h i s v i e w became o v e r t ' p o l i c y after Beaconsfield's
g o v e r n m e n t fell i n A p r i l of 188Ü a n d the liberals, h e a d e d b v
the s e v e n t y - y e a r - o l d G l a d s t o n e — t h e s w o r n e n e m y of the
T u r k s — t o o k o v e r ; a n d s o o n after the n e w g o v e r n m e n t
came to p o w e r G e o r g e G r a n v i l l e , the f o r e i g n secretary, be-
g a n to press for e x e c u t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n s of the T r e a t y of
Berlin.
G e o r g e G o s c h e n w a s s e n t to I s t a n b u l to replace H .
L a y a r d ( u n j u s t l y c o n s i d e r e d a T u r k o p h i l e ) as ambassador.
Soon after a r r i v i n g i n the O t t o m a n capital o n 28 M a y 1880,
G o s c h e n set o u t to secure e n f o r c e m e n t of the clause m a n -
d a t i n g r e f o r m s i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s . A s the enforce-
m e n t of the r e f o r m s d e p e n d e d first a n d f o r e m o s t u p o n
accurate i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c
c o n d i t i o n s i n eastern A n a t o l i a , A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n be-
g a n b y a s k i n g several of the v e r y capable B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y
m e n ( n o w consuls ) s t a t i o n e d i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s to
c o m e to I s t a n b u l to discuss i n p e r s o n " t h e relative n u m e r i -
cal p r o p o r t i o n s of the d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s i n h a b i t i n g Asia
M i n o r , a n d available m e a n s fo r t e s t i n g the statistics w h i c h
have been p u t i n b y v a r i o u s p e r s o n s . " Those s u m m o n e d
2 2
to the capital i n c l u d e d L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l C. VV. W i l s o n
and Major H e n r y Trotter. Ambassador Goschen reported
that " C o l o n e l W i l s o n a n d M a j o r T r o t t e r are closely e x a m i n -
i n g the figures g i v e n b y A b e d i n e Pasha a n d b y the A r m e -
n i a n Patriarc h r e s p e c t i v e ly b y the a i d of s u c h data as t h e v
have collected at v a r i o u s t i m e s . " 2 3
M a j o r H e n r y T r o t t e r w a s u n i q u e l y v a l u a b l e to the B r i t i s h
g o v e r n m e n t ' s e f f o r t to secure reasonable p o p u l a t i o n esti-
mates. H e e n j o y e d the h i g h e s t c o n f i d e n c e o f the g o v e r n -
m e n t b o t h as its r e p r e s e n t a t i ve a n d as a statistician. It w a s
he w h o h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d to o b t a i n reliable figures a b o u t
the B u l g a r i a n , G r e e k , a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n s of Thrace
a n d M a c e d o n i a . I n J u l y of 1879 he w a s n a m e d C o n s u l of
K u r d i s t a n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the vilayets of E r z u r u m , D i y a r -
b e k i r , H a r p u t , M u ş , a n d V a n — t h e area c l a i m e d b y the
22. HCAP 100/44 (1881). p. 61 (Goschen to Granville, 3 Septem-
ber 1880).
23. Ibid.
OTTOMAN POPULATION,
A r m e n i a n s . T r o t t e r w a s to t a k e a n a c t i v e p a r t i n im-
p l e m e n t i n g the r e f o r m s there a n d , as a n a n t i c i p a t e d div-
i d e n d thereof, s e c u r i n g the f r i e n d s h i p of the A r m e n i a n s for
B r i t a i n . T h u s , i n a d i s p a t c h to the M a r q u i s of Salisbury, he
advocated c h a n g i n g the title of his o w n office to "Consulate
of T u r k i s h A r m e n i a - a n d K u r d i s t a n " as a concession to
A r m e n i a n s e n t i m e n t . H o w e v e r , o n the q u e s t i o n of popula-
t i o n , T r o t t e r rejected A r m e n i a n claims:
I cannot h o w e v e r a d m i t the accuracy of the statistics
s h o w n i n the i n c l o s u r e w h i c h are the same, I
u n d e r s t a n d , as those s u b m i t t e d to the C o n g r e s s of
B e r l i n . W i t h o u t e n t e r i n g i n t o details, I m a y state that,
, a c c o r d i n g to o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s the relative n u m b e r of
male C h r i s t i a n s a n d M o s l e m s i n the p r o v i n c e s of
E r z u r o u m a n d V a n are as f o l l o w s : E r z u r o u m ; M o s l e m s
197,768, n o n - M o s l e m s 55,043, V a n ; M o s l e m s 126,208,
n o n - M o s l e m s 97,555 ( i n c l u d i n g at least 20,000
N e s t o r i a n s ) , w h i l e M r . T a y l o r , f or m a n y years C o n s u l in
these p r o v i n c e s , e s t i m a t e d the total p o p u l a t i o n of the
vilayets n o w u n d e r m y j u r i s d i c t i o n as f o l l o w s , v i z . , i n
the vilayets of E r z u r o u m , V a n , D i a r b e k i r a n d K h a r p u t :
Turks 442,500
Kurds 848,000
Kizzilbas
200,000
Moslems
Christians 649,000
To the f i r s t , or o f f i c i a l T u r k i s h estimates [ f o r V a n a n d
E r z u r u m ] I h a v e g o o d reason to s u p p o s e tha t an
a d d i t i o n of a b o u t 40 p e r cent, to the n u m b e r o f
C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d g i v e a r e s u l t a p p r o x i m a t e l y the
truth.
2 4
A l t h o u g h the chief r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the p r e p a r a t i o n of
reliable p o p u l a t i o n estimates fel l u p o n T r o t t e r a n d Colonel
W i l s o n , m a n y o t h e r B r i t i s h officials also l e n t t h e i r efforts to
the a t t e m p t to collect a l l of the available p o p u l a t i o n data;
a m o n g these w e r e C o n s u l T a y l o r , C a p t a i n E m i l i u s C l a y t o n
i n V a n , a n d L i e u t e n a n t C h e r m s i d e , w h o was attached to
the R e f o r m C o m m i s s i o n b u t s t a t i o n e d i n Sivas. It is to the
credit of these officials that t h e y s o u g h t to d o a careful and
i m p a r t i a l j o b a n d w e r e o f f e n d e d b y devices e m p l o y e d by
some i n t e r e s t e d parties to bias the statistics i n a gross man-
ner. T h e y w e r e c o n s t a n t l y c r i t i c a l of the A r m e n i a n Patriarch
Nerces, w h o s u p p l i e d f i g u r e s m a n i p u l a t e d so as to maxi-
m i z e the n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g the n u m -
ber of M u s l i m s . T r o t t e r also d e p l o r e d the a t t i t u d e of the
c o m m i t t e e f o r m e d b y the representatives of the b i g powers
to supervise e n f o r c e m e n t of the r e f o r m s . T h i s committee
i n s i s t e d tha t t h e census p r o p o s e d b y the O t t o m a n govern-
m e n t (the census o f 1881/82) s h o u l d c o u n t o n l y the settled
p o p u l a t i o n , that is, the A r m e n i a n s a n d " O s m a n l i s "
( T u r k s ) , w h i l e the " n o m a d i c K u r d i s h e l e m e n t that lives in
the m o u n t a i n s a n d descend s i n t o the p l a i n s i n h a b i t e d by
C h r i s t i a n s o n l y i n o r d e r to create d i s t u r b a n c e s, s h o u l d not
be i n c l u d e d i n t h e census b y w h i c h the m a j o r i t y of the
i n h a b i t a n t s of each v i l l a g e w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d . " " H o w e v -
er, i n the same b r e a t h i n w h i c h it a d v o c a t e d the exclusion of
n o m a d i c K u r d s f r o m the scope of the i n t e n d e d r e f o r m s , the
24. FO 424/86, p. 109.
25. HCAP 100/44 (1881), p. 144.
53
E RELIGIOUS A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
ly T u r k s . " T h e p a t r i a r c h gave t h e p o p u l a t i o n of A d a n a as
2
jttee u r g e d t h a t t h e r e f o r m s " s h o u l d i n c o m m o n Jus-
com c o n s i s t i n g of o n l y 86,000 M u s l i m s , as a g a i n s t 134,000
extende d to the n u m e r o u s N e s t o r i a n s " ( i n h a b i t a n t s
b e
C h r i s t i a n s ; o n the o t h e r h a n d , C a p t a i n Casper, the f o r m e r
tire e central a n d s o u t h e r n p a r t s of the area), a l t h o u g h
n ) l
B r i t i s h v i c e - c o u n s u l i n A d a n a , n u m b e r e d t h e M u s l i m s at
, f these N e s t o r i a n s also w e r e n o m a d s .
0
2 6
This parti-
327,980 a n d the C h r i s t i a n s at 3 3 , 7 8 0 . 30
a t t i t u d e a p p e a r e d to be s u c h a flagrant v i o l a t i o n of the
The B r i t i s h officers i n charge of p o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e
ciples of fairness t h a t M a j o r T r o t t e r felt called u p o n t o
so u p s e t b y these i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t t h e y p e r s u a d e d
pr
'jnt out to A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n t h a t t h e e f f o r t to l a y
A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n to ask the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h to ex-
^ess o n A r m e n i a n claims m i g h t " p r o p a g a t e the false n o -
p l a i n his m e t h o d of c a l c u l a t i o n , a n d the p a t r i a r c h t h e n h a d
5
that H e r M a j e s t y ' s g o v e r n m e n t is o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
n
to change his o r i g i n a l f i g u r e s . It w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t f or
velfare of the C h r i s t i a n subjects of t h e Porte to the exclu-
Sivas C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n areas o u t s i d e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
sion of the M u s l i m s . " 2 /
borders of the p r o v i n c e h a d b e e n c o u n t e d b u t that M u s l i m s
Trotter a n d W i l s o n , w h o a p p a r e n t l y w e r e t r a i n e d m sta-
i n some areas w i t h i n the vilayet h a d n o t ; f u r t h e r m o r e , the
tistics, c a r t o g r a p h y , a n d e c o n o m i c s , t r i e d to devise the best
figures d i d n o t i n c l u d e K u r d s a n d Circassians, b u t l i s t e d as
possible m e t h o d ' f o r r e a c h i n g r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e s of t h e
M u s l i m s o n l y t h e T u r k s . I n e x p l a n a t i o n Nerces w r o t e t h a t
3 1
population i n eastern A n a t o l i a . T h e m e t h o d t h e y a d o p t e d
he " h a d i n v i e w o n l y the A r m e n i a n p a r t of t h e v i l a y e t s u c h
produced the reasonable estimates d e s i r e d , b u t at t h e same
as the [ c i t y ] of Sivas, D i v r i t a n d its e n v i r o n s " a n d stated
{• e it elucidates the p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n the t a k i n g of a
m
that he h a d o m i t t e d " a l l the s a n d j a k s of sudest w h i c h are
census i n t h e O t t o m a n state a n d is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g i n
n o t p a r t of A r m e n i a , fo r e x a m p l e T o k a t . . . . " *~ I n the case
some d e t a i l . T h e y u s e d a c o m p a r a t i v e analysis of all t h e
of Sivas the p a t r i a r c h c o m p l e t e l y reversed h i m s e l f , s h o w i n g
population i n f o r m a t i o n available. T h e i r sources for t h i s i n -
the actual n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s of that p r o v i n c e to be
formation w e r e , f i r s t , t h e A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h a n d b i s h o p s ;
605,065, of w h o m o n l y 199,245 w e r e A r m e n i a n s , the. rest
second, O t t o m a n officials a n d p u b l i s h e d y e a r b o o k s ; t h i r d ,
Muslims. 3 3
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e that W i l s o n rejected
various i n d i v i d u a l e s t i m a t e s ; a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e i r o w n
even the r e v i s e d figures f r o m the p a t r i a r c h , because statis-
observations f r o m v i s i t s to all t h e m a j o r c o m m u n i t i e s , w i t h
tics s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n b i s h o p of Sivas i n d i c a t e d
which t h e y h a d a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r i z e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e c o m -
that the total n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s there, i n c l u s i v e of t h e
prehensive r e p o r t e v e n t u a l l y p r e p a r e d f r o m t h i s i n f o r m a -
Greeks, w a s o n l y 201,245, w h e r e a s the M u s l i m s n u m b e r e d
tion is p r o b a b l y the best of its k i n d .
694,431, e x c l u d i n g refugee s a n d i m m i g r a n t s , w h o w e r e
The figures s u b m i t t e d b y the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h w e r e
p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n 8 0 , 0 0 0 . T h e B r i t i s h q u e s t i o n e d also
34
regularly c h a l l e n g e d . C l a y t o n w r o t e to A m b a s s a d o r G o -
the figures s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n C a t h o l i c p a t r i a r c h ,
schen i n I s t a n b u l that the p a t r i a r c h h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
A n t o i n e Pierre I X H a s s o u n of Cilicia , because he i n f l a t e d
p o p u l a t i o n of V a n c o n s i s t e d of 252,500 A r m e n i a n s a n d
the n u m b e r of the Catholics to the d e t r i m e n t of o t h e r s .
150,000 M u s l i m s , w h i l e o t h e r A r m e n i a n sources i n V a n i t -
The B r i t i sh officers' second source of i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e
self s u p p l i e d a list s h o w i n g t h a t t h e actual n u m b e r s of
p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s i n the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s .
A r m e n i a n s a n d M u s l i m s w e r e 138,559 a n d 109,640, respec-
C h e r m s i d e f o u n d the g o v e r n m e n t statistics " m o s t v a g u e
tively. H e a d d e d t h a t
a n d unsatisfactory as are all those i n the possession of t h e
a l t h o u g h these tables c o m e f r o m a n A r m e n i a n source,
T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t . . . as, h o w e v e r , the c o n s c r i p t i o n list
the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s s u l m a n s t o A r m e n i a n s is
a n d an i m p o r t a n t tax are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m , t h o s e i n t h e
considerably larger t h a n that g i v e n b y the A r m e n i a n
possession of the g o v e r n m e n t are the b e s t . " " T r o t t e r , w h o
Patriarch . '. . . T h e n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n these
3
seemed to h a v e d e v e l o p e d a k e e n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e O t t o m a n
tables is p r e t t y f a i r l y r e c k o n e d , b u t I a m i n c l i n e d to
p o p u l a t i o n matters ( a l t h o u g h he w a s v e r y critical of the
believe t h a t the v i l l a ge K u r d s are s o m e w h a t
O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e c o r d ) , i n d i c a t e d that t h e official
u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , a n d I feel p r e t t y sure that the ashiret
lists w e r e c o m p i l e d f r o m the records e x i s t i n g i n the v a r i o u s
[ t r i b a l - n o m a d i c ] K u r d s are c o n s i d e r a b l y s o .
2 S
local g o v e r n m e n t s , " f r o m w h i c h , fo r the M u s l i m s , the lists
A major c o n t r o v e r s y arose over the f i g u r e s s u b m i t t e d to the of m e n w h o are liable to c o n s c r i p t i o n are d r a w n u p , a n d l o r
Berlin C o n g r e s s , i n his m e m o r a n d u m a d d r e s s e d to the C h r i s t i a n s , the n u m b e r s f o r w h o m the m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n
Congress ( s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y b y v a r i o u s w r i t - has to be p a i d . " H e accepted the fact t h a t i n s o m e areas
3 6
ers) Patriarc h Nerces p l a c ed the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n
E r z u r u m , V a n ( M u ş a n d Siirt i n c l u d e d ) , Sivas, H a r p u t , 29. It is interesting to note that up until as late as 1912 the
D i y a r b e k i r , a n d H a l e p at 780,000 a n d the n u m b e r of Syrians Armenian Patriarchate listed the Kizilbas, the Zazas, and the
( i . e . , A s s y r i a n s , or Syriacs) a n d G r e e k s at 251,000 a n d Tchareklis as groups belonging to "other religions," although thev
.25,000, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f or a total of 1,056,800 C h r i s t i a n s . T h e all were Muslim.
total n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n these areas, a c c o r d i n g to the 30. HCAP 100 44, p. 158.
p a t r i a r c h , a m o u n t e d to a m e r e 770,000, of w h o m o n l y 31. Ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880).
320,000 w e r e T u r k s , the rest b e i n g K u r d s , Kizilbaş, a n d 32. Ibid., p. 171 (Nerces to Goschen, 10 September 1880); see
T ü r k m e n ; of course, the last t w o g r o u p s w e r e also e t h n i c a l - also ibid., pp. 389-90 (Wilson to Goschen, 23 August 18S0).
33. Ibid., p. 172 (Nerces to Goschen).
34. Ibid., p. 98 (Wilson to Goschen, 22 September 1880).
26. Ibid., p. 145.
35. ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880),
27. Ibid., p. 162.
36. Ibid., p. 123 (Trotter to Goschen. 7 September 1880).
28. Ibid., p. 158.
 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914 T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N 55
54

b o t h M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s failed to r e p o r t their exact Table 3.6. A r m e n i a n P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e, 1896 at 651,134. " I f the f a i r l y large total of A r m e n i a n i n -
4
inces. The total n u m b e r of such m i g r a n t s i n the p e r i o d f r o m
n u m b e r s i n o r d e r to a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d taxes, a n d tor 18S2 ( A r m e n i a n Patriarchate Figures) habitants i n the p r o v i n c e s of T r a b z o n , H a l e p , a n d A d a n a 1853 to 1878 r e a c h e d an e s t i m a t e d 700,000 to 800,000,
such areas considered that the p o p u l a t i o n figures h a d to be ( i n c l u d i n g K a y s e r i , Kir§ehir, a n d Yozgat) h a d been a d d e d c h a n g i n g the p o p u l a t i o n balance i n t h e Balkans i n the f a v or
Contested Viiayets Asia Europe
raised b v 20 or 25 percent to account for the u n r e g i s t e r e d . to that for the east A n a t o l i a n vilayets, t h e n the g r a n d t o t a l of the M u s l i m s . D u r i n g the last q u a r t e r of the c e n t u r v ,
Van 400.000 Adana (Cilicia) 280,000 Istanbul and for the ten p r o v i n c e s that c o n t a i n e d the b u l k of t h e A r m e - h o w e v e r , M u s l i m s f r o m the Balkans, i n c l u d i n g practically
In some districts, h o w e v e r , the lists are v e r y m u c h m o r e Bitlis 250.000 Aleppo 100.000 vicinity 135.000 n i a n p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d h a v e a m o u n t e d to a b o u t 939,000. all of the Circassians, began e m i g r a t i n g to A n a t o l i a , t h u s
carefully c o m p i l e d t h a n others; i n the c o m p a r a t i v e l y Diyarbekir 150.000 Trabzon 120.000 Edirne 50.000
Bursa 60.000 Other areas The M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of t h e same ten -vilayets n u m b e r e d , setting i n m o t i o n a process of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n ,
settled districts, such as the sanjaks of K a r p u t , E r z e r u m , Erzurum 280,000 10.000
Mamuretüiaziz 270,000 Aydin (Izmir) 50.000 b y some c o n s e r v a t i ve estimates, o v e r 5 m i l l i o n . and i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h far-reachin g social and p o l i t i c a l
Baiburt, I believe the o f f i c i a l lists to be c o m p a r a t i v e l y Total 195.000
accurate . . . i n districts w h i c h are i n a c h r o n i c state of Sivas 280,000 Ankara. Konya. effects.
Total 1,630,000 & Kastamonu 120,000
r e b e l l i o n a n d s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n c e , the statistics are T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m t h e
m u c h less r e l i a b l e . ' Syria. Musul.
3

Baghdad, The M u s l i m s C r i m e a , the Caucasus, arid the Balkan s w h o h a d settled i n

Beyrut. & A n a t o l i a (and to some extent i n Syria a n d Iraq) b v 1908 w a s
The rebellious areas h a p p e n e d to be those i n h a b i t e d p r i n c i -
Basra 40.000 The O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p o p u l a t i o n records d i d n o t d i v i d e about 5 m i l l i o n . A n O t t o m a n official estimat e gives the t o t a l
pally by M u s l i m s — n o m a d i c K u r d s a n d T ü r k m e n — b u t also İzmit [sancak) 65.000 the M u s l i m s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r e t h n i c or l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a - of i m m i g r a n t s i n the O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s i n the n i n e t e e n
bv C h r i s t i a n \ e s t o r i a n s . Total 835.000 t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e C h r i s t i a n s b e g a n to be d i v i d e d i n t o years b e t w e e n 1877 a n d 1896 as 1,015,015. The O t t o m a n 41

I n d i v i d u a l estimates w e r e a t h i r d source of i n f o r m a t i o n ,
b u t the Britis h officers w e r e careful to accept figures o n l y
f r o m persons w h o m t h e y k n e w to have s o u n d k n o w l e d g e
of the area a n d its p e o p l e a n d c o n s i d e r e d to be o t h e r w i s e
t r u s t w o r t h y . T h e i r f o u r t h s o u r c e wa s t h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g e ,
w h i c h was i n t i m a t e a n d p r o b a b l y q u i t e reliable, of the area,
its p o p u l a t i o n , its c u s t o m s , a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , its languages .
The net result of this a r d u o u s team e f f o r t , u n p a r a l l e l e d i n
the statistical h i s t o r y of the O t t o m a n state, w as a series of
GRANO TOTAL 2.660.000
Source: Marcel Léart [Kirkor Zohrap], La Question arménienne à ta lumière des
documents (Paris: A Challamel, 1913), pp. 50-59.
tribes, a n d the e m i g r a t i o n of some A r m e n i a n s a n d Greeks
to Russia a n d to o t h e r parts of A n a t o l i a .
O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics issued after 1881/82 h a d so i m -
e t h n i c g r o u p s u n d e r the p r e s s u r e of v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i s t
claims based u p o n n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y , the ethno-
l i n g u i s t i c categories d e v i s e d b y t h e O t t o m a n officials still
c o n f o r m e d closely to the c o n f e s s i o n a l d i v i s i o n s t h a t h a d
e m e r g e d after t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the classical millet sys-
t e m . The O t t o m a n state s o u g h t to r e m a i n , f o r m a l l y at least,
a M u s l i m state, u n t i l its f i n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n — w h i c h , para-
d o x i c a l l y e n o u g h , w a s accelerated b y the rise of e t h n o -
l i n g u i s t i c n a t i o n a l i s m a m o n g its M u s l i m subjects.
government derived information about immigrants f r o m
special registers of i m m i g r a t i o n , b u t a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r
of m i g r a n t s w h o w e n t d i r e c t l y to villages a n d t o w n s w h e r e
t h e i r relatives w e r e already l i v i n g or w h o settled w i t h o u t
b e i n g r e g i s t e r e d w e r e o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e official c o u n t s .
T h a t the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t ' s estimates w e r e l o w can be
seen f r o m a q u i c k c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r f i g u r e s . O f f i c i a l
B u l g a r i a n statistics, for e x a m p l e , s h o w t h a t i n 1893 a total of
11,460 e m i g r a n t s f r o m that c o u n t r y a l o n e w e n t to T u r k e y ; 4 2

c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d d e t a i l e d c o m p a r a t i v e tables of the p r o v e d i n consistency a n d r e l i a b i l i t y that t h e B r i t i s h came to

p o p u l a t i o n i n eastern A n a t o l i a ( r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y
w i t h o n l y a f e w e d i t o r i a l changes i n the statistical a p p e n -
dices, I I . 1 ) . The n u m b e r of n o n - M u s l i m s ( m o s t l y A r m e -
nians) i n the vilayets of E r z u r u m , V a n , Bitlis , D i y a r b e k i r ,
W e s t e r n s t u d e n t s of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e the s e m i - o f f i c i a l O t t o m a n statistics g i v e t h e total n u m b e r of
rely o n t h e m a n d t h e y w e r e accepted b y m o s t of the for-
aware of e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c d i v i s i o n s a m o n g t h e M u s - i m m i g r a n t s w h o entere d t h e c o u n t r y i n t h a t same vear as
eigners w i t h o n l y m i n o r r e s e r v a t i o n s . 38
H o w e v e r , despite
l i m s , generally d i d n o t m a k e a n y serious effort to ascertian o n l y 18,437, a l t h o u g h at t h i s t i m e t h e r e w a s m a j o r i m m i g r a -
o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p a r t i a l o p i n i o n i n s u p p o r t of the m e r i t of
the exact n u m b e r of each g r o u p . M a n y w e s t e r n e r s , l i k e t h e t i o n n o t o n l y f r o m Bulgaria b u t also f r o m the C a u c a u s u s ,
the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics, o t h e r subjective a n d u t t e r l y
O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t itself, r e g a r d e d I s l a m a l m o s t as a Crete, a n d B o s n i a . I n d e e d , a v a r i e t y of other p r o v i n c i a l
43

a n d H a r p u t was g i v e n as a b o u t 567,000 a n d the n u m b e r of false i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n con-

M u s l i m s as a b o u t 1,488,000, e x c l u d i n g n o m a d s , refugees,
a n d i m m i g r a n t s . (If the last g r o u p h a d b e e n i n c l u d e d , the
total M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d have c o m e to n e a r l y 3 m i l -
l i o n . ) A l t h o u g h still u n d e r s t a t i n g the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s ,
n a t i o n a l i t y a n d t h e r e f o re w e r e r e a d y to place all the M u s - statistics s h o w that i n 1897 at least 65,000 p e o p le f r o m B u l -
t i n u e d to be p u b l i s h e d a n d r e p u b l i s h e d as v a r i o u s "ex-
lims i n one category. O f t e n they w e r e labeled s i m p l y garia, w e s t e r n R u m e l i a , Russia, Greece, Bosnia, R o m a n i a ,
p e r t s " c o n t i n u e d to use s u c h data. Table 3.6 reproduces the
" T u r k s , " for " M u s l i m " a n d " T u r k " h a d become s y n o n y - C e n t r a l A s i a , a n d o t h e r u n s p e c i f i e d places e n t e r e d t h e
figures s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h as these were
m o u s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n e v e r it a p p e a r e d e x p e d i e n t , O t t o m a n E m p i r e . O t h e r statistics s h o w t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d
issued again as late as 1913 b y a n o f t e n - c i t e d s o u r c e . 39

the E u r o p e a n s w o u l d s u b d i v i d e t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n f r o m 1880 to 1900 a total of 239,335 M u s l i m s e m i g r a t e d f r o m

these statistics p r o v i d e f a i r l y accurate i n f o r m a t i o n about the
p r o p o r t i o n of n o n - M u s l i m s i n eastern A n a t o l i a at the t i m e .
T h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r the size of the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a -
t i o n c o n t i n u e d , c a r r i ed f o r w a r d a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the
r i s i n g t i d e of n a t i o n a l i s m . A n e w c o m p a r i s o n , c o m p i l e d b y
the B r i t i s h i n 1896, gave estimates of the M u s l i m a n d n o n -
M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the six eastern A n a t o l i a n p r o v i n c e s
i n 1890 a n d 1896. A c c o r d i n g to the later of the t w o estimates
(made b y the C o n t r o l C o m m i s s i o n ) , there w e r e 697,598
n o n - M u s l i m s i n the area a n d over 2.75 m i l l i o n M u s l i m s (see
the statistical a p p e n d i c e s , I I . 6 ) .
A special O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d i n
a b o u t 1897, not p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d , indicates that the
t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e area h a d r i s e n b y t h a t y e a r to
3,179,000, of w h o m a b o u t 2.5 m i l l i o n w e r e M u s l i m s ,
566,267 w e r e A r m e n i a n s , a n d the rest w e r e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i -
ties (see the statistical a p p e n d i c e s , I I . 3 ) . T h e O t t o m a n cen-
sus of 1881/82-1893 h a d g i v e n the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n
these province s to be a b o u t 540,000, w h i l e s h o w i n g the
M u s l i m s to be 2,159,000 ( r o u n d e d - o f f figures w e r e u s e d for
females). The relative change i n the p o p u l a t i o n ratio,
s h o w n i n b o t h B r i t i s h a n d O t t o m a n estimates, w as caused
by the i m m i g r a t i o n of M u s l i m s , the s e t t l e m e n t of n o m a d i c
37. Ibid.
Excessive a t t e n t i o n w a s p a i d to the size of the C h r i s t i a n ,
a n d especially the A r m e n i a n , p o p u l a t i o n i n the six east
A n a t o l i a n p r o v i n c e s d e s i g n a t e d b y the B e r l i n treaty as re-
f o r m areas a n d as the t e r r i t o r y of an i n d e p e n d e n t A r m e n i a ,
w h i l e the fact that m a n y m o r e A r m e n i a n s w e r e l i v i n g i n
other O t t o m a n p r o v i n c e s w a s i g n o r e d . T h e census of 1881/
82-1893 s h o w e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e 1,076,908 (figures r o u n d e d
for females) A r m e n i a n s l i v i n g i n O t t o m a n lands a n d that
areas such as A n k a r a a n d T r a b z o n h a d large p o p u l a t i o n s of
A r m e n i a n s . Statistics f o r later years i n d i c a t e that the A r m e -
n i a n p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r w e n t c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o w t h a n d that
by 1914 their t o t a l n u m b e r h a d reached 1,165,088, despite
the fact that a sizable p o r t i o n h a d either m i g r a t e d to Russia
or h a d been d e t a c h e d f r o m the O t t o m a n state a l o n g w i t h
the territories lost to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1897
to 1913. A m u c h - q u o t e d G e r m a n p u b l i c a t i o n t h a t u s e d V i t a l
C u i n e t ' s rather p u z z l i n g statistical w o r k as a basis p u t the
n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n the six east A n a t o l i a n provinces i n
38. In 1890, for example, the British reported that the population
of the six provinces consisted of 1,233,402 Muslims and 566,297
non-Muslims, while the Porte's o w n statistics gave the number of
Muslims as 1,432,075 and of non-Muslims as 512,372; see HCAP
96/49 (1890), p. 38 (White to Salisbury, 26 May 1890).
39. Marcel Léart [Kirkor Zohrap], La Question arménienne à la lu-
mière des documents (Paris: A Challamel, 1913), pp. 50-59.
i n t o smaller e t h n i c or l i n g u i s t i c factions so that it m i g h t be
asserted that t h e M u s l i m s d i d n o t c o n s t i t u t e a single m a j o r -
i t y g r o u p i n d i s p u t e d areas. The general t e n d e n c y of the
West E u r o p e a n s , a n d especially of the B a l k a n C h r i s t i a n
nationalists, w a s , as w e h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , to m i n i m i z e t h e
n u m b e r of M u s l i m s as far as possible i n o r d e r to s t r e n g t h e n
their o w n claims of n a t i o n a l interest a n d t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s .
A f t e r a c q u i r i n g p o w e r , m a n y of these g o v e r n m e n t s ( e . g . ,
Serbia a n d Bulgaria) cited t h e i r o w n biased statistics as j u s -
t i f i c a t i o n for d r i v i n g o u t all or a l m o s t all of t h e i r M u s l i m
subjects.
Estimates i n s o m e e i g h t e e n sources s h o w that the M u s -
l i m s c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l B a l k a n
p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g m o s t of the f i r s t h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r v , w h i l e i n t h e second h a l f of the c e n t u r y the p r o p o r -
t i o n g r e w to at least 43 p e r c e n t . T h i s increase i n M u s l i m
p o p u l a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y wa s caused b y a slight increase i n
the b i r t h rate, c o u p l e d w i t h the m a j o r m o v e m e n t of C r i -
mean a n d Caucasian M u s l i m s i n t o v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n p r o v -
40. See Dr. A. Petermann'sMitteilungen aus Justus Petcrke's geo-
grapliischcr Anstall 24 (3878): 8; and Cuinet's La Turquie d'Asie, 4
vols. (Paris, 1890-1894). Cuinet failed to list his sources and did not
indicate why his figures differed from those of the Ottoman gov-
ernment; however, the differences were minor.
Bulgaria to t h e O t t o m a n state.
T h e n u m b e r s of M u s l i m s i n O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r y m o u n t e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y u p w a r d i n s u c h a w a y as to t r a n s f o r m t h e
e m p i r e i n t o a p r e d o m i n a n t l y M u s l i m state after 1878. Bv
1880 the A n a t o l i a n p o p u l a t i o n was a l r e a d y 80 p e r c e n t M u s -
l i m , and this percentage increased steadily thereafter.
O b v i o u s l y , a n y estimate of the exact n u m e r i c a l size of var-
ious M u s l i m e t h n ic a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s can be o n l y tenta-
tive u n t i l m o r e d e t a i l e d studies o n m i g r a t i o n a n d settle-
m e n t are c o m p l e t e d . A s the O t t o m a n statistics d o not d i -
vide the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n to ethnic and linguistic
g r o u p s , a researcher can o n l y rely o n the y a r d s t i c k of geo-
graphica l d i s t r i b u t i o n for his estimates. T h a t y a r d s t i c k is a
fairly reliable one; for a l t h o u g h i n b o t h t h e Balkans a n d t h e
M i d d l e East the M u s l i m e t h n ic g r o u p s l i v e d p a r t l y i n t e r -
41. IUKTY 9184, Ministry of Trade and Construction, General
Directorate of Statistics, Dcvlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniuvenin Bmiiçvfiztvttic
Senesine Mnhsus lstatistik-i Ummniyyesi (Istanbul, 1316 |1K98J).
42. Chief Statistical Office, Statistique de l'émigration de la princi-
pauté dans les pays étrangers de 1S93 à 1902 (Sofia, 1906); see also K.
G. Popoff, "La diminution de la population turque de la principa-
uté de Bulgarie," Journal de la société de statistique de Paris 46 (1905):
347.
43. See 1UKTV 9184, Dcvlc!-i Aliye-i Osmamuyewn.
 56
m i x e d , m o st h a d their o w n special districts a n d regions of
concentration.
The largest M u s l i m g r o u p i n the Balkans w a s the T u r k s
p r o p e r , w h i c h consisted of the r e m a n e n t s of T u r k i c m i -
grants w h o h a d first c o m e i n t o the t e r r i t o r y as early as the
sixth c e n t u r y . T h e m a j or T u r k i s h s e t t l e m e nt i n the Balkans
o c c u r r e d i n the S e l j u k i a n d O t t o m a n p e r i o d s i n the t h i r -
teenth t h r o u g h the s i x t e e n t h centuries. T h e m a j o r i t y of the
Balkan T u r k s wer e S u n n i M u s l i m s , except for the Kizilbaş,
of D e l i o r m a n a n d n o r t h e r n D o b r u c a ( m a n y f r o m the latter
area b e i n g f o l l o w e r s of Baba Ishak, a social rebel). O n e
g r o u p , the Gagauz, were Christians; they were Seljuki
T u r k s w h o settled i n the Balkans i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
a n d c o n v e r t e d to the O r t h o d o x r e l i g i o n b u t m a i n t a i n e d
their T u r k i s h language. T h e y i n h a b i t e d eastern Bulgaria
a n d w e r e classified b y the O t t o m a n s as C h r i s t i a n s ; the
Bulgarians c l a i m e d i n c o r r e c t l y that t h e y w e r e o n l y l i n g u i s t i -
cally T u r k i f i e d a n d classified t h e m as B u l g a r i a n s ' T h e M u s -
l i m T u r k s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the p r o v i n c e s of the E d i r n e ,
T u n a , Selanik, Y a n y a , a n d p a r t of ' M a n a s t i r .
The Kosova a n d Işkodra vilayets w e r e i n h a b i t e d largely
b y A l b a n i a n M u s l i m s , k n o w n also as Skipetars a n d A r n a -
v u t , w h o w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to
r e g i o n , dialect, a n d tribe.' T h e B o ş n a k , t h a t is, the Serbo-
C r o a t i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , i n h a b i t e d a l m o s t exclusively
Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . These territories w e r e o c c u p i e d
by A u s t r i a i n 1878, a n d p a r t s o f t h e m w e r e cede d to M o n -
tenegro, w h i l e the sancak of N o v i b a z a r w a s placed u n d e r a
j o i n t O t t o m a n - A u s t r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( r e s u l t i n g i n a large
e m i g r a t i o n f r o m Bosnia to the O t t o m a n state). T h e Bulgar-
i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , that is, the P o m a k s , i n h a b i t e d t h e i r
o r i g i n a l h o m e i n the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s i n the vilayets of
E d i r n e a n d Selanik. T h e Caucasus M u s l i m s , k n o w n as C i r -
cassians, w e r e o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y settled i n the Balkans be-
t w e e n 1862 a n d 1878 a n d n e e d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g
the n a t i v e g r o u p s . T h e C r i m e a n s , the m a i n M u s l i m g r o u p of
T u r k i c o r i g i n s t i l l s p e a k i n g a dialect v e r y close to T u r k i s h ,
were settled i n D o b r u c a a n d parts of eastern a n d n o r t h e r n
Bulgaria. T h e average d i s t r i b u t i o n of M u s l i m s i n the E u r o -
pean p r o v i n c e s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1864 to 1877, a c c o r d i n g
to figures g i v e n b y several of the m o s t reliable sources, is
s h o w n i n Table 3 . 7 . 4 4
It is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d e t e r m i n e the e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c clas-
sification of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n N o r t h A f r i c a , E g y p t ,
the A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , a n d the s o u t h e r n parts of Syria a n d
I r a q , for i n these areas a n A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m p o p u l a -
t i o n p r e v a i l e d . H o w e v e r , the t e r r i t o r y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t
of Syria a n d the h i g h l a n d s of I r a q , w h i c h became the place
of e n c o u n t e r f o r A r a b i c , T u r k i c , P e r s i a n , a n d K u r d i s h
tribes, was a c h e c k e r b o a r d o f v a r y i n g languages a n d social
44. I have relied on the calculation made by Engin Akarli, " O t t o-
man Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Ra-
cial, and Religious C o m p o s i t i o n " ( M . A . thesis, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82; see also Ernest Dottain, "La Tur-
quie d'Europe d'après le Traité de Berlin," Revue de géographie 3
(1878): 152; and McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities. (For Ottoman
ligures, see Appendix 1.)
O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914 THE R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H L O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
57
Table 3.7. Muslims in European Provinces, 1860-1878 groups of n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s c o u l d be f o u n d t h e r e . T h e the M u s l i m s there, m a i n l y T u r k s b u t also s o m e large
g r o u p s of G r e e k - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , e m i g r a t e d a n d settled
situation i n t h e m o u n t a i n o u s areas w a s s o m e w h a t m o r e
A. By Ethic Group a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n shores of A n a t o l i a . I n a d d i t i o n t h e
complex, b u t t h e r e also t h e n o m a d i c g r o u p s w e r e p r e d o m i -
Ethnic Group Vilayets Number 'O i m m i g r a t i o n total w a s steadily a u g m e n t e d b y t h e constant
nantly of T u r k i s h s t o c k . T h e r e w e r e social d i f f e r e n c e s
Turks, a small number of Istanbul 57 among the T u r k s , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e i r d i f f e r i n g occupa- i n f l u x of C r i m e a n M u s l i m s , w h o h a d b e g u n to settle i n v e r y
342.200
Crimeans. Çerkeş. Edirne 597.100 39 tions a n d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a n d t h i s i n d u c e d m a n y E u r o - small n u m b e r s i n central a n d w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a as early as
Pomaks, and Albanians Tuna 945,600 45 the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
peans to classify t h e sedentary' f o l k , r u r a l a n d u r b a n , as
Sofia 154.200 23
" O s m a n l i " or " r e a l T u r k s , " w h i l e t h e n o m a d i c a n d s e m i - The d e m o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u re of A n a t o l i a was f u r t h e r
Selanik 264,800 49
nomadic g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e T ü r k m e n , Y ö r ü k , Z e y b e k , c h a n g e d t h r o u g h the s e t t l e m e n t, b o t h v o l u n t a r y a n d i n -
Yanya 430.500 36
Çetni, T a h t a c i , Kızılbaş (Shiites), etc., w e r e p l a c ed i n d i f f e r - v o l u n t a r y , of n o m a d i c tribes. I n d e e d , t h r o u g h o u t the
Albanians and Turks Manastir (Kosova) 860,600 56
ent e t h n i c categories, t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e of t h e same n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t succeeded i n
(small groups only) Işkodra 141,100 47
linguistic g r o u p b e i n g e n t i r e l y i g n o r e d . s e t t l i n g large n u m b e r s of K u r d i s h , T u r k i s h , a n d A r a b tribes
Bosnians Bosnia and Herzegovina 520,000 40
i n A n a t o l i a ( n o r t h e r n I r a q b e i n g u n s u i t a b l e for a g r i c u l t u r e ) .
Turks Crete The eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a h a r b o r e d , i n a d d i t i o n to
48,400
Turks, S u n n i a n d Shiite K u r d s b o t h sedentar y a n d n o m a d - These settled tribes w e r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y M u s l i m , a n d
Islands 80.000 50
the m a j o r i t y w e r e T u r k i s h .
Total 4.384,500 44.6 ic. The K u r d s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s — t h e smaller
Thus the political events that triggered the M u s l i m
Zaza a n d the large r K i r m a n j i — a n d also i n t o a S u n n i m a j o r -
B. 8y Ethnic Total* e m i g r a t i o n f r o m the Caucasus a n d the Balkans c o m p l e t e d
ity a n d a Shiite m i n o r i t y ; t h e latter w a s d e s c e n d e d p r o b a b l y
Turks 2,000,000 b o t h the I s l a m i z a t i o n a n d the T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a . T h e
from t h e T u r k i s h Kizilbaş tribes t h a t h a d rebelled against
Albanians 1,300,000 t w o processes w e r e i n fact c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d w e r e r o o t e d
the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d
Bosnians 600.000
sought r e f u g e i n t h e d o m a i n s of the K u r d i s h l o r d s , w h e r e i n the O t t o m a n c u l t u r e , i d e n t i t y , a n d s p i r i t ; t h e i r c u l m i n a -
Circassians 400,000
Others they a c q u i r e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r s . T h e Shiite t i o n w a s the s y n t h e s i s e m b o d i e d i n t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n .
84.500
K u r d s ' r e l i g i o u s beliefs w e r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h those of the I n d e e d , the T u r k i s h national consciousness, a l t h o u g h
Total 4,384,500
Shiite T ü r k m e n . T h e Zaza a n d K i r m a n j i languages w e r e n o t stirred p a r t l y b y a sense of e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , w a s raised m a i n -
Source: Engin Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territo- ly b y the p o w e r f u l forces e m b o d i e d i n the O t t o m a n p o l i t i c a l
w r i t t e n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e K u r d i s h elites o f t e n u s e d Per-
rial, Racial, and Religious Composition" (M.A. thesis, University of
sian as t h e i r l a n g u a g e of w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d m a n y a n d ' c i v i c c u l t u r e . T h e O t t o m a n state h a d created á s t r o n g
Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82.
'Approximate totals. K u r d i s h tribes, especially the Shiites, t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d c u l t u r a l u n i t y a m o n g v a r i o u s M u s l i m e t h n i c g r o u p s subject
themselves Persian. T h e t o t a l O t t o m a n K u r d i s h p o p u l a - to its i n f l u e n c e i n the areas a d m i n i s t e r e d d i r e c t l y a n d i n t e n -
o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h i s c h e c k e r b o a r d became m o r e c o m p l e x as tion, e s t i m a t e d to be a b o u t 1.5 m i l l i o n i n t h e 1880s, a g o o d sively b y the central a u t h o r i t y — t h a t is, R u m i l i a n d A n a t o -
Circassians a n d o t h e r M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s w e r e settled part of w h i c h w a s n o m a d i c or p a s t o r a l , l i v e d i n t h e area lia. T h u s , the a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m i m m i -
a r o u n d B e i r u t , a l o n g the H e j a z r a i l r o a d , i n the A l e p p o a n d c o m p r i s i n g w h a t is n o w southeast T u r k e y , I r a q , a n d p a r t of grants i n t o the T u r k i s h m a j o r i t y w a s n o t t r u l y " a s s i m i l a -
B a g h d a d areas, a n d a l o n g t h e S y r i a n s e a b o a r d . I n that45
Syria. T h e r e w e r e large g r o u p s of e t h n i c T u r k s , b o t h seden- t i o n " i n the o r d i n a r y sense of t h e w o r d : r a t h e r , it w a s a
area t h e r e w e r e n o n - o r t h o d o x g r o u p s ( t h a t is, n o n - tary' a n d n o m a d i c , l i v i n g i n these areas, i n c l u d i n g t h e h i g h - m e l d i n g of all the v a r i o u s I s l a m i c - O t t o m a n c o m m u n i t i e s ,
S u n n i s — s o m e t i m e s n o t c o n s i d e r e d g o o d M u s l i m s ) , such as lands of D e r s i m , H a r p u t , a n d D i y a r b e k i r . A s early as the i n c l u d i n g the T u r k s , i n t o a n e w f o r m of p o l i t i c a l a n d social
the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150,000 D r u z e s w h o i n h a b i t e d the Leba- 1880s a small g r o u p of K u r d i s h leaders r e g a r d e d these areas o r g a n i z a t i o n — t h e n a t i o n a l state. U n d e r this n e w f o r m of
n o n , the 200,000 N u s a i r i s ( A l a w i t e s ) w h o l i v e d a l o n g the as t h e i r f u t u r e n a t i o n a l h o m e l a n d , w h i c h t h e y t r i e d to se- p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s w e r e able to
S y r i a n seaboard, a n d t h e 150,000 Y e z i d i s ( f i r e w o r s h i p e r s ) cure against the claims of o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y m a i n t a i n t h e i r i n h e r i t e d s o c i o - c u l t u r a l characteristics b u t
f o u n d c h i e f l y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t s of A l e p p o a n d M o s u l . 4 6
against t h e A r m e n i a n s , w h o r e g a r d e d m o s t of the same were provided w i t h a new national identity and were
T h e e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the M u s l i m p o p u l a - area as the t e r r i t o r y of a f u t u r e i n d e p e n d e n t A r m e n i a . A s assured of f u t u r e s u r v i v a l . To p a r a p h r a s e K a r l D e u t s c h , a
t i o n i n A n a t o l i a needs a l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y , w h i c h I the i m m i g r a t i o n s of the years 1862-1900 increased t h e size n a t i o n is f o r m e d w h e n the o l d f o r m s of association d i s i n t e -
h o p e to c o m p l e t e i n the n e a r f u t u r e . I l i m i t m y s e l f here to a of the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n i n A n a t o l i a , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of n o n - grate a n d p e o p l e are c o m p e l l e d to i n t e g r a t e i n t o n e w e r a n d
f e w general o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e n d e d to t h r o w s o m e i n t e r p r e - T u r k i s h e l e m e n t s , b o t h C h r i s t i a n a n d M u s l i m , decreased larger social u n i t s w i t h a n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d social o r i e n t a t i o n
t i v e l i g h t u p o n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d i n the accordingly. a n d a n e w collective i d e n t i t y . M i g r a t i o n a n d settlement
appendices. A n a t o l i a h a d b e e n r e l a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s , at p l a y e d a m a j o r role i n c r e a t i n g a large g r o u p o f p e o p l e w i t h
I n the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h century' t h e n o r t h -
least i n the i n t e r i o r , u n t i l d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s i m i l a r b a c k g r o u n d s , o u t of w h i c h t h e architects of the
eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a u n d e r w e n t massive e t h n i c c h a n g e .
but it came to p r e s e n t a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x ethno- e m e r g i n g T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l state d r e w t h e necessary m a n -
The o v e r l a n d i m m i g r a t i o n of v a r i o u s Caucasia n g r o u p s af-
l i n g u i s t i c p i c t u r e after the M u s l i m i m m i g r a t i o n t o o k place. p o w e r to o p p o s e the c o n t i n u o u s o n s l a u g h t s of E u r o p e f r o m
ter 1853 b e g a n t h e process; a n d after 1878, w h e n t h e n o r t h -
The p l a i n s of the e n t i r e area, s t r e t c h i n g f r o m the sea of 1897 to 1922 a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , to a f f i r m t h e i d e n t i t y of their
ern p r o v i n c e s of A r d a h a n , B a t u m , a n d Kars w e r e cede d to
M a r m a r a to E r z u r u m i n t h e east a n d to the A d a n a - A y i n t a p new nation.
Russia, D a g h i s t a n i s , Ç e ç e n , G e o r g i a n s , Lazes, a n d m a n y
r e g i o n i n the s o u t h , w e r e o r i g i n a l l y i n h a b i t e d b y T u r k s ; T h e c o n t e n t i o n that m i g r a t i o n s p e e d e d u p the-Tslamiza-
other M u s l i m g r o u p s , s o m e of T u r k i s h o r i g i n b u t m o s t l y of
u n t i l the m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n l y a f e w s m a l l t i o n a n d T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a is s u p p o r t e d b y statistical
Caucasian stock, came to settle i n eastern A n a t o l i a . M e a n -
w h i l e large g r o u p s of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the Balkans, evidence. A s u m m a r y p u b l i s h e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n -
45. See my "The Status of Muslims under European Rule: The consisting m a i n l y of e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m Bulgaria a n d eastern m e n t s h o w s that the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n increased f r o m
Eviction of the Circassians from the Caucasus and Their Settlement 19.8 m i l l i o n i n 1875 to 24.5 m i l l i o n i n 1885 a n d to 27.2 m i l -
Rumelia a n d of Circassians, w e r e settled t h r o u g h o u t w e s t -
in Syria," journal of Muslim Minorities 1 (1980). l i o n i n 1895 (see t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a p p e n d i c e s , 1.14). T h i s
ern, central, a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a w h e r e v e r there w a s
46. The Ottoman government, in its drive to register the entire available l a n d . Later , n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s such as Bos- p o p u l a t i o n increase (about 40 percent i n t w e n t y years) was
population, found that the Yezidis agreed to register only if their
n i a n s , P o m a k s l a n d , i n lesser n u m b e r s , A l b a n i a n s also d u e chiefly to i m m i g r a t i o n a n d the s e t t l e m e n t of tribes and
nationality was specified as " y e z i d i . " The government accepted
came to settle i n A n a t o l i a , t h e i r heaviest c o n c e n t r a t i o n s was a u g m e n t e d o n l y s l i g h t l y b y an increase i n t h e b i r t h rate
this demand lest the Yezidis become subject to conversion bv some
b e i n g i n the w e s t . A f t e r the o c c u p a t i o n of Crete b y Greece, (seemingly o n l v about 1 percent a n n u a l l y ) . H e l l e v o n Samo
Christian missionary groups and cause trouble.
58
i n d i c a t ed o n the basis of data f r o m the p r o v i n c i a l salnames
that i n 1874 the A s i a n p r o v i n c e s ( A r a b i a excepted) h a d a
p o p u l a t i o n of 10.3 m i l l i o n M u s l i m s a n d 2.8 m i l l i o n n o n -
M u s l i m s , c h i e f l y C r e e k s a n d A r m e n i a n s , or a total of a b o u t
14 m i l l i o n p e o p l e — a f i g u r e accepted b y m o s t observers as
c o r r e c t . ' I n 1885, that is, eleven vears after the m a j o r w a v e
4
of i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m the Balkans h a d been a b s o r b e d, the
n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n A n a t o l i a h a d increased to over 15
m i l l i o n , despite the loss ( i n 1878) of n o r t h e a s t e r n A n a t o l i a
to Russia. D u r i n g this p e r i o d the n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s i n -
creased o n l y s l i g h t l y .
The p a t t e r n of g r o w t h of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , b o t h i n
n u m b e r s a n d i n p r o p o r t i o n , c o n t i n u e d after 1885 b u t w i t h -
out s h o w i n g the large increases p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d ;
m i g r a t i o n , t h o u g h steady, h a d d w i n d l e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . I n
fact, the statistics s h o w e d the o v e r a l l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n
to have increased by o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r i n the
p e r i o d f r o m 1885 to 1914. T h e r e w a s d o u b t l e s s a real s l o w -
d o w n i n g r o w t h at t h a t t i m e d u e to a v a r i e t y of causes,
i n c l u d i n g losses i n the w a r w i t h Greece i n 1897 a n d the
B a l k a n W a r of 1912-1913; b u t also, because b i r t h a n d d e a t h
registrations w e r e n o t satisfactorily carried o u t s o m e of the
decrease i n the rate o f . g r o w t h w a s a p p a r e n t rather t h a n
actual.
T h e relative s l o w i n g o f the rate of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h d i d
not r e t a r d the i s l a m i z a t i o n a n d T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a ;
this process g a i n e d n e w m o m e n t u m w i t h the mass i m -
m i g r a t i o n of m o s t of the r e m a i n i n g e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m the
Balkans as a consequence of the w a r o f 1912-1913. H a l f a
c e n t u r y of p e r s e c u t i o n a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t of M u s l i m s b y
Russia a n d the n e w l y establishe d states of the Balkans f i n a l -
ly f o r c e d a l m o s t all of t h e m to seek n e w h o m e s a n d a n e w
p o l i t i c a l existence i n A n a t o l i a — a search t h a t u l t i m a t e l y re-
s u l t e d i n the emergenc e o f m o d e r n T u r k e y .
Social C o n d i t i o n s
M a n y of the tables i n Section I V of the statistical a p p e n -
dices at the e n d of t h i s b o o k c o n t a i n statistics t h a t are i n fact
social i n d i c a t o r s d e s c r i b i n g t h e O t t o m a n state's socio-
economic p o s i t i o n at the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
T h e y are taken f r o m m a t e r i a l i n the l i b r a r y of the U n i v e r s i t y
of I s t a n b u l , the section o n T u r k i s h m a n u s c r i p t s . A seal4 8
m a r k o n one of the i n t e r i o r pages ( p . 229) bears the nam e of
that M e h m e t Behic w h o w a s assistant d i r e c t o r a n d , later,
d i r e c t o r of the O t t o m a n Statistical Directorat e (see C h a p t e r
2 a n d A p p e n d i x B.4). A p p a r e n t l y this statistical b o o k was
the result of a j o i n t e f f o r t c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n
of the h i g h e st a u t h o r i t i e s i n the statistical office; h o w e v e r ,
there is n o i n d i c a t i o n of the m e t h o d used i n c o m p i l i n g the
figures, a n d one m u s t have reservations a b o u t accepting at
face value some of the i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n one does n o t
47. Die Viilker des osnianischen Reiclws, pp. 68, 117; see also Dot-
tain, "La Turquie d'Europe," 209-16.
48. See IUKTY, 9184 and 365, Dev!et-i Aliye-i Osmaniyyenm.
O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914
k n o w its b a c k g r o u n d . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e statistics,
4
w h a t e v e r their degree of accuracy, d o present a p i c t u r e of
O t t o m a n state q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m the d i s m a l p o r t r a i t of the
" s i c k m a n " o f f e r e d b y m a n y E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s . Recent
d o c u m e n t a r y research o n the O t t o m a n e c o n o m y b v a n u m -
ber of y o u n g scholars has i n d i c a t e d that i n the p e r i o d f r o m
1870 to 1900 a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n increased, railroads
m a d e the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s to the markets
easier a n d m o r e e f f i c i e n t, e d u c a t i o n a l facilities e x p a n d e d ,
the p u b l i c debt w a s s t a b i l i z e d , a n d the O t t o m a n society
d e v e l o p e d a n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d social awareness. T h u s the
official O t t o m a n statistics p r o b a b l y p a i n t a reasonable like-
ness of the true circumstances i n the O t t o m a n state.
There is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t the s e t t l e m e n t of i m m i g r a n t s
h a d b r o u g h t n e w a g r i c u l t u r a l lands i n t o c u l t i v a t i o n a n d
increased f a r m p r o d u c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , the m i g r a t i o n was
a c c o m p a n i e d by a transfer o f c a p i t a l a n d skills, for a con-
siderable n u m b e r of the i m m i g r a n t s b e l o n g e d to w e l l - t o - d o
g r o u p s ( l a n d l o r d s , h i g h officials, ulema) i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s of
o r i g i n . O n e can t h e r e f o r e state t h a t the d e m o g r a p h i c trans-
f o r m a t i o n of the O t t o m a n state i n the second half of the
nineteenth century was accompanied by economic g r o w t h
a n d social changes as w e l l as b y p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n .
T h e statistics r e l a t i n g to literacy ( I V . 15) g i v e rates that
appear, a n d p r o b a b l y are, r a t h e r h i g h . T h e reason for this
can be f o ^ n d , at least i n p a r t , i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of the O t t o -
m a n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m . T h e s y s t e m c o n s i s t e d i n the
second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y of b o t h g o v e r n m e n t -
f i n a n c e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d " m o d e r n " schools a n d t r a d i t i o n a l
classrooms s u p p o r t e d b y vakifs ( p i o u s f o u n d a t i o n s ) . The
latter w e r e essentially r e l i g i o u s schools a n d c o u l d be f o u n d
e v e n i n v i l l a g e s ; t h e y t a u g h t c h i l d r e n h o w to read a n d
w r i t e , a n d a p e r s o n g r a d u a t i n g f r o m one of these schools
c o u l d be called literate. I t is t r u e that the m o d e r n schools,
t o w a r d s w h i c h the g o v e r n m e n t officials s h o w e d a strong
bias, t e n d e d to replace t h e o l d , b u t the t r a d i t i o n a l religious
schools still s u r v i v e d i n large n u m b e r s a n d p r o d u c e d their
o w n graduates f o r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e . O n the other
h a n d , after the acceptance of the L a t i n s c r i p t i n T u r k e y i n
1928 there w a s a t e n d e n c y to c o n s i d e r " l i t e r a t e " a n d to
register as s u c h o n l y the p e o p l e w h o c o u l d read the Latin
script. T h u s the q u e s t i o n of the literacy rate m u s t be ex-
p l o r e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r the specific educational
c o n d i t i o n s a n d the p r e v a i l i n g d e f i n i t i o n of a " l i t e r a t e " per-
son i n the O t t o m a n state at a g i v e n t i m e . I n a n y case, the
statistics o n the v o l u m e o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d the price of some
a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s ( I V . 18-23) suggest the existence
of the t y p e of s o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w o u l d ex-
p l a i n the p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,
i n c l u d i n g the r e v o l u t i o n o f the Y o u n g T u r k s i n 1908.
T h e t w o lists of p r o f e s s i o n s a n d professionals g i v e n i n
49. The material has been used in part by some other scholars;
see Vedat Eldem, Osmanli imparatorluğunun iktisadı Şartlari Hakkında
Bir Tetkik (Ankara, 1970), and Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw,
History of the Ottoman Empire,and Modern Turkey, vol. 2 (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1977).
59
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
tries. L i s t e d are a large n u m b e r of b a n k e m p l o y e e s (there
t h e statistical a p p e n d i c e s ( I V . 9 a n d 10) are of c o n s i d e r a b l e
w a s o n l v one small O t t o m a n - o w n e d b a n k — t h e Ziraat Ban¬
significance. T h e first list, d e s c r i b i n g the o c c u p a t i o n a l scene
kasi, or A g r i c u l t u r a l B a n k ) a n d secretaries, i n d i c a t i n g that
i,i Istanbul i n 1878/79, i l l u m i n a t e s the m o d e of life a n d so-
the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of capital a n d of business h a d g a i n e d
cial habits, as w e l l as the e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e , of the t r a d i -
p r i o r i t y over man}- o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n s. T h i s m i g h t be seen as
tional s o c i e t y : a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f these p r o f e s s i o n s
an i n d i c a t o r of s t r o n g e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t t h a t v i e w
should i n d i c a t e the level of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n taste a n d l i v i n g
is n o t s u p p o r t e d by o t h e r e v i d e n c e . For e x a m p l e , the total
reached b y t h e O t t o m a n society as w e l l as r e v e a l i n g t h e
n u m b e r of f a c t o r y w o r k e r s w a s o n l y 186,000—less t h a n t h e
structure of its c o m p l e x crafts o r g a n i z a t i o n . " T h e s e c o n d
3
total n u m b e r of v a r i o u s categories of servants, m a i d s , a n d
list, issued barel y t w e n t y years later, a l t h o u g h m o r e gener-
secretaries. T h e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y h a d b e c o m e i n fact a
al and w i d e r i n scope, indicates a b o v e all the r a p i d p r o l i f -
dependent "service" economy whose developing " m o d -
eration of n e w professions a n d o c c u p a t i o n s a n d the d i s -
e r n " laver served as i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n the p r o d u c t i v e
appearance, or at least the f a d i n g a w a y to i n s i g n i f i c a n c e , of
sector—that is, the t r a d i t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e r e s t i n g o n a g r i -
the t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n s . A l t h o u g h m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l p r o -
c u l t u r e — a n d the t o p lavcr of beneficiaries of the n e w o r d e r ,
fessions s u r v i v e d , t h e y became r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t a n d
c o n s i s t i n g of the representative s of E u r o p e a n capital (there
u n p o p u l a r , the p r o f e s s i o n s associated w i t h the " m o d e r n "
w e r e large n u m b e r s of f o r e i g n citizens i n I s t a n b u l ) a n d of a
order b e i n g m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s .
r a p i d l y g r o w i n g n a t i v e m i d d l e class.
The p r o f e s s i o n s associated w i t h the n e w o r d e r w e r e i n -
I n s u m , these social statistics, besides p r o v i d i n g factual
timately related to the m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d , c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e ,
i n f o r m a t i o n , suggest the existence of forces that s h a p e d t h e
western-style enterprises a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s that h a d b e g u n
u l t i m a t e d e s t i n y of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e y o f f e r n e w
to c o n t r o l t h e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y . A g o o d m a n y of these
i n s i g h t i n t o — i n fact, a p r o f o u n d l y n e w vista o f — t h e O t t o -
enterprises w e r e t h e subsidiaries of large E u r o p e a n f i r m s or
m a n society a n d its i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c s . T h e s t u d e n t s of
the d i s t r i b u t o r s of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d b y E u r o p e a n i n d u s -
O t t o m a n h i s t o r y m a y better u n d e r s t a n d t h e rise a n d d o w n -
fall of t h i s p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y if t h e y can a p p r o a c h its s t u d y w i t h
50. See Pretextat Lecomte, les Arts et metiers de la Turquie et de
some d e t a i l e d factua l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t its society.
VOrient (Paris, 1902).