1 s2.0 S0001879123000763 Main

Journal of Vocational Behavior 145 (2023) 103916
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb
Stability and change in configuration patterns of various

career-related parental behaviors and their associations with
adolescent career adaptability: A longitudinal
person-centered analysis
Yue Liang a, 1, Nan Zhou b, *, Hongjian Cao c, d, e, 2
a
School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
b
Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Macau, China
c
Applied Psychology Program, School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China
d
Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
e
Department of Human Development & Family Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Parents play essential roles in shaping adolescents’ career development by engaging in a series of
Career-related parental behaviors career-related parental behaviors. Based on three-wave longitudinal data collected with one-year
Career adaptability interval between waves and using a person-centered approach, this study seeks to examine the
Chinese adolescents
stability and change in the configuration patterns of career-related parental behaviors, and their
Latent profile analysis
potential associations with adolescents’ career adaptability among 1410 Chinese adolescents (M
Person-centered Configural approach
age = 15.26, SD = 0.51, 52.4 % female). Four profiles of career-related parental behaviors were
consistently identified across waves: Unsupportive but not Permissive, Supportive but not
Intrusive, Rejecting and Neglecting, Ambivalent and Controlling. Further, results of Latent
Transition Analyses indicated that there was a coexistence of stability and changes over time in
the group memberships of career-related parental behaviors configuration patterns across high
school years. Last, adolescent raised by parents who consistently endorsed supportive but not
intrusive practices across high school years or at least at child 12th Grade displayed higher levels
of career adaptability than adolescents whose parents adopted negative parental behaviors
consistently across waves. Findings of this study highlighted the importance of systematically
examining the heterogeneity and dynamics inherent within the configuration profiles of career-
related parental behaviors and their unique implications for adolescent career development
over time.
* Corresponding author at: Faculty of Education, University of Macau, E33 Building, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, 999078, China.
E-mail address: nanzhouchina@gmail.com (N. Zhou).
1
Full Affiliation and Contact Information: Yue Liang: Ph.D., School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, No.
19 Xin Jie Kou Wai Street, Hai Dian District, Beijing, China 100875.
2
Full Affiliation and Contact Information: Hongjian Cao: Ph.D., TB 552, Applied Psychology Program, School of Humanities and Social
Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen, No. 2001 Longxiang Boulevard, Longgang District, Shenzhen, China 518172; Department
of Psychology, The Jockey Club Tower, Centennial Campus, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China 999,077; Sandels
Building, Department of Human Development and Family Science, College of Health and Human Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
32306, USA
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2023.103916
Received 8 November 2022; Received in revised form 27 July 2023; Accepted 14 August 2023
Available online 15 August 2023
0001-8791/© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Y. Liang et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 145 (2023) 103916
1. Introduction
Adolescence signifies a life crossroad of choosing career paths. This transition period involves an active process of accruing ex
periences that promote beliefs and competences for exploring future career directions and making career decisions (Savickas, 2002).
These acquired beliefs and competences constitute core dimensions of career adaptability, which is an essential psychological resource
not only for coping with imminent career-related challenges but also for lifelong career satisfaction and wellbeing (Hartung et al.,
2008). Theories and empirical studies have widely documented that adolescents’ career adaptability is largely shaped by career-
related parental practices, including support, interference, and barriers to engagement (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009; Liang et al., 2020;
Zheng et al., 2022).
Although findings across studies generally speak for the benefits of career-related parental supports and the detriments of parental
interference and barriers to engagement for adolescents’ career adaptability (e.g., Guan et al., 2015; Liang et al., 2020; Parola &
Marcionetti, 2022), these studies primarily adopted a variable-centered approach. Specifically, these studies often separately exam
ined specific types of career-related parental practices and focused on their respective effects on adolescent career development.
However, the variable-centered approach is not able to accurately capture the ecologically valid patterns of parenting practices, given
that parents may not be absolutely supportive or interfering (Zhang et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2020). In real life, parents tend to engage
in various types of parenting practices in combination with each other. Accordingly, recent empirical studies are increasingly
recognizing the importance of exploring the potential configuration patterns of various career-related parental behaviors using a
person-center approach (e.g., Liang et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020). This approach classifies parents based on the distinct combination
patterns of their various career-related parental behaviors, and therefore this approach reflects parenting reality more adequately than
the variable-centered approach.
Furthermore, a notable limitation of the extant few examinations of configuration patterns of career-related parental behaviors (e.
g., Liang et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020) lies in an inadequate match between the theories and the adopted statistical models. That is, the
extant studies implicitly assume that the patterns of parental behaviors remain unchanged over time. However, theoretical models
(Darling et al., 2008) posit that during adolescence, along with the rapid biological maturation, children start to negotiate the
legitimacy of parental authority in various spheres of their lives and claim autonomy in individual issues, including daily recreational
activities, choice of friends, and planning for future career paths. In response to adolescents’ increasing desire for behavioral and
psychological autonomy in choosing their future career paths, parents may adjust their parenting practices over time (e.g., Ahn et al.,
2022; Cumsille et al., 2009). However, to our knowledge, no studies have examined the dynamics of configuration patterns of career-
related parental behaviors over time and their potential implications for adolescents’ career adaptability across the critical transition
period of career development.
Therefore, to address the aforementioned gaps, the current study adopted a longitudinal, person-centered approach and aimed to:
(a) identify distinct configurations of Chinese career-related parental practices; (b) investigate stabilities and changes over time in
patterns of career-related parental practices from middle to late adolescence when adolescents start to make their first career decision
(Gu et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020); and (c) shed some initial light on the developmental implications of each transition pattern and
examine the associations between the identified transition patterns of career-related parental practices and adolescents’ career
adaptability. Understanding such processes is particularly important, given that adolescents’ needs for autonomy in exploring various
future career paths may conflict with their parents’ expectations and efforts to regulate child career development (Sawitri et al., 2014).
Results of the current study may provide important insights for developing interventions to provide parents with appropriate guidance
aimed at facilitating adolescents’ career development during the critical life period.
1.1. Configurations of career-related parental behaviors and their implications for adolescent career adaptability
The Career Construction Theory (Savickas, 2002, 2013) proposes that adolescents’ career adaptability is a product of the
continuous interactions between adolescents and their experiences in families and other social contexts. Parents actively engage in
their children’s development of career adaptability by encouraging their children to participate in family chores, and providing op
portunities for children to explore their interests and capabilities. Children also look up to their parents as role models who show a path
forward from family to workplace (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). Children’s self-construction processes of vocational identity begin with
observing how their parents cope with challenges in vocational development. They rehearse attitudes and skills that they learn from
their parents and exercise these skills as they engage in certain activities. These processes contribute to children’s rapid development of
vocational self, and facilitate the transformation of concrete self-conceptions to more abstract ones. The organized self-perceptions
control, guide, and evaluate adolescents’ career-related behaviors, and ultimately promote adolescents’ career adaptability.
A number of empirical studies have indicated that career-related parental behaviors underpin the foundation of the development of
adolescent career adaptability (Liang et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020). Career-related parental behaviors can be broadly conceptualized
as the guidance, support, and other practices that parents engage in to realize their socialization goals in the domain of adolescent
career development (Guan et al., 2015). More specifically, there are three types of career-related parental behaviors, support, inter
ference, and barriers to engagement (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009). Parents engage in career-related support to help adolescents bridge
their self-interests and future vocational opportunities and facilitate their proactivity and capability to successfully navigate career-
related challenges (Guan et al., 2016; Guan et al., 2018). Such support creates a climate of understanding in which adolescents are
encouraged to explore various possible career paths and to make career-related decisions independently. In the meantime, some
parents try to maintain high levels of engagement in their children’s career development by strictly controlling children’s career
2
exploration and preparation activities. Such high levels of parental interference may erode adolescents’ autonomy and ultimately
thwart adolescents’ willingness to engage in career exploration and preparation processes (e.g., Ahn et al., 2022; Liang et al., 2020). In
addition to parental support and interference, parents may also perceive barriers to engagement due to their lack of capability in
guiding children’s vocational exploration (e.g., economic disadvantages, low levels of education) or because of their indifference in
assisting children’s career development (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009). Adolescents whose parents have high levels of barriers to
engagement in children’s career development may not only have difficulties in career preparation but also perceive low levels of
parent–child relatedness (Guan et al., 2015; Kracke, 2002).
Furthermore, another parental process that have been shown to exert great influence on child career progress over and above
career-related parental behaviors is parent–child career congruence (Ghosh & Fouead, 2016; Lee et al., 2022). Parent–child career
congruence refers to the extent to which parents’ expectations and values are align with their children’s career goals and aspirations
(Sawitri et al., 2014). Parents and adolescents develop their developmental goals and expectations regarding adolescents’ future
vocational paths, respectively. When adolescents and their parents differ in such expectations and aspirations, parents’ support and
guidance may be perceived by adolescents as imposed pressure, which may hinder career development as a result (Sawitri et al., 2013;
Sawitri & Creed, 2022).
Prior studies have predominately relied on variable-centered approaches and examined how various types of career-related
parental practices are related on average to career adaptability (e.g., Guan et al., 2015; Liang et al., 2020). This approach ignores
the within-sample heterogeneity in career-related parental practices. Additionally, the variable centered approach is not able to
adequately capture the complexity in “everyday-life” parental behaviors, given that parents may simultaneously using various kinds of
parental practices (Zhou et al., 2020). In contrast, the person-centered approach (e.g., the Latent Profile Analysis) focuses on patterns
of defining characteristics and allows researchers to identify quantitatively and qualitatively different configurations of various career-
related parental practices (Spurk et al., 2020).
Notably, prior studies adopting a person-center approach (e.g., Zhou et al., 2020) have identified three distinctive configuration
patterns of career-related parental practices, which quantitatively differed in each dimension of parental behaviors and also quali
tatively in shape (i.e., the relative level of the indicators within a profile) (Bouckenooghe et al., 2022; Hirschi & Valero, 2015 ; Wang &
Hanges, 2011). Specifically, these profiles included “supportive but not intrusive” profile (i.e., engaging in adolescents’ career
development but not controlling), “unsupportive but not permissive” profile (i.e., the lowest level of support and moderate levels of
barriers to engagement), and “ambivalent and controlling” profile (i.e., the highest level of interference and moderate levels of
support). Additionally, adolescents with supportive but not intrusive parents reported higher levels of career adaptability than those
with parents who were unsupportive but not permissive (i.e., neither supportive in career development nor congruent with children’s
career goals). Similarly, Liang et al. (2022) found that adolescents whose parents were congruent with children’s career aspirations
and provided various kinds of support to children’s career development tended to report higher levels of self-efficacy in career decision
making than adolescents whose parents were unsupportive and controlling.
However, the aforementioned empirical studies adopting person-centered approach primarily assumed that parenting profiles were
stable over time. As such, the stability of and the potential change in career-related parenting profiles over time still remain poorly
understood. Configurations of parental behaviors may be open to changes particularly during the transitional life periods when in
dividuals are facing drastic psychological and physical changes (e.g., Zhang et al., 2017). To narrow this gap, the present study sought
to delineate the potential dynamics in the configurations of career-related parental behaviors across high school years and their re
lations to adolescent career developmental outcomes.
1.2. Stability and change in configuration patterns of career-related parental behaviors during middle to late adolescence
From the perspective of family change (Hill, 1986; Rodgers, 1964), individuals’ physical and biological maturation, as well as age-
related expectations from the society and other family members may result in dramatic changes in the family. Specifically, during
adolescence, rapid physical and cognitive changes bring up transformations in adolescents’ beliefs about the legitimacy of parental
authority (Smetana et al., 2005). As such, families may experience ongoing changes when children’s needs for independence and
autonomy change as they grow, especially during adolescence. Additionally, during high school, an anxiety-provoking task that ad
olescents have to face is making their first career-related choices, which may bring transitions and adaptations in parents’ behaviors.
Sensitive parents may consciously adjust their career-related parental behaviors to provide consistent and appropriate support to their
children’s career development over time. In contrast, some parents may engage in their children’s career development using extensive
and intensive behavioral and psychological control to maximize their children’s career achievement, especially when adolescents
approach the transition to college (Ahn et al., 2022).
In accordance with the theoretical propositions, it is necessary to adopt a longitudinal person-centered approach to examine the
stability and change of configurations of career-related parental practices over adolescents’ high school years. However, to date,
studies on profiles of career-related parenting have mostly taken a static perspective and relied on a prospective design, which pre
cluded the possibility to capture the change and stabilities of parental practices during the critical transition period of adolescent
career development (Liang et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020). The adoption of Latent Transition Analysis (LTA), a longitudinal dynamic
person-centered approach provides a way to capture: (1) qualitative and quantitative stability and change of career-related parental
practices within the sample across adolescents’ high school years; and (2) the within-person change and consistency of profiles for
specific adolescents over time (Gillet et al., 2017; Wang & Hanges, 2011).
Prior empirical studies examining transitions in configurations of various parenting dimensions revealed a coexistence of stabilities
and changes in group memberships. For example, in Zhang et al.’s (2017) study with a sample of 2173 adolescents, four profiles of
3
parental practices were identified (i.e., strict-affectionate, average-level undifferentiated, authoritarian, and authoritative). About 60
% parents who endorsed authoritarian parenting shifted their parenting styles from childhood to adolescence. In a five-year longi
tudinal study, Teuber et al. (2022) examined the transition patterns of autonomy-related parenting profiles among 789 German
secondary school students. They found that about 50 % of parents stayed in the same profile over time, and parents became less
controlling and more supportive. Results also showed that parenting profiles can also change over time.
Prior studies on developmental patterns of parental practices in general make it tempting to speculate that, during adolescence,
parents may adjust their career-related behaviors in response to their children’s increasing needs of autonomy and emerging char
acteristics. Parents may become increasingly supportive and congruent with their children’s career aspirations (Kerr et al., 2012). Few
research attentions have been paid to patterns of change and stability in career-related parental practices, however, making such
speculations unfounded.
1.3. The current study
This study aimed to address three research questions: (a) whether configurations of adolescent-perceived career-related parental
behaviors are quantitatively and qualitatively distinct? (b) What are the patterns of change and the magnitude of longitudinal stability
in the configurations of career-related parental behaviors? (c) how transition pattern/profile would predict adolescents’ career
adaptability at the 12th Grade, controlling for career adaptability at the 10th Grade?
To address the first research question, career-related parental behaviors that have been demonstrated to be essential for the
development of adolescents’ career adaptability (Liang et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020) were included (i.e., career-
related support, interference, barriers to engagement, and parent–child career congruence) as indicators to identify potential con
figurations. Based on prior literature (e.g., Liang et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020), we expect to identify three quantitatively and
qualitatively different profiles of career-related parenting across 10th to 12th Grade: (a) a profile of support-congruence parenting
characterized by high levels of congruence and supportive, and low levels of barriers to engagement and interference; (b) a profile of
unsupportive but not permissive parenting characterized by low levels of support and congruence, and high levels of barriers to
engagement and interference; and (c) a profile of ambivalent parenting with high scores on all dimensions of career-related parental
behaviors and congruence.
In terms of specific hypotheses related to the second and third research question, we expect to find: (a) a group of adolescents who
experience stable support-congruence parenting during high school years may exhibit the highest level of career concern, control,
curiosity, and confidence at 12th Grade; and (b) adolescents who had parents who are unsupportive but not permissive and those who
experience ambivalent parenting across three high school years may have relatively lower levels of career concern, control, curiosity,
and confidence at 12th Grade.
2. Method
2.1. Participants and procedures
Data of the current study were drawn from a large project examining family processes and adolescent well-being. Families with
adolescents at the 10th Grade were invited to participate in the project. A written consent form with brief descriptions of the project,
including aims, data collection procedures, confidential issues, and potential risks and benefits were taken home by adolescents. Before
data collection, written consents from both parents and adolescents were obtained. We collected the first wave of data when ado
lescents were at the 10th Grade. Adolescents completed questionnaires in a classroom with a research assistant present to address their
questions and concerns and to ensure that the participants were not disturbed when answering questionnaires. The time interval of
data collection between waves is one year. As such, the second and third waves of data were collected when adolescents were at the
11th and the 12th Grades, respectively. Data collection procedures were identical across three waves of data collection. All data
collection procedures performed in the current study were reviewed and approved by the institutional review board at Beijing Normal
University (Protocol No. BNU202109100026).
Adolescents participated in the current study were included as long as they participated in at least one wave of data collection (N =
1410, 52.4 % female). The mean age of the participants was 15.26 (SD = 0.51) at the first wave of data collection (i.e., 10th grade). At
11th Grade and 12th Grade, 1024 (72.6 %) and 999 (70.9 %) participants have retained in the current study, respectively. On key study
variables and covariates, we compared the participants retained in the final wave of data collection and the attrited ones. Relevant
findings can be found in the Results section.
In the current sample, 47.5 % of the mothers had less than a high school degree, 28.7 % of the mothers graduated from high school
or equivalent, 5.8 % of the mothers earned a junior college degree (3-year colleges), 15.5 % of the mothers had a college degree (4-year
colleges), and 2.4 % had a graduate degree. With regard to fathers’ education, 38.1 % of the fathers had less than a high school degree,
30.6 % of the fathers graduated from high school or equivalent, 6.4 % earned a 3-year college degree (3-year colleges), 21.4 % had a 4-
year college degree, and 3.5 % had a graduate degree.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Adolescent-perceived career-related parental behaviors at W1, W2, and W3

Parental Career-Related Behaviors Scale (PCB; Dietrich & Kracke, 2009) was used to measure adolescents’ perceived parental
4
behaviors. The PCB consists of three subscales, including Support (5 items, e.g., “My parents support me in getting an apprenticeship”),
Barriers to engagement (5 items, e.g., “My parents cannot support my vocational preparation, because they know too little about different
vocations”), Interference (5 items, e.g., “My parents have their own ideas about my future vocation and try to influence me accordingly”).
Adolescents indicated the extent to which each item applied to their parents’ behaviors on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = does not apply, 5
= fully applies). Mean scores of each subscale were computed with higher scores indicating higher levels of a particular type of be
haviors. Cronbach’s alphas range from 0.87 to 0.96 for each subscale across three waves.
2.2.2. Parent–child career congruence at W1, W2, and W3.

The 5-item Adolescent-Parent Career Congruence Scale (CCS; Sawitri et al., 2013) was used to measure parent–child career
congruence. Adolescents indicated the extent to which their plans for future career paths were congruent with their parents’ expec
tations on a 6-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). Mean scores were computed and used with higher scores indicating
higher levels of parent–child congruence. Cronbach’s alphas for this scale were 0.92, 0.91, 0.87 at child 10th, 11th, and 12th Grade.
2.2.3. Adolescent career adaptability at W1 and W3

Adolescents’ career adaptability was measured by the 24-item Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The CAAS
consists of 4 subscales, including career concern (6 items, e.g., “Realizing that today’s choices shape my future”), career control (6 items,
e.g., “Taking responsibility for my actions”), career curiosity (6 items, e.g., “Exploring my surroundings”), career confidence (6 items, e.g.,
“Working up to my ability”). Adolescents were instructed to indicate to what extent to agree with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Average scores of each subscale were used in all analyses with higher score indicating higher
levels of sub-dimension of career adaptability. Additionally, each sub-dimension of career adaptability at 12th Grade were used
separately as four dependent variables and entered in the same model simultaneously. Each sub-dimension measured at 10th Grade
were used as baseline. Cronbach’s alphas range from 0.88 to 0.95 for each subscale across the three time points of data collection.
2.2.4. Covariates
Child age at 10th grade, child gender (1 = male, 2 = female) and family economic status were included as control variables in all the
analyses, given that these variables have been demonstrated to be associated with adolescent career adaptability (Johnson & Mortime,
2002; Liang et al., 2022). Family economic status was computed using household possessions (14-item scale, asking adolescents
whether they have a certain item at home, such as a television), maternal and paternal educational levels (OECD, 2012).
2.3. Data analytic strategies
First, descriptive analyses were conducted using SPSS 20.0, including descriptive analyses, zero-order correlations between key
study variables and covariates, and patterns of missing data. Second, to ensure that measurement used at the three time points were
comparable, we examined the longitudinal measurement invariance of the key study variable. Results of measurement invariance
analyses were presented in Table S1 in the supplementary materials. Third, we conducted Latent Profile Analyses (LPA; Collins &
Lanza, 2009) via Mplus 8.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2015) to generate optimal solutions at each time point of data collection based
on adolescent-perceived career-related parental behaviors and parent–child career congruence. To avoid local maximum, 5000
random sets of start values and 1000 iterations were used in all analyses (Hipp & Bauer, 2006). According to the guidelines provided by
Asparouhov and Muthén (2014), we used the following criteria to determine the optimal solution of LPA: (a) lower levels of Akaike
information criterion (AIC), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), sample-size-adjusted BIC (ABIC), and log likelihood (LL) indicating a
better overall model fit; (b) entropy larger than 0.80 indicating higher levels of accuracy of classifying cases into profiles based on
indicators; (c) whether the addition of one profile improves the overall model fit were evaluated using the Lo-Mendell-Rubin likelihood
ratio test (LMRT) and the bootstrap likelihood ratio test (BLRT). Third, we further used Latent Transition Analyses (LTA; Collins &
Lanza, 2009) to test whether participants change profiles over time. We also constrained the means and variances within the profiles
across all time points for more in-depth examinations of the transition patterns. AIC, BIC, ABIC, log likelihood ratio, and entropy were
used to determine the best solution.
Furthermore, we conducted path analyses to examine to what extent the identified transition patterns were related to adolescents’
career adaptability at 12th Grade. The overall model fit was evaluated by the following indices (Byrne, 2013): χ2 statistic, the
comparative fit index (CFI), the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual
(SRMR). A nonsignificant χ2, CFI > 0.90, RMSEA <0.08, and SRMR <0.10 demonstrated that the model fit the data adequately. Given
that the χ2 statistic is sensitive to sample size, a significant χ2 statistic is expected when the sample size is large.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive analyses
Results of Little’s missing completely at random test (1988) showed that χ2 (317.438, df = 159) was significant (p < .001).
However, the normed Chi-square (χ2/df = 1.99 < 2) was acceptable, indicating that the missing data points can be handled by using
the Full Information Maximum Likelihood estimations (FIML; Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2018). We further examined whether there
were any differences between the participants retained in the final wave of data collection and the attrited ones. Results showed as
compared to adolescents who attrited in the third wave of data collection, the retained adolescents had higher levels of family SES at
5
Y. Liang et al.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics for and bivariate intercorrelations among study variables and between study variables and covariates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Key study variables
1. Support G10 –
2. Interference G10 0.05 –
3. Barriers to Engagement G10 ¡0.13 0.65 –
4. Parent–Child Congruence G10 0.46 < 0.01 0.03 –
5. Support G11 0.41 − 0.04 ¡0.16 0.28 –
6. Interference G11 − 0.01 0.35 0.17 − 0.03 0.07 –
7. Barriers to Engagement G11 ¡0.18 0.20 0.32 − 0.03 ¡0.14 0.62 –
8. Parent–Child Congruence G11 0.27 − 0.07 − 0.05 0.46 0.47 < 0.01 < 0.01 –
9. Support G12 0.38 − 0.07 ¡0.12 0.21 0.40 − 0.05 ¡0.13 0.30 –
1. Interference G12 ¡0.10 0.32 0.24 ¡0.10 − 0.07 0.37 0.23 − 0.09 0.01 –
11. Barriers to Engagement G12 ¡0.19 0.22 0.28 ¡0.10 ¡0.14 0.23 0.31 − 0.09 ¡0.14 0.74 –
12. Parent–Child Congruence G12 0.27 − 0.02 − 0.01 0.33 0.30 − 0.04 − 0.03 0.46 0.50 < 0.01 0.02 –
13. Career Control G10 0.31 − 0.01 − 0.02 0.23 0.20 − 0.01 − 0.07 0.14 0.25 0.22
6
¡0.09 ¡0.10 –
14. Career Concern G10 0.40 0.13 0.06 0.34 0.22 0.03 − 0.05 0.20 0.27 − 0.02 − 0.05 0.25 0.62 –
15. Career Curiosity G10 0.41 0.14 0.07 0.30 0.24 0.06 − 0.03 0.19 0.27 − 0.02 − 0.06 0.27 0.69 0.73 –
16. Career Confidence G10 0.35 0.09 0.04 0.31 0.20 0.01 − 0.06 0.15 0.23 − 0.04 − 0.07 0.23 0.77 0.69 0.76 –
17. Career Control G12 0.24 − 0.02 − 0.06 0.22 0.31 − 0.02 − 0.07 0.19 0.46 ¡0.09 ¡0.15 0.37 0.41 0.37 0.36 0.40 –
18. Career Concern G12 0.24 0.02 − 0.03 0.24 0.31 0.04 − 0.02 0.25 0.47 0.01 − 0.05 0.40 0.35 0.43 0.38 0.36 0.77 –
19. Career Curiosity G12 0.29 0.04 − 0.01 0.26 0.32 0.04 − 0.04 0.24 0.47 0.01 − 0.05 0.40 0.38 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.82 0.86 –
20. Career Confidence G12 0.28 0.03 − 0.03 0.25 0.32 0.03 − 0.02 0.24 0.48 − 0.02 − 0.08 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.43 0.86 0.81 0.86 –
M 3.77 2.47 2.17 3.72 3.65 2.52 2.29 3.62 3.83 2.49 2.22 3.96 3.78 3.43 3.48 3.6 3.82 3.63 3.65 3.7
SD 0.81 1.08 1.06 1.1 0.79 1.02 1.01 1.05 0.73 1.05 1.05 1.03 0.72 0.75 0.75 0.72 0.7 0.72 0.71 0.72

Covariates
21. Family SES 0.25 0.05 − 0.04 0.25 0.20 0.06 − 0.01 0.25 0.20 < 0.01 − 0.05 0.18 0.16 0.27 0.24 0.24 0.19 0.24 0.24 0.23
22. Child Gender 0.07 ¡0.15 ¡0.23 0.06 0.03 ¡0.16 ¡0.22 0.03 0.03 ¡0.19 ¡0.19 0.03 ¡0.09 − 0.03 ¡0.08 ¡0.12 ¡0.09 − 0.03 − 0.08 ¡0.11
23. Child Age − 0.06 < 0.01 0.03 ¡0.09 − 0.05 0.01 0.04 − 0.06 − 0.08 0.04 0.04 − 0.04 − 0.04 − 0.05 − 0.01 − 0.04 − 0.02 − 0.03 − 0.05 − 0.03
Note. N = 791. SES = Socioeconomic Status. G10 = the 10th Grade, G11 = the 11th Grade, G12 = the 12th Grade. Family socioeconomic status was composed by standardized scores of family income from
the 10th to the 12th grade, paternal and maternal education. Bolded coefficients were significant with p < .01 (two-tailed), and italic coefficients were significant with p < .05 (two-tailed).
the first wave (partial η2 = 0.045). However, considering that the partial η2 was relatively small (according to the criterion <0.14;
Bandalos, 2002), the differences between the retained and attrited participants were negligible.
Descriptive statistics and preliminary bi-variable correlations were presented in Table 1. Key study variables were correlated with
each other in expected directions.
3.2. Career-related parental behaviors profiles and transitioning between profiles
The overall model fit for the solutions with one to six profiles from the 10th to the 12th Grade were presented in Table 2. Results of
the LPA indicated that the four-profile solution was the optimal solution at each time point because: (a) the four-profile solution
reached the point where the improvement rate of AIC, BIC, and ABIC started to drop (see Table 2 and Figs. S1–3 in the supplementary
materials); (b) according to the LMRT, solutions with five and more profiles were not qualitatively better than the four-profile solution,
and also yield groups with observations lower than 5 % of the overall sample size; and (c) the average latent class probabilities for the
most likely class membership of the four-profile solution at each time point were satisfactory (ranging from 0.930 to 0.990); (d)
entropy values of the four-profile solution at each time point were favorable (larger than 0.80).
Regarding the results of LTA, the four-profile solution with time-invariant constraint was chosen as the optimal model following the
Nylund’s (2007) guideline. The entropy of the four-profile solution was satisfactory (Zhang et al., 2017). Besides, the four-profile
solution had lower AIC, BIC, and ABIC as compared to the more parsimonious three-profile solution. Additionally, observations of
the four profiles were >5 % at each time point of data collection whereas there was one profile in the five-profile solution containing
<5 % observations. Finally, considering that the four-profile solution emerged as the optimal model in the LPA at each time point, the
four-profile time-invariant solution was chosen.
We further constrained means and variances within profiles to be equal across three time points. The model constrained mean and
variances to be equal fit the data better than the one with mean freely estimated (Table 3). The estimated means for each profile at each
time point of data collection were presented in Table 4 and the four profiles were depicted in Fig. 1. The first profile was characterized
by moderate levels of interference and barriers to engagement, as well as lowest levels of support and congruence. Therefore, this
profile is labeled as “Unsupportive but not Permissive.” Adolescents in the second profile reported lowest levels of parental inter
ference and barriers to engagement, and highest levels of support and congruence. Thus, this profile is labeled as “Supportive but not
Intrusive.” The third profile was characterized by relatively lower levels of interference, barriers to engagement, and congruence,
suggesting that parents did not engage in adolescents’ career development. This profile is labeled as “Rejecting and Neglecting.”
Adolescents classified into the last profile reported the highest level of support and congruence, and also relatively high levels of
interference and barriers to engagement. Thus, this profile is labeled as “Ambivalent and Controlling.” Overall, the four profiles were
quantitatively different in each indicator of career-related parental practices and also qualitatively different in the shape.
Table 2
Comparison of models for latent profiles at 10th, 11th, and 12th Grade.
Profile Log AIC BIC ABIC Entropy LMRT BLRT Proportions for each profile
number
Likelihood
10th Grade (N = 1410)

1 − 8000.813 16,017.625 16,059.636 16,034.223 – – – –
2 − 7572.085 15,170.170 15,238.438 15,197.141 0.829 0.0009 0.0000 74.7 %; 25.3 %
3 − 7263.951 14,563.902 14,658.426 14,601.247 0.818 0.0000 0.0000 55.4 %; 31.5 %; 13.1 %
4 ¡7154.257 14,354.515 14,475.296 14,402.233 0.841 0.0000 0.0000 11.8 %; 7.0 %; 25.7 %; 55.5 %
5 − 6988.676 14,033.352 14,180.390 14,091.444 0.934 0.0000 0.0000 35.6 %; 31.7 %; 10.3 %; 3.0 %; 19.4 %
6 − 6927.856 13,921.712 14,095.006 13,990.177 0.916 0.5369 0.0000 19.3 %; 4.5 %; 34.5 %; 3.0 %; 28.4 %; 10.3
%
11th Grade (N = 1024)

1 − 5809.971 11,635.943 11,675.394 11,649.985 – – – –
2 − 5579.986 11,185.973 11,250.082 11,208.792 0.894 0.0000 0.0000 88.2 %; 11.8 %
3 − 5361.617 10,759.233 10,848.000 10,790.830 0.755 0.0000 0.0000 42.0 %; 47.1 %; 10.9 %
4 ¡5263.487 10,572.975 10,686.398 10,613.348 0.813 0.0001 0.0000 43.6 %; 38.7 %; 7.8 %; 9.9 %
5 − 5202.425 10,460.849 10,598.931 10,510.000 0.828 0.1424 0.0000 8.1 %; 38.1 %; 42.4 %; 2.4 %; 9.0 %
6 − 5046.833 10,159.665 10,322.404 10,217.593 0.941 0.0003 0.0000 24.7 %; 35.3 %; 21.4 %; 6.2 %; 2.8 %; 9.6 %
12th Grade (N = 999)

1 − 5668.077 11,352.155 11,391.409 11,366.000 – – – –
2 − 5328.863 10,683.726 10,747.514 10,706.225 0.900 0.0000 0.0000 84.5 %; 15.5 %
3 − 5022.131 10,080.261 10,168.583 10,111.414 0.801 0.0000 0.0000 46.9 %; 39.3 %; 13.8 %
4 ¡4878.413 9802.827 9915.682 9842.633 0.927 0.0006 0.0000 17.7 %; 29.6 %; 39.5 %; 13.2 %
5 − 4678.818 9413.635 9551.024 9462.095 0.960 0.0000 0.0000 30.3 %; 37.7 %; 17.6 %; 11.4 %; 3.0 %
6 − 4614.056 9294.112 9456.035 9351.225 0.950 0.4245 0.0000 3.6 %; 34.9 %; 29.5 %; 17.6 %; 3.0 %; 11.4
%
Note. The bolded entries represent the fit statistics for the selected solution in the current study. AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC = Bayesian
information criterion; ABIC = sample size-adjusted BIC; BLRT = bootstrap likelihood ratio test; and LMRT = Lo-Mendell- Rubin likelihood ratio test.
7
Table 3
Comparison of model fit indices of latent transition analyses.
Profile number Log AIC BIC ABIC Entropy
Likelihood
Means and variances were freely estimated in all profiles

2 − 18,124.395 36,354.790 36,633.111 36,464.750 0.679
3 − 17,302.783 34,753.566 35,142.166 34,907.094 0.765
4 − 17,009.056 34,216.111 34,735.994 34,421.507 0.757
5 − 16,684.676 33,625.351 34,297.524 33,890.914 0.742
6 − 16,500.624 33,323.248 34,168.715 33,657.276 0.759
Constrained means to be equal across time points

2 − 18,132.442 36,338.883 36,533.183 36,415.647 0.678
3 − 17,319.365 34,738.730 35,001.298 34,842.466 0.763
4 − 17,044.074 34,222.148 34,573.988 34,361.153 0.749
5 − 16,908.827 33,993.655 34,455.773 34,176.229 0.753
6 − 16,574.135 33,374.270 33,967.672 33,608.712 0.750
Constrained means and variances to be equal across time points

2 − 18,133.735 36,325.470 36,477.759 36,385.636 0.677
3 − 17,326.116 34,736.232 34,956.788 34,823.370 0.763
4 − 17,049.884 34,217.769 34,527.598 34,340.177 0.750
5 − 16,915.288 33,990.575 34,410.683 34,156.552 0.753
6 − 16,592.516 33,395.032 33,946.424 33,612.877 0.758
Note. N = 1410. The bolded entries represent the fit statistics for the selected solution in the current study. AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC =
Bayesian information criterion; ABIC = sample size-adjusted BIC; BLRT = bootstrap likelihood ratio test; G10 = the 10th Grade; G11 = the 11th
Grade; G12 = the 12th Grade.
Table 4
Means for each profile and latent transition probabilities.
Latent Means Unsupportive but Not Supportive but Not Rejecting and Ambivalent and
Permissive Intrusive Neglecting Controlling
Child-Perceived Support − 1.199 0.741 0.069 0.531

Child-Perceived Interference 0.125 − 0.841 − 0.102 1.573
Child-Perceived Barriers to 0.489 − 0.896 − 0.343 1.806
Engagement
Parent–Child Career Congruence − 0.701 0.692 − 0.188 0.589
Profiles at G10 Transition Probabilities to Profiles at G11
Unsupportive but Not Permissive 0.757 0.010 0.153 0.080
Supportive but Not Intrusive 0.029 0.787 0.067 0.117
Rejecting and Neglecting 0.098 0.033 0.796 0.073
Ambivalent and Controlling 0.243 0.133 0.299 0.325
Profiles at G11 Transition probabilities to Profiles at G12
Unsupportive but Not Permissive 0.672 0.052 0.111 0.164
Supportive but Not Intrusive 0.049 0.848 0.037 0.066
Rejecting and Neglecting 0.082 0.018 0.788 0.112
Ambivalent and Controlling 0.129 0.199 0.340 0.332
Note. N = 1410. Stability estimates are presented in boldface. G10 = 10th Grade, G11 = 11th Grade, G12 = 12th Grade. The profile indicators are
estimated from factor scores with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
With regard to the movement between configurations of career-related parental behaviors across three time points, there were 55
possible transition patterns. The transition probabilities were presented in Table 4. The statistics on the diagonals represent the within-
profile stability over the three waves, suggesting a “moderate to substantial” stability of the membership in the “Supportive but not
Intrusive” group, the “Unsupportive but not Permissive” group, and the “Rejecting and Neglecting” group (i.e., the probability values
ranged from 0.672 to 0.848). However, the stability of the “Ambivalent and Controlling” group was relatively lower than those of the
other profile groups (i.e., 0.325 from 10th to 11th Grade, and 0.332 from 11th to 12th Grade).
Based on whether participants remained in the same profile across three time points and whether at the 12th Grade participants
moved into the “Supportive but not Intrusive” group, we classified the transition patterns into four categories. First, participants
remaining in the “Supportive but not Intrusive” profile across time were labeled as “Stable High-Quality Parenting” (n = 240, 17.0 %).
Second, participants stayed in same profile (i.e., the “Unsupportive but not permissive,” the “Ambivalent and Controlling,” and the
“Rejecting and Neglecting” groups) across time were labeled as “Stable Low-Quality Parenting” (n = 667, 47.3 %). Third, “Unstable
Low-Quality Parenting” pattern was another significant pattern evident among participants who changed profiles over time and stayed
at low-quality parenting profiles (i.e., the “Unsupportive but not Permissive,” the “Ambivalent and Controlling,” and the “Rejecting
8
Fig. 1. Illustration of the latent profiles in the selected 4-profile solution based on standardized scores with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
and Neglecting” groups) at the 12th Grade (n = 434, 30.8 %). Within the “Stable Low-Quality Parenting” group, 46.3 % parents (n =
201) finally transited into the “Rejecting and Neglecting” profile, and 27 % and 26.7 % parents transited into the “Unsupportive but not
Permissive,” and “Ambivalent and Controlling” profile respectively. Fourth, “Unstable but Finally Reaching High-Quality Parenting”
pattern was characterized by changing profiles over time and stayed at high-quality parenting (i.e., the “Supportive but not Intrusive”
group) at the 12th grade (n = 69, 4.9 %). Another pattern was evident as well: half of the parents belonging to the “Unstable but Finally
Reaching High-Quality Parenting” group (n = 36) switched to the “Supportive but not Intrusive” profile at the 11th Grade.
3.3. Transition patterns and career adaptability at the 12th Grade
Means and standard deviations of each dimension of career adaptability for each transition group were presented in Table 5. We
used the “Stable High-Quality Parenting” group as reference and created three dummy variables. Path analyses were conducted to
examine whether adolescents in these group may differ in their career adaptability at the 12th Grade (Fig. 2). The overall model fit was
favorable: χ2(12) = 84.402, N = 1410, p < .001, CFI = 0.984, RMSEA = 0.065 (with 90 % CI [0.053, 0.079]), and SRMR = 0.057. As
compared to adolescents with parents who consistently demonstrated high-quality career-related parenting, adolescents with parents
demonstrated “Stable Low-Quality Parenting” and “Unstable Low-Quality Parenting” were more likely to have a lower levels of career
concern (B = − 0.362, β = − 0.257, p < .001, and B = − 0.363, β = − 0.239, p < .001, respectively), control (B = − 0.413, β = − 0.303, p
< .001, and B = − 0.451, β = − 0.306, p < .001, respectively), curiosity (B = − 0.378, β = − 0.272, p < .001, and B = − 0.333, β =
− 0.221, p < .001, respectively), and confidence (B = − 0.453, β = − 0.321, p < .001, and B = − 0.406, β = − 0.267, p < .001,
respectively) at the 12th Grade controlling for each sub-dimension of career adaptability at 10th Grade. However, adolescents in the
“Stable High-Quality Parenting” and “Unstable but Finally Reaching High-Quality Parenting” patterns did not differ in career concern
(B = 0.096, β = 0.029, p = .315), control (B = 0.039, β = 0.012, p = .669), curiosity (B = 0.072, β = 0.022, p = .441), and confidence (B
= 0.096, β = 0.029, p = .308) at 12th Grade.
We further examined whether adolescents perceiving supportive but not intrusive parents across time and those whose parents
consistently demonstrated the “Unsupportive but not Permissive,” the “Ambivalent and Controlling,” and the “Rejecting and
Neglecting” groups behavioral patterns differed in their career adaptability at 12th Grade. The overall model fit was favorable: χ2(12)
Table 5
Means and Standard Deviations of Career Adaptability at 12th Grade for transition pattern group.
Transition patterns Concern Control Curiosity Confidence
M (SD)
Stable high-quality parenting 3.99 (0.63) 4.20 (0.58) 3.99 (0.66) 4.08 (0.64)
Stable low-quality parenting 3.48 (0.67) 3.69 (0.66) 3.48 (0.66) 3.52 (0.66)
Unstable but finally reaching high-quality parenting 4.06 (0.72) 4.25 (0.70) 4.05 (0.78) 4.18 (0.77)
Unstable low-quality parenting 3.56 (0.74) 3.72 (0.71) 3.62 (0.70) 3.65 (0.72)
Note. N = 1410.
9
Y. Liang et al.
10

Fig. 2. Associations between transition patterns of configurations of career-related parental behaviors and adolescent career concern, curiosity, control, and confidence. χ2(12) = 84.402, N = 1410, p <
.001, CFI = 0.984, RMSEA = 0.065 (with 90 % CI [0.053, 0.079]), and SRMR = 0.057. The “Stable High-Quality Parenting” group was used as reference group. Measurement errors and residuals are not
shown in the figure. The dash lines in this figure represent estimates for nonsignificant pathways. For clarity, correlations and pathways for relations between covariates and dependent variable were not
included in this figure. * p < .05, ** p < .01, and *** p < .001 (two-tailed).
= 43.045, N = 907, p < .001, CFI = 0.988, RMSEA = 0.053 (with 90 % CI [0.037, 0.071]), and SRMR = 0.048. As compared to
adolescents who experienced consistent high-quality career-related parenting, adolescents with parents who consistently neglect their
career development and those whose parents did not support but interfered with their career development have lower levels of career
concern (B = − 0.303, β = − 0.223, p < .001, and B = − 0.627, β = − 0.380, p < .001 respectively), control (B = − 0.313, β = − 0.240, p <
.001, and B = − 0.710, β = − 0.447, p < .001 respectively), curiosity (B = − 0.330, β = − 0.242, p < .001, and B = − 0.695, β = − 0.420, p
< .001 respectively), and confidence (B = − 0.401, β = − 0.293, p < .001, and B = − 0.749, β = − 0.420, p < .001 respectively) at 12th
Grade. However, adolescents with overcontrolling parents across time and those who had parenting consistently support their career
development did not differ in their career concern, curiosity, and confidence at 12th Grade (B = − 0.012, β = − 0.003, p = .924; B =
− 0.033, β = − 0.008, p = .790; B = − 0.163, β = − 0.040, p = .196, respectively). Notably, adolescents experienced controlling and
ambivalent parenting across their high school years exhibited lower levels of career control as compared to adolescents who received
high-quality parenting (B = − 0.275, β = − 0.072, p = .020).
4. Discussion
Adolescence is a critical period when individuals start to make their first career choice, which is often perceived as anxiety-
provoking (Blustein et al., 1995). The current study built on prior studies using the longitudinal, person-centered approach and
contributed to the existing literature in at least three ways. First, it joins prior studies in delineating configuration patterns of core
career-related parental practices (i.e., support, interference, barriers to engagement, and parent–child career congruence) at different
time points. Second, we extended the existing literature by identifying four different types of transitional patterns of the configuration
profiles of career-related parental practices from the 10th Grade to the 12th Grade. Third, the current study further revealed the
associations between the identified transition patterns and adolescents’ career adaptability.
4.1. Configurations of career-related parental practices
Similar to prior studies (e.g., Zhou et al., 2020), we found that parents could be classified into “Unsupportive but not Permissive,”
“Supportive but not Intrusive,” and “Ambivalent and Controlling” profiles. Moreover, a “Rejecting and Neglecting” group charac
terized by low levels of support, interference, barriers to engagement, and congruence was also identified in the current study. These
results reflect the parenting reality that, instead of operating independently, various parenting processes may work in combination
with each other in meaningful ways to create unique family climate in which adolescent develop (Estlein, 2021).
Variations in parenting profiles in part reflected variations in parent–child interactions (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). The “Sup
portive but not Intrusive” profile denotes a complex amalgam of parental practices attaching high value to children’s autonomy and
prioritizing children’s own career goals. Parents in the “Supportive but not Intrusive” group may be attuned to their children’s needs
and supported their children’s career exploration activities. Moreover, parents classified into this profile were highly congruent with
their children in terms of career aspirations and were less likely to interfere too much with their career planning and actions, which
may motivate adolescents to actively pursue their vocational goals without feeling too much pressure (Leung et al., 2011; Sawitri et al.,
2015).
In contrast, parents in the “Unsupportive but not Permissive” group were characterized by the lowest levels of support and
congruence, and a moderate level of barriers to engagement. Parents in this profile may be incapable of providing appropriate
guidance for coping with challenges in child career development due to their insufficient relevant knowledge and rapid social changes.
It is also possible that “Unsupportive but not Permissive” parents attached more importance to their children’s academic success over
career development (Zhou et al., 2020). As such, they may not want their children to spend time on career exploration. Accordingly,
professionals aiming to promote adolescents’ career development should identify specific barriers and constraints that the “Unsup
portive but not Permissive” parents have to effectively provide appropriate guidance.
The “Ambivalent and Controlling” profile is typified by a relatively high neglect of children’s needs and aspirations in the favor of
parents’ expectation, and high demands for children’s compliance in career decision making. Parents classified in the “Ambivalent and
Controlling” group were perceived by their children as endorsing the highest levels of interference and barriers to engagement, and
were also moderately congruent with their career goals and plans. However, at the same time, adolescents also reported that their
parents provided a moderate level of support to their career development. Such “Ambivalent and Controlling” career-related parenting
appears to be similar to the well-known “Tiger parenting,” which is characterized by a combination of moderate levels of psychological
control and autonomy support (Kim et al., 2013; Xie & Li, 2019). The “Ambivalent and Controlling” parents may value the traditional
Chinese value of “Guan and Jiao (管教)” and hold the beliefs that parents should endeavor to maximize their children success by any
means even though the process is boundary-intruding (Chao, 1994).
Parents in the “Rejecting and Neglecting” group were generally inattentive to their children’s career development. They neither
intentionally fostered their children’s autonomous exploration behaviors nor expressed any interests in engaging in their children’s
career development. Additionally, the neglecting parenting also create a relational context where adolescents feel emotional detached
and insecure, which impeded their children’s willingness to engage in career exploration activities (Blustein et al., 1995; Sarwar,
2016).
4.2. Stability and change in the configurations of career-related parental practices
There was a coexistence of longitudinal stability and change in the group membership of career-related parental practice patterns
11
during high school years. First, with nearly 65 % of the parents stayed in the same profile across three years, we found clear evidence
for the longitudinal stability of career-related parenting profiles. Specifically, there were relatively large proportion of the parents
(47.3 %) remained in the same low-quality parenting profiles i.e., the “Unsupportive but not Permissive,” the “Ambivalent and
Controlling,” and the “Rejecting and Neglecting” profiles, and about 17 % of the parents stayed in the high-quality parenting profile (i.
e., “Supportive but not Intrusive” profile) during high school years. These results were concordant with prior studies suggesting that
the fluctuation of the stylistic aspects of parenting was relatively small over time (e.g., Rimehaug et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2017).
For most families, the relatively small fluctuations in parenting profiles may be due to the relative stable parent–child relationships
during mid-adolescence (Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2014). As compared to middle adolescence, early adolescence is associated with
more hormonal fluctuations and inner turmoil, which may exacerbate turbulence in parent–child relationships (Collins & Laursen,
2004). As such, when entering middle adolescence, patterns of parent–child relationships may be well established and maintain over
extended time, which may be manifested in parent–child interactions and parenting processes (Teuber et al., 2022). The results that
career-related parenting profiles were becoming increasingly habitual as time elapsed suggested that for insensitive and neglectful
parents, preventions and interventions should start before parents become habituated (Dallaire & Weinraub, 2005).
Going beyond the prior research findings revealing the relative stability, we also observed transitions between profiles. The most
frequent transitions occurred across the low-quality parenting profiles (about 35 %). Additionally, among this group, 38 % parents
transited into the “Rejecting and Neglecting” profile. Furthermore, some parents transited between the high and low-quality parenting
profiles (i.e., the “Unstable but Finally Reaching High-Quality Parenting” pattern). About 50 % of the parents belonging to the
“Unstable but Finally Reaching High-Quality Parenting” pattern started to endorse “Supportive but not Intrusive” parenting when their
children entered the 11th Grade. These findings were inconsistent with prior studies (e.g., Teuber et al., 2022) which suggested that
some parents tended to become less controlling and adapted their parenting to a more autonomy-oriented style. Given that research
have started to examine domain-specific parenting profiles (Grusec & Davidov, 2015), taking a closer look at the underlying causes of
the stability and change in career-related parenting profiles is necessary in future studies.
4.3. Transition patterns of career-related parental practices and adolescents’ career adaptability
As compared to adolescents with parents consistently endorsing “Supportive but not Intrusive parenting,” adolescents with parents
who always adopted the same type of low-quality parenting showed significantly lower level of career concern, control, curiosity, and
confidence. Parenting practices endorsed by parents generally reflect everyday parent–child interactions and communication
complexity (Estlein, 2021; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). “Supportive but not Intrusive” parents were high in reciprocity, acceptance, and
encouragement, which constitute a critical component of good parent–child relationships. High parent–child relationship quality
further served as a secure base that supports their children’s career exploratory behaviors. When adolescents encountered difficulties
in career explorations and felt uncertainty in career-related decision-making processes, “Supportive but not Intrusive” parents pro
vided suggestions and help (Ahn et al., 2022; Collins & Laursen, 2004).
Although the “Ambivalent and Controlling” parents may dominate the communication and their interactions with children may be
less reciprocal, they were able to provide some levels of guidance to adolescents’ exploration activities (e.g., providing information
about possible vocational choices) and were encouraged to explore alternative futures (i.e., curiosity). As such, adolescents perceived
that they were prepared for their future vocational paths (i.e., concern) and had confidence to attain career goals (i.e., confidence). The
results that adolescents with “Ambivalent and Controlling” and “Supportive but not Intrusive” parents exhibited better career
adaptability again emphasized the importance of parental involvement in adolescents’ career development (Zhou et al., 2020).
However, our findings indicated that “Ambivalent and Controlling” parenting hindered the development of adolescents’ career
control. Controlling parents may force their children to comply with their own expectations and values, which may impede adoles
cents’ development of autonomy. Thus, adolescents may have less opportunities to explore their inner self and are not intrinsically
motivated to take responsibilities for their future vocational paths (Luyckx et al., 2007).
In contrast, the “Rejecting and Neglecting” parenting implied relationships in which desirable reciprocity and communications
were omitted by parents. Children’s needs of relatedness were completely ignored by parents. For the “Unsupportive but not
Permissive” parents, they were not able to provide necessary support to their children’s career development. As such, adolescents’
career adaptability may be compromised by consistently exposure in negative parenting practices (Collins & Laursen, 2004; Estlein,
2021).
It should be noted that the current study revealed that there were no significant differences in career adaptability between ado
lescents with consistently endorsing high-quality parenting (i.e., Supportive but not intrusive) and adolescents whose parents transited
from low-quality parenting group to the “Supportive but not Intrusive” profile at their 12th Grade. Such results indicated that the last
year in high school is the most essential period for the development of adolescent career adaptability.
4.4. Theoretical and practical implications
Our results provided further support to the Career Construction Theory (Savickas, 2002), which suggests that parents play an
essential role in shaping adolescents’ career adaptability. Guidelines drawn by parents provide blueprints for their children’s devel
opment of career adaptability. With parents’ support, children gradually learn how to form their preferences for future work roles and
to cope with challenges in career development tasks. Additionally, we found that “consistently ambivalent and controlling” parenting
across high school years impeded the development of child career control. This finding provided empirical evidence supporting the
notion that each dimension of career adaptability contributes to the overall levels of career adaptability uniquely and jointly (Savickas,
12
2013), and can specifically related to different precursors (Hirschi & Valero, 2015; Liang et al., 2020; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
Findings of the current study provided important implications for how and when career-related interventions should be imple
mented to parents and adolescents. First, findings from the LPA suggested that parents simultaneously endorsed various kinds of
career-related parental practices in their daily life. As such, professionals and career counselors should identify the profile in which
parents belong to, detect their unique needs, and thus design more tailored and targeted interventions for them (Ahn et al., 2022). For
the “Ambivalent and Controlling” parents, career counselors may help them to acquire skills to implement practices in an autonomy-
supportive way as an alternative to their controlling strategies (Cheon et al., 2020). Also, when intervening parents who belong to this
profile, counselors should assist parents to realize the importance of being congruent with their children’s career aspirations (Liang
et al., 2022). For the “Unsupportive but not Permissive” parents, professionals may help parents reflect on their strengths and
weaknesses, and identify barriers preventing them from providing guidance to their children. Specifically, for parents lacking sufficient
knowledge given the rapid social changes, training programs may help them acquire skills for searching information about possible
majors and colleges that may be suitable for their children. For parents prioritizing their children’s academic success, it is critical to
help them realize the importance of bridging their children’s interests and capabilities with future vocational possibilities.
Second, results of the LTA indicated that the last year of high school may be an important window for the development of career
adaptability. As the 12th Grade is the deadline for adolescents to make their first decision regarding future majors and possible
vocational paths, they may be more vulnerable to negative parenting practices. Counselors and professionals may target parents who
are at high risk of being inattentive and insensitive to their children’s career development and provide necessary training at child 12th
Grade. Note that most parents who finally become more supportive but not intrusive, they started to adapt their parenting practices at
child 11th Grade. Considering that both high- and low-quality parenting became more habitual, interventions for parents who are at
high risk of adopting low-quality parenting should start as early as possible. It may be necessary to implement training programs to
parents no later than child 11th Grade.
4.5. Limitations and future directions
Limitations of the current study should be noted. First, career-related parental processes were reported by adolescents. There might
be discrepancies between parental report of their behaviors and adolescents’ perceptions of parents’ practices, and these discrepancies
may have implications for parent–child relationships as well as later career developmental outcomes (Hou et al., 2019; Liang et al.,
2022). Future studies aiming to investigate longitudinal stability and change of career-related parental behaviors profiles may benefit
from using both parents’ and adolescents’ reports.
Second, our study measured career-related parental practices as a whole and did not consider different roles that fathers and
mothers played in adolescent career development. Although fathers’ and mothers’ roles tend to become similar with each other over
time (Fagan et al., 2014), the developmental implications of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting may be different (Ding et al., 2020;
Warmuth et al., 2020). For example, prior studies have revealed that fathers played an essential role in goal-oriental activities (Soenens
& Vansteenkiste, 2005) and fathers’ intense expressions of negative emotions were more detrimental to child social competence as
compared to those from mothers (Sweeney & MacBeth, 2016). As such, testing how transition patterns may alter when differentiating
fathers’ and mothers’ roles appears to be a direction for future research (Ahn et al., 2022).
Last, the current study did not differentiate the various types of career-related parental support (e.g., instrumental assistance,
emotional support, verbal encouragement, and modeling; Turner et al., 2003). Given some research suggested that different types of
support may be differentially perceived by adolescents (Raque-Bogdan et al., 2013), future studies are needed to better understand the
role of each type of parental support in adolescent career development. Likewise, examining the specificity of barriers that prevent
parents engaging in their children’s career development is also warranted in future studies.
5. Conclusions
Career-related parental behaviors play essential roles in shaping adolescents’ career development. The current study innovatively
adopted a longitudinal person-centered approach to examine the patterns of stability and change in the configuration profiles of
different career-related parental practices and their associations with adolescent career adaptability during high school years. Despite
a large proportion of parents staying in the same profile over the three years of high school, shifts and transitions between different
profiles were also evident. Results of the current study also indicated that parents who consistently retained in the “Supportive and not
Intrusive” profile and those who transited to this profile at child 12th grade were the most beneficial for adolescents’ development of
career adaptability. Findings of the current study highlighted the importance of continued future efforts in systematically revealing the
heterogeneity and dynamics of career-related parenting profiles and examining their implications for adolescent career development.
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee
of Beijing Normal University (Protocol No. BNU202109100026).
Consent to participate
Written informed consent was obtained from the parents.
13
Funding
This study was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, China [grant number 2021NTSS61], The
Start-up Research Grant of the University of Macau [grant number SRG2022-00037-FED], and the CUHK (Shenzhen) University
Development Fund-Research Start-up Fund [grant number UDF01002809].
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yue Liang: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Writing- Original draft preparation.
Nan Zhou: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Writing - Review & Editing.
Hongjian Cao: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2023.103916.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Vocational Behavior

Stability and change in configuration patterns of various

1.3. The current study

2.1. Participants and procedures

2.2.1. Adolescent-perceived career-related parental behaviors at W1, W2, and W3

2.2.2. Parent–child career congruence at W1, W2, and W3.

2.2.3. Adolescent career adaptability at W1 and W3

2.3. Data analytic strategies

3.1. Descriptive analyses

Journal of Vocational Behavior 145 (2023) 103916

3.2. Career-related parental behaviors profiles and transitioning between profiles

10th Grade (N = 1410)

11th Grade (N = 1024)

12th Grade (N = 999)

Means and variances were freely estimated in all profiles

Constrained means to be equal across time points

Constrained means and variances to be equal across time points

Child-Perceived Support − 1.199 0.741 0.069 0.531

3.3. Transition patterns and career adaptability at the 12th Grade

Journal of Vocational Behavior 145 (2023) 103916

4.1. Configurations of career-related parental practices

4.2. Stability and change in the configurations of career-related parental practices

4.4. Theoretical and practical implications

4.5. Limitations and future directions

Written informed consent was obtained from the parents.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

Data will be made available on request.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2023.103916.

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