ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA 217 FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF EGYPTIAN CERAMICS IN THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT Proceedings of a Conference held at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, July 24th — July 25th, 2009 edited by BETTINA BADER and MARY F. OWNBY UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES LEUVEN ~ PARIS — WALPOLE, MA 2013 [MA i UNIVERSITY BI LY.INTRODUCTION: FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF EGYPTIAN CERAMICS WITHIN THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT Bettina BADER® The initiative of the Conference at the McDonald Institute in July 2009 was to provide a platform for taking the interpretation of Egyptian pot- tery, in the widest possible sense, further than chronological and typo- logical discussions which often remain restricted to the dating of sites. Thus, shape catalogues of significant and dateable pottery are and were collated, in order to isolate chronological dating criteria, which is cer- tainly a very important task. But at the same time this procedure divorces this material from the other finds made together with the pottery in ques- tion, i.e. other pottery and a variety of objects and thus, prevents a con- textual approach to the finds in their entirety. While the study of Egyptian pottery has made huge progress in the last 20 years, it has become increasingly important for excavators to have a stringent strategy for processing ceramic finds that occur in vast amounts 1s source material it proves to be a mixed bundantly available for study of various aspects completely preserved and as sherds by the millions. On the one hand this material gives insights into the function of archacological features, conducted rituals (in tombs), as well as an idea which materials were produced locally and which came from abroad (Levant, the Oases, Nubia as well as other parts of Egypt) and combined with quantitative studies trade volume can be estimated and exchange patterns can be mapped. On the other hand the very abundance of the material often causes delays in recording and subsequent publishing. This is also connected to a lack of planning reliability in the long term and the restrictions of publication funds as the study of ceramic material conducted reliably takes its time. * Research and most of the work for this introduction were undertaken during the tenure of a Marie Curie Actions Programme awarded by the European Commission at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, UK under the direction of G. Barker. The finishing touches were administered during an Elise Richter Fellowship at the Institute of Egyptology, University of Vienna, awarded by the Austrian Science Fund (project no V147-G21),2 B. BADER Another problem, often faced, is a general lack of interest in results other than dating the site. ‘Thus, despite the best efforts a comprehensive synopsis composed of the archaeological report, the report on the finds and the ceramic material can rarely be achieved. Valuable observations which would be possible by multi-faceted approaches as well as the consideration of the archaeo- logical context as a whole are often lost. One of the reasons is certainly the ‘labour division’ in analysis of the materials excavated into the archaeology, the non-ceramic finds and the ceramic finds. While it is hard to imagine how the often immense work load could be better shared, fruitful collaborations have shown that teamwork is very worth its while.' Albeit it is time consuming and expensive to process all the ceramic material from an archaeological excavation (not only in Egypt), much of the potentially important information is derived from the pottery, so that at least all finds must be collected and assessed first, before decisions about recording, storage, and discard can be made. In recent years the diligence of analysing pottery on its own and in connection with the other finds has become much more marked than before and good results could be obtained. Thus, it seems, this is the way forward. The possibility of moving on in this way is certainly based on the ground breaking work of the previous generation of ceramicists, to whose insightful work we owe a lot? Overview of sources The pottery analyst in Egypt has an array of sources for interpretation at his/her disposal. On a general level the possibilities are the following: the pottery types might define the use of the archaeological context; on the other hand the archaeological context might define the function of a ceramic vessel or parts thereof; pictorial sources, which are plentifully available in ancient Egypt, very much elucidate a wide range of uses of ' Eg, S. Marcuanb and G. SouKiAssian, Balat VI, Un habitat de la XIIle dynastie - 2¢ Période Intermédiaire a Ayn Asil (Fouilles de Institut Francais d'Archéologie Orientale 59), Le Caire, 2010. 2 Eg. Do. ARNoLD (ed.), Studien cur altdigyprischen Keramik (Sonderschrife des Deuischen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 9), Mainz, 1981; Do. ARNOLD and J, BOURRIAU (eds.), An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery (Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 17), Mainz, 1993; M. BIETAK, Tell el-Dab'a V. Ein Priedhof der Mittleren Bronzezeitkultur mit Totentempel und Siedlun schichten (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschriften 9), Wien, 1991; R. HottHoER, New Kingdom Pharaontc Sites, The Pottery (The Scandinavian Joint Expe- dition to Sudanese Nubia, vol. 5.1), Lund, 1977.INTRODUCTION 3 pottery vessels in daily life over a long period in time; the same holds true for three dimensional models of daily life; epigraphic and textual sources also give clues how pots were used as well as about the social standing of people using certain pottery as well as making it; ethno- graphic comparisons with modern Egyptian village potters are still pos- sible, although more and more of them are disappearing. archaeological comparative pictorial context analysis sources (ethnography) (tomb TT scenes, id models, Ww etc.) ) € € ry SF interpretation: / [Set stern 8,5 8 — oe dating les reat function | Reged renuse | ‘ F ye AM: 7) Inforaction within || sites ge interaction between sites Me i Qaret h o ay = textual yg ‘ tL captions technical analysis (captions: of fabrics and residues ceramic Mocksts (experiments) (complete texts, etc.) sherds} Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of relationship of sources.4 B. BADER Finally, experimental archaeology allows insights especially into pot- tery manufacture and firing techniques. The results of these experiments can then be compared with what is found the field. Due to the presence of pictorial and textual sources we are in a much better position for the determination of vessel function than prehistoric cultures without such possibilities. The combination of these sources should enable a more comprehensive and contextual interpretation of Egyptian ceramics and their use as a historical source (Fig. 1). Each of these source groups provides information that needs to be linked to each other in order to reach a better understanding of the con- text as a whole. A chemical or petrographic analysis can serve as exam- ple, where the anal; loses a lot of interpretational value if it is not possible to link the information gained to neither vessel shape nor/and archaeological context. The results remains isolated even if they might be of sufficient interest in themselves. Very much the same holds true for residue analysis. It is much more informative to examine which con- tents can be linked to which vessel type and in turn to their archaeo- logical contexts. a. Ceramic vessels as source® a.]. The shape Dorothea Arnold was among the first in Egyptian archaeology to devote some thought on the function of pottery due to their different shape classes most notably open and closed vessel shapes as well as non-containers. She determined that open vessel forms were destined to serve for the presentation of food, with very flat specimens (plates) for solid food and deeper varieties (bowls) for liquid provisions. Apart from this distinction a variety of larger open bowls exist, for which there would be no obvious need from our moder point of view at any one time, but still differences exist and the reasons for those are hard to trace (Fig. 2). Closed vessel shapes are generally assessed to be for the storage of various commodities both liquid and solid, but easily flowing (grain, flour, etc.) (Fig. 3).4 The long term storage of liquid commodities has See also J. BOURRIAU, P. NICHOLSON and P. Rost, Pottery, in P-T. NICHOLSON and 1. SuAW, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 2000, p. 142-144. + Do. ARNOLD, The Pottery, in: Di. ARNOLD, The Pyramid of Senwasret I, The South Cemeteries of Lisht, vol. 1, New York, 1988, p. 135-136.INTRODUCTION QS Fig. 2. Open vessels of different types: dishes and hemispherical cup, scale 1:3 (after B. BADER, Tell el-Dab‘a XIX, fig. 96; fig. 19, fig. 21, fig. 171.269). Fig. 3. Closed vessels: a) small jar (after B. Baper, Tell el-Dab‘a XIII, fig. 66.a); b) “beer” bottle (after B. BADER, Tell el-Dab‘a XIX, fig. 214-215); ) storage jar (joint excavation archives of Tell el-Dab‘a, Austrian Academy, Austrian Archaeological Institute); all scale 1:8.6 B. BADER perhaps to be reconsidered, as some experiments showed that very porous vessels did not hold liquids for a very long time.’ The function of restricted vessels ranging between the clearly open and closed ones by Vessel Index represents a grey area. For practical reasons they would not seem to be strictly useful for storing products and neither for the consumption of solid food stuffs (Fig. 4). setae sip li white slip a) Fig. 4. Restricted vessels: a) Cooking pot (joint excavation archi Tell el-Dab‘a, Austrian Academy, Austrian Archaeological Institute); b) small vessel with spout (after B. BADER, Tell el-Dab‘a XI, fig. 42.c); c) small vessel with everted rim (after B. BAER, Tell el-Dab‘a XIII, fig. 41.b); d) tall restricted vessel with flat base (after Aston and BADER, A&L 19, fig, 5.5): scale 1:6. °* Cf. A. Senussi, this volume and Z. HAwAss and A. SENussi, Old Kisrgdom Pottery from Giza, Cairo, 2008, p. 195-196.INTRODUCTION 7 “Functional” pottery is determined by a shape that was obviously designed for one particular purpose. Ringstands come to mind as well as sieves, spinning bowls, lamps, and spouted vessels (Fig. 4.b). Problems in defining function unequivocally exist with other typical “functional pottery”, e.g. with lids, because no obvious lid-shape exists in ancient Egypt. For covering a vessel, a wide range of possibilities is available even a small dish turned over (e.g. Fig. 2.b; 5.a). a / b) ©) Fig. 5. Various lids: a) small dish tured over (after D. Aston and B, BADER, AGL 19, fig. 6.49); b) lid with painted decoration on exterior (after D. ASTON and B. BADER, A&L 19, fig. 6.48); c) lid with knob (after D. Aston and B. Baper, A&L 19, fig. 6.52), scale 1:2. a.2, Dockets The combination of information from the vessel shape with textual and pictorial sources yields a better understanding of the initial function of8 B. BADER pottery yessels.° The unfortunate habit of divorcing an inscribed sherd from its original vessel (if also present) prevents a better understanding of the relationship between container and commodity, and scrutiny if vessel shape and type of commodity coincide as a rule. Thus, publication should ideally show both aspects. To use only one late Middle Kingdom example: one jar with corrugated neck made of Marl C was found with a docket stating that it had contained “clean water”.? But we cannot reasonably expect from this statement to extrapolate for all jars of the same type that they invariably contained water. Only the primary use of one particular vessel found allows the interpretation that it contained water, How many re-uses of this particular jar followed remains unknown. Dockets from Amarna® referring to meat were found on vessel type MF. 1.4 of Marl D® and led to this type being called “Meat Jars” colloquially, but we cannot be sure that all such vessels were originally intended to serve as meat containers, or in subsequent use phases.'? a3. Traces of use An important role in interpreting the function of vessels has to be assigned to the detailed observation of wear patterns and traces of use, and the same holds true for re-use (see below). These marks, such as soot stains and smoke blackening, or rubbed and abraded areas represent immediate proof of what the pot was actually used for and they do not © Just a few examples: W.C. HAYES, Inscriptions from the Palace of Amenhotep III, in Journal of Near Eastern Studies 10 (1951), p. 35-56, 82-111, 156-183, 231-242; KA. KITCHEN, The Vintages of the Ramesseum, in A.B. LLoyp (ed.), Studies in Pharaonic Religion in Honour of J. Gwyn Griffiths (EES Occasional Publications 7), London, 1992, p. 115-123; M.A, Leany, The Hieratic Labels, in B.J. KEMP (ed.), Amarna Reporis I, (EES Occasional Publications 2), London, 1985, p. 65-109; P. TALLET, Les ‘étiquettes” de Jarres & vin du Nouvel Empire, in C.J. EvRs (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh Interna tional Congress of Egyptologists (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 82), Leuven, 1998, p. 1125-1333; D.A. Aston, A Taste of Honey: mnt- and mdgt-Vessels in the Late Eight- eenth Dynasty, in T. SCHNEIDER and K. S7PAKOWSKA (eds.), Egyptian Stories, A British Egyptological Tribute (0 A.B. Lloyd on the Occasion of his Retirement (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 347), Miinster, 2007, p. 13-31 7 Do. ARNOLD, Mergeltone ( “Wiistentone" ) und die Herkunft einer Mergeltonware des Mittleren Reiches aus der Gegend von Memphis, in Do. ARNOLD (ed.) Studien zur alt- gyptischen Keramik (Sonderschrift des Deuischen Archéologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 9), Mainz, 1981, p. 185-186. * PJ. Rose. Appendix 2, Pottery, in A. el-KHouLt and G.T, MaRtiNn, Excavations at El-Amarna, 1984, Cairo, 1987, p. 20. ® PJ. Rost, The Eighteenth Dynasty Pottery Corpus from Amarna (83rd Excavation Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Society), London, 2007, p. 130. ” Lam grateful to D, Aston for this reference. K.J. SeyrRisD, Das Grab des Amonmose (17373) (Theben 4), Mainz, 1990, p. 248-254, nos. 2390-2304.INTRODUCTION 3 necessarily need to be congruent with the information gained from the shape (cf. the contribution of T, Rzeuska). The classification of the “cooking pot” (Fig. 4.a, 6) identified by means of use traces and at the same time as restricted vessel shows that there are overlaps within the categories of shape, function and ritual. Fig. 6. Cooking pot fragments with smoke blackening on rim, late Middle Kingdom (photo by the author). a4. Fabric The raw material used for the manufacture of vessels holds informa- tion on the origin of ceramic material!! that can be unlocked to a certain ‘! Most importantly for the Egyptian context H.-A. Norstrém and J. BourRIAU, Ceramic Technology: Clays and Fabrics, in Do. ARNOLD and J. BOURRIAU (eds.), An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery (Sondersehrift des Deutschen Archiiologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 17), Mainz, 1993, Fascicle 2, p. 168-182; and building upon that studies on several fabries e.g. J.D, BouRRIAU and P.T, NICHOLSON, Clay Pottery Fabrics of the New Kingdom from Memphis, Sagara and Amarna, in Journal of Egyptian Archae- ology 78 (1992), p. 29-91; J.D. BouRRIAU, L. SMITH and P. NicHoLson, New Kingdom Pottery Fabrics, Nile Clay and Mixed Nile/Marl Clay Fabrics from Memphis and Amarna, London, 2000; B. BADER, Tell el-Dab‘a XIII. Typologie und Chronologie der Mergel C-Ton Keramik, Materialien zum Binnenhandel des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschriften 19), Wien, 2001; C. CyGanowski, An Intersite Comparison of Midille Kingdom Lower Egyptian Marl © Fabric, unpublished M.phil thesis, Cambridge, 2003.10 B, BADER extent by macroscopic means. More detailed and scientifically sound results can be gained by chemical analysis and petrography in order to ascertain the local material and distinguish imports to any given site.'? Thus, trade patterns can be discerned.'? A group of questions connected to that concerns the nature of the exchange/trade conducted. A basic division of pottery fabrics has been achieved by the “Vienna System’,'* which is by now widely used throughout Egypt as a reference system. The importance of using this system lies in the possibility to compare fabrics across sites in order to know whether certain fabrics occur or not. Thus, it is also important to achieve and maintain a certain standard across the whole country in order not to allow deviations within fabrics that carry the same designation. For example large Marl C clay storage containers seem to have been transported from a central distribution hub within Egypt. This interpreta- tion rests on the so far irrefutable assumption that there is only one source for the raw material available within Egypt and that such jars were pro- duced in specialised workshops controlled by a central administration situated in the Memphis-Fayoum region close to the capital of the Middle Kingdom Memphis.'S While frequency distribution makes it likely,"° no archaeological proof in the form of kiln sites with wasters is available. By extrapolation this evidence suggests that commodities were distributed . BOURRIAU, P. NICHOLSON and P. Rost, Pottery, p. 132-135 for an overview of chemical and petrological procedures. See as example D. GrirriTis and M.F. OWNBY, Issues of Scum: Technical Analyses of Egyptian Marl C to Answer Technological Ques- tious, in Agypten und Levante 19 (2009), p. 229-239. © Cf. B. BADER, Tell el-Dabia XH: B. BADER, Tell el-Dabta XIX, Auaris und Memphis in der Hyksoszeit. Vergleichsanalyse der materiellen Kultur (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschriften 53), Wien, 2009; Large scale studies of imported trans- port vessels are to date still scarce. Notable exceptions are the amphorae of the Predynas- tie Period at Abydos, the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period amphorae from ‘Tell el-Dabfa and Kom Rabia; and the New Kingdom amphorae from Kom Rabia, Saqqara and Amara, U, HaRrUNG, Unum el-Qaab IL, Importkeramik aus dem Friedhof U in Abydos (Umm: el-Qaab) und die Beziehungen Agyptens zu Vorderasien im 4. Jahriausend v. Chr (Archéologische Verdffentlichungen 92), Mainz, 2001; M. OWNBY and J. BOURRIAU, The Movement of Middle Bronze Age Transport Jars, A Provenance Study based on Petrographic and Chemical Analysis of Canaanite Jars from Memphis, Egypt, in PS. QuINN (cd.), Interpreting Silent Artefacts: Petrographic Approaches to Archaeologi- cal Ceramics, Oxford, 2010, p. 173-188; J. BouRRIAU, L. Swirtt and M. SeRpico, The Provenance of Canaanite Aniphorae found at Memphis and Amarna in the New Kingdom, in J.A. SHORTLAND (ed.), The Social Context of Technological Change. Egypt and the Near East, 1650-1550 B.C, Oxford, 2001, p. 113-146. 14 HA. NorostikOM and J. BOURRIAU, Ceramic Technology: Clays and Fabrics, pas- sim, J. BOURRIAL, P, NICHOLSON and P. Rose, Portery, p. 130-132. 5 Do. ARNOLD, "Wiisientone”, p. 187-191; B. BADER, Tell el-Dab‘a XIIL, p. 30-36. "© B. Baven, Tell ehDab‘a XIX, p. 646-652.INTRODUCTION ni throughout Egypt to a large number of sites in the Delta, Upper Egypt, the Levant and even Nubia.!” This interpretation is flawed in that so far only samples from northern Egypt were available for chemical analyses, and the results suggested a common origin of the raw material.'* Thus, theoretically it is still possible, if less likely, that another source was used for Upper Egypt. Future analyses will lead to a clearer idea if the current interpretation needs adjustment. In a specific case a group of 23 storage jars was found at Gebel el-Asr in Nubia, a remote place close to several stone quarries exploited during the Middle Kingdom.” Those containers could have been transported there with commodities or used to store commodities that were shipped in lighter packaging such as sacks or hides. There may be a combined use model that could explain this con- text. A similar case is the distribution of the Marl D group,2° although this fabric is by far more frequent, and was found at a larger number of sites. So far not many analytical or quantitative studies have been carried out for this fabric?! and thus, its exact production place remains unknown. a5, Mechanical performance characteristics of ceramic vessels Physical factors influence the function to which any ceramic vessel can be put, no matter in which cultural environment. Hally lists 12 phys- ical characteristics of ceramic vessels that have a bearing on the func- tion.” These characteristics include the stability of the vessel due to flat or round bases, which influences where and in which way a vessel can "DA. Aston and B, BADER, Fishes, Ringstands, Nudes and Hippos —A Preliminary Report on the Hyksos Palace Pit Complex L81, in Agypten und Levante 19 (2010), p- 40-41 for the latest update of the distribution of this material. '® Marl C vessels from Elephantine kindly shown to the author by T.L. Rzeuska do not seem different macroscopically in any way to the northem material. Scientific analysis will have to show if there is a difference in the chemical or petrological composition of that fabric there. ' L. Saw, E. BLoxam, J. BUNBURY, R. Lee, A. GRAHAM and D. DARNELL, Survey and Excavation at the Gebel el-Asr Gneiss and Quartz Quarries in Lower Nubia (1997-2000), in Antiquity 75 (2001), p. 33-34, 2 J, BourRiAu and P, NicHOLSoN, Marl Clay Pottery Fabrics, p. 37-41; D.A. ASTON, Amphorae in New Kingdom Egypt, in Agypten und Levante 14 (2004), p. 184-186. 2! P.G, McGovern, Wine of Egypt's Golden Age: An Archaeochemical Perspective, in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 83 (1997), p. 69-108. Unfortunately, this study suffers severe theoretical flaws. Critique by D.A. Aston, Amphorae, p, 186; C.A. Hope, Oases Amphorae of the New Kingdom, in R. FRIEDMAN (ed.), Egypt and Nubia. Gifts of the Desert, London, 2002, p. 102. * DJ. HALLY, The Identification of Vessel Function: A Case Study from Northwest Georgia, in American Antiquity 51 (1986), p. 278-281.12 B. BADER be used, and the vessel suspension, i.e. if a vessel has handles and could be hung up somewhere. The vessel capacity has a major impact on the goods that can be stored and thus, gives clues about the contents: large vessels for flour, grain or legumes, small vessels perhaps for costly oils and unguents. It has to be said though, that decanting in some form from large into smaller vessels is also possible.2> Especially imported jugs may have been used in such a way, but so far this is pure conjecture, because detailed information on contents is often lacking.2* The manip- ulation of the vessel contents refers to the ease with which any given content can be stirred while being cooked and similar actions. Closely connected is the ease with which any contents can be removed from a container. A large orifice eases the extraction of any content, while a small orifice necessitates the content to be liquid. Vessel content spilling is reminiscent of the security of the contents and how easy it would be to loose a considerable amount of effort necessary for producing goods kept in a certain vessel. Heat absorption efficiency is almost equivalent to vessel content heat loss: These factors have a bearing on how long any heated content stays hot within a vessel or stays cool in hot weather conditions. The evaporation of contents has an impact on liquid contents like water, wine or oil. Certain raw materials exhibit different degrees of porosity which affects the kind of commodity deemed adequate for the vessel. Here pitch lining of amphorae can be mentioned as a means to diminish evaporation. Thermal shock resistance is particularly valid for vessels used in cooking and heating food. The stress on the vessel of alternatively heating and cooling down must have been considerable. Therefore in Egyptian ceramic repertoire the cooking vessels and bread * Cf. DA. AsTON, A Taste of Honey, p. 13-31 4M, SeRPICO and R. White, Oil, Fat and Wax, in P.T. NICHOLSON and I. SHAW, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 2000, p. 390-42 M. SERPICO, The Contents of Jars in Haishepsut's Foundation Deposit at Deir el-Bahiri and their Significance, in D. ASTON, et. al., (eds.), Under the Potter's Tree, Studies on Ancient Egypt presented to J. Bourriau on the Occasion of her 70th Birthday (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 204), Leuven ~ Paris ~ Walpole, MA, 2011, p. 843-883. °° Roman Amphorae (e.g. LRA 7, in my own experience) often show a black Lining inside that has been interpreted as a means to stop evaporation, Cf. D.P.S. PEACOCK and DF. WILLIAMS, Amphorae and the Roman Economy, London, 1986, p. 49-50. A trial has shown that Old Kingdom Beer Jars did not hold liquid for longer than 15 minutes, cf. A. SENUSSI, this volume, p. 38. 2 Nile E in the Vienna System is mainly used for cooking pots in the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period, cf. B. BADER, Tell el-Dab'a XIX, p. 403-409; Late Roman cooking vessels contain also a great amount of quartz, or other mineral grains; ef. J. FAtrrs, Late Roman Pottery at Amarna and Related Studies (72nd Excavation Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Society), London, 2005, p. 114-127,INTRODUCTION 13 moulds often show a considerable amount of quartz in the fabric which facilitates the expansion and shrinking of the raw material under tem- perature change.” Another similar feature is the thick/thinness of the vessel walls which also helps in classifying functional categories of pottery. Here a general division into table wares and coarse wares can be mentioned. Very fine, delicate, and perhaps painted vessels were likely to be used at the table for the consumption of food and drink and may even show social differences between houscholds (cf. D, Aston and L. Hulin in this volume).?* b. Pictorial evidence b.1. Offering scenes Ancient Egypt holds a wide range of pictorial evidence in store for the analyst of Egyptian pottery, from the manufacture® to the wide ranging use and employment of ceramic vessels.” Food production of all kinds can be listed here as well as scenes of tomb owners in front of their funer- ary gifts. Analysis of such scenes over a wide range of periods allows a rough idea of chronology and development of ceramic vessels’! even before archaeological material and context are taken into account (see S, Allen’s article in this volume on the determination of functions using a contextual approach), The combination of the two constitutes a power- ful tool for the functional analysis of pottery and can be used as a means for cross checking. * CE. P.M. Rick, Pottery Analysis, A Sourcebook, Chicago, 1987, p. 94-96. 2 Cf. J, BouRRIAU and S. QuiRKE, The Late Middle Kingdom Ceramic Repertoire in Words and Objecis, in S. QuiRKE (ed.), Lahun Studies, Reigate, 1998, p. 62-73. * Do. ARNOLD, Wandbild und Scherbenbefund. Zur Tépfertechnik der alten Agypter vom Beginn der pharaonischen Zeit bis zw den Hyksos, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archeiologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 32 (1976), p. 1-34; R. HOLTHOER, New Kingdom Pharaoni¢ Sites: The Pottery, p. 21-34; Do, ARNOLD, Techniques and Tradition of Manu- facture in the Pottery of Ancient Egypt, in Do. ARNOLD and J. BOURRIAU (eds.), An Intro- ‘duction to Ancient Egyptian Ponery, (Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 17), Mainz, 1993, p. 11-141 © Eg. D. Fattines, Die Keramik der Lebensmittelproduktion im Alten Reich. Ikono- graphie und Archdologie eines Gebrauchsartikels (Studien zur Archdologie und Geschichte Aliagyptens 14), Heidelberg. 1998, Die Gefifidarsiellungen des Alten Reiches, in Mitteilungen des Deuischen Archidologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 3 (1932), p. 50-87; 89-114; 4 (1933), p. 18-36; 207-227; 5 (1934), p, 45-94. A new study of the pottery in pictor soanes may be very valuable14 B. BADER Numerous examples could be listed here, but a few have to suffice. ‘Two very interesting stelae show the use of hemispherical cups as drink- ing vessels in the Middle Kingdom. The first example dates to the carly Middle Kingdom and is probably from the Gebelein area, showing a hemispherical cup being offered to the deceased. The bowl is described as for “thy Ka” and a reserve supply of a liquid provision in a bottle is visible on top of the table. Unfortunately no caption accompanies the bottle in order to suggest the nature of the commodity (beer, wine, water?). ‘Another stela of the Middle Kingdom (CG20722) shows hemispherical cups as receptacles being handed to deceased people, as well as a jar with cormugated neck as a wine container, signified as such by the caption of the scene.** Thus, it is clear that this information complements the evi- dence of the shape and thinness of the walls. Despite of all this it remains doubtful if the exclusive use for a specific drink can ever be narrowed down or even would be likely. bJ1, Ritual scenes An important aspect missing in many other cultures is the depiction of rituals, Such scenes help in identifying implements used for rituals, not necessarily only vessels. As an example for the importance of ritual scenes and texts may serve the instrument for opening the mouth. Tf that tool had been found exclusively in archaeological contexts without the pictorial information, its original meaning could not have been grasped to the full extent, The same holds true for vessels, and here I only men- tion the hs-vase. Many scenes show the handling of such vessels through- out the history of ancient Egypt and they suggest strongly that it was used for libations as a liquid is shown coming out of such vessels and around the figure of the god or the king.5 Other types include footed bowls as incense burners, and spouted vessels, as well as globular nvv-pots (see J. Budka’s and M.-J. Lépez-Grande’s contributions in the present volume), A certain overlap between functional and ritual vessels becomes 5 Ep, Stela of Nenu, Boston MFA 03.1848; Cat.Générale 20722. 3 HG. Fiscuer, The Nubian Mercenaries of Gebelein, in Kush 9 (1961), p. 56-59: see also p. 44-56 for more examples. FLO. LANGE and H. SCHAFER, Denksteine des Mittleren Reiches, Catalogue Général des Antiquités Egypriennes du Museé du Caire, Berlin, 1902, no. 20722; Do. ARNOLD, “Wiistentone™ , p. 185. % A, SEILER, Archdologisch fafthare Kultpraktiken in Grabkontexten der frithen 18. Dynastie in Dra’ Abu el-Naga, in J. ASSMANN, E. DZioBEX, H. Guxscu and F. Kamer (eds.), Thebanische Beamtennekropolen (Studien zur Archéologie und Geschichte Alt- dgyptens 12), Heidelberg, 1995, p. 188-192; S. MicHELS, Die Hes-Flasche im Bestattungs- kontext, Archéologie und Kult, MA thesis of the University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2006.INTRODUCTION 15 apparent, for example, with footed bowls. They are also found in settle- ment contexts, but they may have been used as braziers in the settlement, while they served for incense in a secular context (see A. Masson’s arti- cle, below). An example for a ritual that would have remained unknown without pictorial and textual evidence is the ‘killing of the red pots’, which has been identified in Egyptian archaeology several times** (see M. L6pez-Grande’s article, below). A thorough survey of scenes representing the god Khnum, who forms man on the potter’s wheel yielded some extremely interesting insights into the technology of pottery manufacture available to the ancient Egyp- tians.*7 .2. Scenes of daily life in two dimensional art “Bread moulds” and “beer jars” were identified as such through the use of pictorial sources and archaeological information, during a very long time Span in Egyptian history. Thus, the different types of bread can be distin. guished in pictures and the moulds found accordingly, Information on the use of those vessels during a vast time span is mostly derived from pictorial Sources, and there are several studies devoted to them which utilize texts as Well as depictions® (see also A. Senussi’s article in this volume for textual and pictorial evidence; R. Tomber’s, S. Vereecken’s, and A. Wodzinska’s Papers as examples for studies based on various archaeological contexts). Thus, scenes of bread baking and beer brewing are very good examples for use patterns of ceramic vessels albeit by far not the only ones. b3. Scenes of daily life in three dimensional art (wooden models) Very much the same can be said about three dimensional models of the Old and Middle Kingdoms made from stone and wood. Again mostly scenes connected with bread and beer production are found, but also scenes of workshops of carpenters, potters, weaving, butchering and So on. Pethaps clay models of houses also fall into this category. This st A. SeILER, Tradition & Wandel. Die 'Kerainik als Spiegel der Kulturentwicktang Thebens in der Zweiten Zwvischenzeit Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archaologischen liste tuts Abteilung Kairo 32), Mainz, 2005, p. 170-184. R: Hoctuorn, New Kingdom Pharaonie Sites: The Pottery, p. 18-26; BE. BETTLES, The Divine Potters of Kellis, in D. ASTON, et. al, (eds.), Under the Potter's Tree, Studia ou Ancient Egopt presented ro J. Bourriaw on the Occasion of her 70th Birthday (Onten ‘alia Lovaniensia Analecta 204), Leuven ~ Paris - Walpole, MA, 2011, p. 215-251 sD. FALTINGS, Lehensmitielproduktion im Alten Reich, passim ® Do. ARNOLD. Techniques and Traditions of Manufacture, p. 10-73; AM. TooLEN, Eexptian Models and Scenes (Shire Egyptology 22), Princes Risborough, 1995: HE, WiNLock, Models of Daily Life, Cambridge, MA, 1955.16 B. BADER type of source can help to identify work shop areas as well as implements used within them, including pottery vessel types. c. Archaeological context Often the archaeological context holds crucial information on the use of ceramic material. In such instances the function pottery was put to can be clearly discerned as in bakeries, breweries and other food processing installations (see I. Forstner-Miiller and W. Miiller; S, Vereecken, R. ‘Tomber, A. Masson, A. Wodzitiska in this volume). Storage facilities also provide vital evidence for vessel function as well as the pottery that may define an archaeological feature as a storage facility. The overall archaeological record and a contextual approach come into play here. In the late Middle Kingdom settlement at Tell el-Dab‘a“’ one room in one compound contained a number of vessels, the frequency distribution of Quantitative Distribution of vessel types in L304 magazine”) calculated using percentage of preserved rim (“eves”) 5 percent a a 7 Ap ope CPOEESS Ue ee POPC E 7 open vessels pottery vessel types [EE closed vessels Bl special shapes Fig. 7. Diagram showing the quantitative distribution of vessel types in L304. J would like to thank M. Bietak for entrusting me with this material and for unceas- ing support over the years.INTRODUCTION 17 which is given in Fig. 7.1 About two thirds of the overall types (60%) can be assigned to large storage vessels, amphorae, ‘beer jars’ and other rather sizeable vessels, while 33% belong to open vessel shapes. The remaining amounts belong to stands, cooking pots, and juglets. Accompanying finds in the room are a few flint tools (sickle blades), grinders, querns, and two stone mortars. Thus, it seems justifiable to regard this room as a storage facility, not the least because the space situation seems to be too restricted (8.5 m2) to assume that milling of flour (three quers) could have happened inside next to all the pottery found. The lack of data to compare this finding to leads to an uncertainty as to which degree this assumption is valid. Only if frequency distributions of loci are published as a rule will it be possible to discern the natural variability within a settlement (or in other contexts). As this is totally unknown, it remains also unclear what can be considered as a ‘normal’ as opposed to a ‘special’ distribution. A wider range of such data could probably help to clarify function as well. Another example can be found within a probable storage facility of the New Kingdom, where a bow! was used as a lid (PI. 1-2) and was plas- tered into place with a loamy substance. This instance proves beyond doubt that perfectly ordinary dishes/bowls were also used as lids.“ A similar case of reuse of pottery in a context of storage is described in S. Marchand’s contribution (see below). In the realm of death and afterlife contexts and ritual deposits in and around tombs allow insight into the procedures and rituals of the cult, and which vessels were used in such an environment. Just a few exam- ples can be found in the Tell el-Dab‘a offering pits, where careful exca- vation of the mostly ceramic finds reveals much about the way the rituals were conducted."* The same can be said for deposits of pottery close to 4! For this calculation the concept of ‘estimated vessel equivalents’ is used. Cf. C. ORTON, P. TYRES and A. VINCE, Pottery in Archaeology, Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Cambridge, 1993, p. 168; 170-173; B. BADER, Tell el-Dab'a XIX, p. 62-63. 2B. Babar, Von Palmen und Vogeln: Vorschau auf die Keramik aus dem Areal IVI dstlich des Palastes G in \Ezhet Helmi, in Agypten und Levante 16 (2006), p. 41-42, fig. 4b. “8 A. el-KHOULI, R. HOLTHOER, C.A, Hore and O.E. Karer, Stone Vessels, Pottery and Sealings from the Tomb of Tutankhamun, Oxford, 1993, p. 70; 74-76. 4 V. Mouinr, Teil el-Dab‘a XVII. Opferdeponierungen in der Hyksoshauptstadt Auaris (Tell el-Dab‘a) vom spéten Mittleren Reich bis zum friihen Neuen Reich. Teil 1 Katalog der Befunde und Funde; Teil I: Auswertung und Deutung der Befunde und Funde (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschriften 45), Wien, 2008; B. Bape, G. K. KUNST and U. THANHEISER, Knochen, Kérner und Keramik, Interdisz18 B. BADER, funerary stelae in Herakleopolis Magna“ (cf. for the funerary context M.J, Lépez Grande, J. Budka, S. Allen, S. Laemmel), which are a visible sign of cult activities after the actual burial." Depositions of pottery in temple contexts also belong to this category and form the topic of one contribution (see A. Wodzitiska in this vol- ume). The juxtaposition of profane and sacral pottery also contributes to our understanding how the ancient Egyptians engaged with the ceramic material. d. Reuse of pottery Frequently parts of ceramic vessels are used even after they ceased to be useful in their initial function. Bases are cut down around the actual base and are possibly re-used as lids. The same might have happened to a Tell-cl-Yahudieh juglet from Tell el Dab‘a, that was cut very carefully just underneath the neck to an almost perfect circle (Fig. 8). This imple- ‘ment could have served either as a funnel or as device to allow for the processes of fermentation. Simple sherds as well as more complex and specifically purpose shaped ceramic tools with abraded edges were often used as scrapers and shovels.” Small discs made for a secondary purpose from discarded pottery are ubiquitous. Mostly they are referred to as “gaming pieces or “tokens”, but at least one other function is highlighted by X-ray pictures made from balls of thread, suggesting that similar dises might have been used for keeping thread tidy* (see A. Masson's paper in this volume). Parallels from a shipwreck close to Aquileia dating to the Roman period suggest a use as lids due to finds of amphorae that were closed with just such discs. ‘They were also used as tokens and gam- ing pieces particularly if the pottery was nice and red such as terra sigil- lata. More substantial parts of pottery are also frequently re-used in architectural contexts, be it structural or contextual. A notable example plindre Auswertung einer Opfergrube aus Ezbet Helmi, in Agypten und Levante 18 (2008), p. 15-48. © C, perez Dis, Ehnasya ef Medina, Heracleépolis Magna Exipto, Excavaciones 1984-2004, Madrid, 2005, p. 28, fig. 30. 4% B. Baper, Preliminary Observations on Ceramic Material found at Herakleopolis Magna (Elnasya el-Medina), in Cahier de la Céramique Egyptienne 9 (2011), p. 43-47 +7 Chr, RAEDLER, Keramikschaber aus den Werkstdtten der Ramsesstadt, in E.B. PUSCH (ed.), Die Keramik des Grabungsplatzes QI, Teil 2, Schaber ~ Marken — Scherben (Forschungen in der Ramses-Stadt 5), Hildesheim, 2007, p. 11-266. + BLM. CaRtLanb, Balls of Thread Wound on Pieces of Pottery, in Journal of Egyp- tian Archaeology 5 (1918), p- 139. ® 7. Pena, Roman Pottery in the Archaeological Record, Cambridge, 2007, p. 72.INTRODUCTION 19 is the presence of (waste) water conduits frequently built of large storage jars fallen out of use,* but also major parts of domestic architecture (see the papers by H. Franzmeier, G. Pyke and D.B. Hedstrom). Medium to large storage containers were also re-used as coffins for children’s burials.*! ne lem fii BY Fig. 8.a-b. Top part of juglet re-shaped as lid, funnel or fermentation lock (?) (photo by the author). e. Textual evidence There are various types of textual evidence that inform on the function of ceramic vessels, namely captions in pictorial scenes and on stelae, eco- nomic text with references to pots, accounting lists and offering lists in tombs. Some examples for informative captions were already given above, especially for stelae. D. Faltings’ and A. Senussi’s (this volume) work is based on such identifications. Economic texts such as accounts papyri from Lahun UC 32193 from the reign of Amenemhat IIIS and p. Reisner I] fragment 2 from Naga ed-Deir,*# as well as p. Boulaq 18 and others allow the identification of certain terms with contemporary pottery ves- sels, not the least by the form of the determinatives as well as some con- clusions on capacity of vessels and which commodity they contained.*> % E.g. a Late Period one at Tell el-Dabta: M. Bierak, J. Dorner and P, JANost, Aus- grabungen in dem Palasthezirk von Avaris. Vorbericht Tell el-Dab®aiEzber Helmi 1993- 2000, in Agypten und Levante 11 (2001), p. 103-104, 3 Bg. M. Burtak, Tell el-Dab‘a V, p. 134-135; 148-150; 197-198; 203-207; 210; 213; 261-262; 279; 283-285. © D. FaLtinas, Lebensmittelproduktion int Alten Reich, passim. 5 J, Bourriau and S. Quirke, Phe Late Middle Kingdom Ceramic Repertoire in Words and Objects, p. 73-74. 5 J, Bourriau and S. QuikKE, The Late Middle Kingdom Ceramic Repertoire in Words and Objects, p. 73. SS J. BOURRIAU and S. QuiRKE, The Late Middle Kingdom Ceramic Repertoire in Words and Objects, p. 73-8120 B. BADER Offering lists in tombs also provide information about goods that were provided for the netherworld. Here also vessels are shown in combini with the designations of offerings in all possible materials: stone, metal and pottery.° [. Ethnographic comparisons From very early on the ethnological observation of modern Egyptian village potters led to reconstructions of ancient pottery manufacture,” and several authors have described and documented how traditional pot- tery is produced.®® Even today it is possible to see such pottery work- shops at the outskirts of small villages (e.g. close to Ehnasya el-Medina® and elsewhere in the Fayoum), which astonish with their incredible skill and speed in producing innumerable vessels in a variety of shapes. It is also interesting to note that some vessel types are being procured ready made: an example can be seen in that the village potter at Ehnasya buys palalis jars from Upper Egypt ready made but produces water jars (ziyar), small to medium jugs (ku/al) and a variety of platters and bowls. Also firing technology has been the subject of observation in the mod- em manufacturing process, A general lack of kiln sites for all periods of Egyptian history is noteworthy. Only a handful of such sites offer infor- mation for single periods.” One problem that arises from this is the inability to pinpoint production centres of certain fabric and vessel type (cf. above and M. Mamedow’s contribution in this volume). Not the least the modern use of certain pottery types led to the extra- polation of vessel usage in ancient times. To give just a couple of 56 H. Batcz, Die Gefiiidarstellungen des Alten Reiches, passim. W. Basa, Die alt- dgyptische Opferliste, Miinchner Agyptologische Studien 3, Berlin 1963; Comte MESNIL. pu Buisson, Les noms et signes égyptiens désignant des vases ow objets similaires, Paris, 1935 TW, BLACKMAN, The Fellahin of Upper Egypt, London, Bombay, Sidney, 1927, reprinted by the American University in Cairo, Cairo, 2000, p. 135-153. SS Do. ARNOLD, Techniques and Traditions of Manufacture, passim: P. BRISSAUD, Les Ateliers de potiers de lu région de Lougsor, Le Caite, 1982; P.T. NICHOLSON and HiL. PATTERSON, Pottery Making in Upper Egypt: an Ethnoarchaeological Study, in World Archaeology 17/2 (1985), p. 22 P.T, NicHOLSON and H.L. PATTERSON, Ethnoarchaeology in Egypt: the Ballas Pottery Project, in Archaeology 38 (198) p. 52-59. SF, Quesaba Sanz and M.J, LOPEZ GRANDE, Heracleopolis Magna, cerdmicas de rradicién antigua, in Revista de Arqueologia 83 (March 1988), p. 6-14. See P-T. NICHOLSON, The Firing of Pottery, in Do. ARNOLD, Techniques and Tradi- tions of Manufacture, p. 103-120. for list and bibliography; cf. also J. BOURRIAU, P. NicHOLSON and P. Rose, Pottery, p. 137-139.INTRODUCTION 21 examples: large marl clay jars have been called zayar, although archaeo- logically there is no in situ evidence in the form of emplacements that would support such a hypothesis. In this case the more neutral term “stor- age jar” is preferable. So-called “bread trays” are to be mentioned here as well. It is very well possible that such vessels were used in a similar way to the modern dokkas for “sun bread”, but in sit evidence from archaeological contexts is so far missing. g. Experimental archaeology Experimental archaeology also has its place in the debate of functional aspects of Egyptian ceramics. On the one hand there is scope to replicate ancient techniques of pottery manufacture and compare the results of the modern process with what is found in the field in order to reconstruct a credible chaine d’operatoire and to obtain an idea of the level of technol- ogy available to the ancients. On the other hand the use of replicated vessels for various purposes can be tested, traces of use can be compared with the archaeologically recovered material and again hypotheses adjusted and/or verified. Good examples for this are the milling and bread baking experiments con- ducted at Amarna,” and the reconstruction of a bakery at Giza.°! ‘The reconstruction of a furnace for glass production might also give an idea of the production of pottery, not to mention information on the temperatures that can be reached by such a structure.” As such it supple- ments the study of firing of modern pottery that has been undertaken already. 61 S.J. ALLEN, The Pottery, in K.L. Wilson (ed.), Cities of the Delta, part Il, Mendes (American Research Center in Egypt Reports 5), Malibu, 1982. p. 22. g. for neolithic pottery: A. JAMIESON and A, WARFE, Experimental Archaeol- ogy and early Pottery Production in the Dakhleh Oasis, in Leiden Journal of Pottery Studies 21 (2005), p. 87-102. ©. Samet, Their Staff of Life> Initial Investigations on Ancient Egyptian Bread Baking, in B.J. KEMP (ed.), Amarna Reports V (Egypt Exploration Society Occasional Publications 6), London, 1989, p. 253-290. D. SAMUEL, Experimental Grinding and Ancient Egyptian Flour Production, in S. IkRAM and A. DoDson (eds.), Beyond the Horizon: Smdies in Egyptian Art, Archaeol- ogy and History in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, vol. 2, Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiqui- ties, Cairo, 2009, p. 456-477. © M. Lenner, Pyramid Age Bakery Reconstructed, in Aeragram \/\ (1996), p. 6-7. © P,P. NicHOLSON, Brilliant Things for Akhenaten, The Production of Glass, Vitreous Materials and Pottery at Amarna Site 045.1 (Egypt Exploration Society Excavation Memoir 80), London, 2007, p. 83-99. PT. NICHOLSON and HLL. PATTERSON, Ceramic Technology in Upper Egypt: A Study of Pottery Firing, in World Archaeology 21 (1989), p. 71-86,22 B. BADER Conclusions In conclusion it can be said, that an integrated interpretation using the approaches just sketched above will lead to a greater potential of pottery studies, taking it much further than the use as a mere dating tool, It must also be stressed that a determination of what is a good context can only be made in collaboration with the archaeologist, who excavated it. Resources should be used for recording in full where a promising result is likely to be obtained. While it is necessary and useful to process all the material according to high standards, full recording will only be pos- sible for the sealed primary contexts, while surface material will be viewed and only some diagnostic shapes recorded. Such a procedure gives an overview of the history of the site, which cannot be obtained from architecture alone, and is in itself necessary to gain full knowledge of the periods of activity at the site. From such a pool of well excavated ceramic material sampling for scientific analyses should be done in order to ask pertinent research ques- tions and be able to answer them with well contexted material. The avoidance of materials from doubtful layers or of doubtful morphology (e.g. non-diagnostic body sherds) ensures the use of valuable resources to their best potential. The following essays in this volume will highlight some aspects of the endeavour to squeeze out all possible information from the incredibly rich source material, ancient Egyptian pottery. Bibliography S.J. ALLEN, The Pottery, in KL. Wison (ed.), Cities of the Delta, part Il, Mendes (American Research Center in Egypt Reports 5), Malibu, 1982, p. 13-26. Do. ARNOLD, Wandbild und Scherbenbefund. Zur Tépfertechnik der alten Agypter vom Beginn der pharaonischen Zeit bis zu den Hyksos, in Mit- teilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 32 (1976), p. 1-34. Do, ARNOLD (ed.), Studien zur altégyptischen Keramik (Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 9), Mainz, 1981. Do. ARNOLD, Mergeltone (““Wiistentone”) und die Herkunft einer Mergelton- ware des Mittleren Reiches aus der Gegend von Memphis, in Do. ARNOLD (cd.), Studien zur altdgyptischen Keramik (Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archéologischen Instituis Abteilung Kairo 9) Mainz, 1981, p. 167-191. Do. ARNOLD, The Pottery, in Dl, ARNOLD, The Pyramid of Senwosret I, The South Cemeteries of Lisht, vol. 1, New York, 1988, p. 106-146. Do. ARNOLD, Techniques and Tradition of Manufacture in the Pottery of Ancient Egypt, in Do. ARNOLD and J. BOURRIAU (eds.), An Introduction to AncientINTRODUCTION 23 ichrift des Deutschen Archologischen Instinus Abteilung Kairo 17), Mainz, 1993, p. 11-141. Do. ARNOLD and J, Bourrrau (eds), An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery (Sonderschrift des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 17), Mainz, 1993. D.A. Aston, Amphorae in New Kingdom Egypt, in Agypten und Levante 14 (2004), p. 175-213. DA. Aston, A Taste of Honey: mnt- and mdqt-Vessels in the Late Eighteenth Dynasty, in T. SCHNEIDER and K. SzpAKowska (eds.), Egyptian Stories, A British Egyptological Tribute to A.B. Lloyd on the Occasion of his Retirement (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 347), Miinster, 2007, p. 13-31 D.A. Aston and B. BADER, Fishes, Ringstands, Nudes and Hippos — A Prelimi- nary Report on the Hyksos Palace Pit Complex L81, in Agypten und Levante 19 (2010), p. 19-89. B. BapeR, Tell el-Dab‘a Xill. Typologie und Chronologie der Mergel C-Ton Keramik, Materialien zum Binnenhandel des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denk- schrifien 19), Wien, 2001. B, Baper, Von Palmen und Vageln: Vorschau auf die Keramik aus dem Areal HIVI ostlich des Palastes G in ‘Ezbet Helmi, in Agypten und Levante 16 (2006), p. 37-60. B. Baper, Tell e/-Dab‘a XIX. Auaris und Memphis im Mittleren Reich und in der H, 1. Vergleichsanalyse der materiellen Kultur (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschriften 53), Wien, 2009. B. BADER, Preliminary Observations on Ceramic Material found at Herakleo- polis Magna (Ehnasya el-Medina), in Cahier de la Céramique Egyptienne 9 (2011), p. 37-69. H. Batcz, Die Gefaifidarstellungen des Alten Reiches, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 3 (1932), p. 50-8 89-114. H. Batcz, Die GefaiBdarstellungen des Alten Reiches, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archéologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 4 (1933), p. 18-36; 207-227. H. BaLcz, Die Gefiifdarstellungen des Alten Reiches, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 5 (1934), p. 45-94. W. Barta, Die altégyptische Opferliste, Miinchner Agyptologische Studien 3, Berlin 1963, E, BertLes, The Divine Potters of Kelli, in D. Aston, et. al., (eds.), Under the Potter's Tree, Studies on Ancient Egypt presented to J. Bourriau on the Occasion of her 70th Birthday (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 204), Leuven — Paris - Walpole, MA, 2011, p. 215-251. M. BieraK, Tell el-Dab‘a V. Ein Friedhof der Mittleren Bronzezeitkultur mit Totentempel und Siedlungsschichten (Osterreichische Akademie der Wis- senschaften Denkschriften 9), Wien, 1991. M. Bierak, J, DoRNER and P. JANosl, Ausgrabungen in dem Palastbezirk von Avaris. Vorbericht Tell el-Dab‘alEzbet Helmi 1993-2000, in Agypten und Levante 11 (2001), p. 25-119.24 B. BADER W. BLACKMAN, The Fellahin of Upper Egypt, London, Bombay, Sidney, 1927, reprinted by the American University in Cairo, Cairo, 2000. LD. Bourriav and P-T. NicHOLSON, Clay Pottery Fabries of the New Kingdom from Memphis, Sagara and Amarna, in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78 (1992), p. 29-91. J. Bourgiauy, P. NICHOLSON and P, Rose, Pottery, in P.T. NICHOLSON and T. SHAW (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 2000, p. 121-147. J, BOURRIAU and S. QUIRKE, The Late Middle Kingdom Ceramic Repertoire in Words and Objecis, in S. QUIRKE (ed.), Lahun Studies, Reigate, 1998, p. 60-83. ED. BourRiAu, L. Smith and P, NicHoLsoN, New’ Kingdom Pottery Fabrics, Nile Clay and Mixed Nile/Mart Clay Fabrics from Memphis and Amarna, London, 2000. J. BouRRIAU, L. Sir and M. Serpico, The Provenance of Canaanite Amphorae ‘found at Memphis and Amarna in the New Kingdom, in J.A. SHORTLAND (ed.), The Social Context of Technological Change. Egypt and the Near East, 1650-1550 B.C., Oxford, 2001, p. 113-146. P. Brissaun, Les Ateliers de potiers de la région de Lougsor, Le Caire, 1982. B.M. CARTLAND, Balls of Thread Wound on Pieces of Pottery, in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 5 (1918), p. 139. C. CyGANOWSKI, An Intersite Comparison of Middle Kingdom Lower Egyptian Marl C Fabric, unpublished M.phil thesis, Cambridge, 2003. HG. Fiscuer, The Nubian Mercenaries of Gebelein, in Kush 9 (1961), p. 44-80. D. Grirrimns and M.F. Ownay, Issues of Scum: Technical Analyses af Egyptian Marl C to Answer Technological Questions, in Agypten und Levante 19 (2009), p. 229-239, DJ. HALLY, The Identification of Vessel Function: A Case Study from Northwest Georgia, in American Antiquity 51 (1986), p. 267-295. U. Hartunc, Umm el-Qaab II. Importkeramik aus dem Friedhof U in Abydos (Umm el-Qaab) und die Beziehungen Agyptens zu Vorderasien im 4, Jahr- tausend v. Chr (Archdologische Verdffentlichungen 92), Mainz, 2001. Z. HAWASS and A, SeNUSSI, Old Kingdom Pottery from Giza, Cairo, 2008. W.C. Hayes, Inseriptons from the Palace of Amenhorep IL, in Journal of Near Eastern Studies 10 (1951), p. 35-56, 82-111, 156-183, 231-242. R. HouTHOER, New Kingdom Pharaonic Sites, The Pottery (The Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, vol. 5.1), Lund, 1977. CA. Horr, Oases Amphorae of the New Kingdom, in R. FrizDMAN (ed.), Egypt and Nubia. Gifts of the Desert, London, 2002, p. 95-131 ‘A. JAMIESON and A. Warre, Experimental Archaeology and carly Pottery Pro- duction in the Dakhleh Oasis, in Leiden Journal of Pottery Studies 21 (2005), p. 87-102. ‘A. el-Knoutt, R. 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WINLOcK, Models of Daily Life, Cambridge, MA, 1955.INTRODUCTION 27 Pl. 1. Storage jar in situ with small plate closing the vessel (photo by the author, joint excavation archives of Tell el-Dab‘a, Austrian ‘Academy, Austrian Archaeological Institute). PI. 2. Storage jar closed with small plate (photo by M. Ecarius, joint excavation archives of Tell el-Dab‘a, Austrian Academy, Austrian Archaeological Institute).