Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Maternal Mortality in The United States - Trends and Opportunities For Prevention
Maternal Mortality in The United States - Trends and Opportunities For Prevention
199
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines reproductive health as “a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all
matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes” (1). Reproduc-
tive health requires multidisciplinary care across the life course, beyond the narrow window of
pregnancy and traditional field of obstetrics. Internal medicine has an important role to play in
maternal morbidity and mortality. Recent research has highlighted the role of chronic disease sta-
tus before pregnancy in determining maternal mortality risk (2–20), as well as the implications
of adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) for long-term maternal health (21–25). As women play
increasingly diverse roles in society, women’s health is more important than it has ever been in
history, demanding improved understanding of sex-specific risk factors contributing to morbidity
and mortality.
Maternal mortality has been widely used as a measure to assess quality of care and advances in
Access provided by 177.248.218.200 on 08/25/23. See copyright for approved use.
medical care of women. It is traditionally considered mainly a challenge for developing countries,
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
but the United States is one of only two countries worldwide to report a significant increase in
maternal mortality since 2000 (26). In the United States, more than 60,000 women experience life-
threatening maternal morbidity each year, resulting in more than 700 pregnancy-related deaths
annually (Figure 1a), with significant racial, geographical, and socioeconomic disparities that have
persisted over decades (27–29).
Emerging initiatives are under way to reduce the unacceptably high maternal mortality and
morbidity rates in the United States. Strategic plans focus on improving surveillance, screening,
and healthcare delivery to address adverse events that have a seemingly immediate effect on ma-
ternal mortality during pregnancy and the perinatal period (27). Less attention has been paid to
the preconception period, which is a critical time window for appropriate interventions targeting
biological, medical, and behavioral risk factors to reduce risks of future pregnancy complications
(30). Similarly, the time period beyond the initial 6 weeks after delivery is often overlooked, though
it has been increasingly documented as an important period of increased mortality in the United
States and other developed nations (31). The importance of health during and immediately after
pregnancy notwithstanding, it is crucial to remember that women’s health is not limited to preg-
nancy health. Reproductive traits and events throughout the reproductive years, including the
timing and pattern of menses and medical complications of pregnancy, have a long-term impact
on the health of women (21–25, 32, 33).
This review describes the leading causes of disparities in maternal mortality in the United
States and challenges in addressing them. It also highlights opportunities for prevention and early
identification of high-risk women, focusing on the periods before and after pregnancy as important
assessment and intervention points to improve women’s overall health across the lifespan.
MATERNAL MORTALITY
Maternal mortality rates nearly tripled in the United States between 1990 (8.0 deaths per 100,000
live births) and 2019 (20.1 deaths per 100,000 live births) (29, 34). The COVID-19 pandemic
further exacerbated this trend. During the first year of the pandemic, maternal mortality con-
tinued to increase across all segments of the population, reaching 23.8 deaths per 100,000, but
it increased more steeply among women of color (29), mirroring a similar pattern of maternal
mortality observed in the 2009 H1N1 pandemic (35). As US maternal mortality has increased,
the distribution of causes of pregnancy-related deaths has shifted. Compared to the 1990s, tra-
ditional causes of maternal mortality [such as hemorrhage, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Access provided by 177.248.218.200 on 08/25/23. See copyright for approved use.
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
90.00
Proportion of deaths within period
80.00 Unknown
Other noncardiovascular medical conditions
70.00
Other cardiovascular conditions
60.00 Cardiomyopathy
Cerebrovascular accidents
50.00 Anesthesia complications
40.00 Thrombotic pulmonary or other embolism
Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy
30.00 Amniotic fluid embolism
20.00 Infection
Hemorrhage
10.00
0.00
During Day of 1–6 days 7–42 days 43–365 days Total
pregnancy delivery postpartum postpartum postpartum
50 South
d AR
45
Maternal mortality per 100k live births
KY
40
AL
35
Northeast OK Midwest West
30
GA
NJ TN LA
25 SC IN
AZ
NY
20 TX
Overall MA
VA FL MO MI
WA
15 PA MD OH
NC CA
10 IL
0
(Caption appears on following page)
www.annualreviews.org • Maternal Mortality in the United States 201
Figure 1 (Figure appears on preceding page)
(a) Definitions of maternal deaths, pregnancy-related deaths, and pregnancy-associated deaths (data from 35). (b) Maternal mortality in
high-income countries, 1990–2015 (data from 31). (c) Maternal mortality in the United States in relation to the end of pregnancy and
overall, 2011–2015. Cause of death categories are mutually exclusive (data from 39). (d) Maternal mortality within 42 days of
termination of pregnancy, by state, 2018 (data from 49).
(HDPs), thromboembolism, and anesthesia complications] have steadily declined, whereas deaths
due to diseases of the cardiovascular system (peripartum cardiomyopathy, myocardial infarction,
and cerebrovascular conditions) and other medical conditions (e.g., endocrine, hematologic, im-
munologic, and renal) have increased (36). In the past decade, almost one in three maternal deaths
in the United States was due to cardiovascular events (37). The majority of pregnancy-related
deaths now take place in the postpartum period; deaths taking place after 42 days (6 weeks) post-
partum now account for approximately one in five maternal deaths (38–40). In this last group,
most deaths are a result of peripartum cardiomyopathy (∼40%), other diseases of the cardiovas-
Access provided by 177.248.218.200 on 08/25/23. See copyright for approved use.
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
cular system (∼15%), and other medical conditions (∼15%) generally considered to be partially
preventable (38–40) (Figure 1c). Although the high rate of maternal mortality in the United States
is an anomaly among developed nations (31) (Figure 1b), the shift in the underlying causes of death
away from obstetric complications and toward a greater contribution from diseases of the cardio-
vascular system and other chronic conditions is also observed in other developed economies (31).
Several factors may contribute to the changing epidemiology of maternal mortality. Improvements
in obstetric and prenatal care have reduced perinatal mortality (41). Population-wide increases
in delayed childbearing and obesity (35, 42) not only contribute to a higher rate of pregnancy-
specific pathology (43–46) but also increase the rate of chronic medical conditions among women
of childbearing age.
Lack of standardized, consistent, and integrated obstetric practice (47), lack of community-
based care (28), and pervasive racial and socioeconomic health disparities (27, 48) are additional
factors that may contribute to the high maternal mortality rates in the United States relative to
other developed nations. Notably, there is substantial state-level variation in maternal mortality
(49) (Figure 1d). Besides differences in the distribution of demographic and medical risk factors,
disparities across states may also reflect differences in social and political factors, including state-
level policies influencing access to reproductive health services and medical insurance, as well as
differences in healthcare infrastructure between states (48).
The most pronounced and long-standing disparity in US maternal mortality is by race/
ethnicity, which has persisted over time, regardless of age and socioeconomic status (37). Black
and American Indian/Alaska Native women consistently experience 2–3 times higher pregnancy-
related mortality ratios than do White, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander women (37). This
difference to some extent reflects growing differences in behavioral and medical risk factors for
poor pregnancy outcomes by race/ethnicity (37, 50). Other contributing factors include but are not
limited to community (housing, access to transportation), healthcare (treatment decisions, qual-
ity of care, continuity of care, management of chronic diseases, racial bias in healthcare delivery),
patient/family (genetic susceptibility, medical knowledge, adherence to medical regimens, family
support, family structure, stress levels), and system-wide factors (healthcare coverage, access to
care, case coordination, racial discrimination) (39, 51). Studies have also revealed an age-related
racial gap in which the maternal mortality disparity widens drastically starting in the mid to late
twenties. This indicates a more rapid deterioration of reproductive and overall health during the
prime childbearing years among US Black women, the “weathering effect” (37, 51). Race/ethnicity
disparities are also tied to different causes of pregnancy-related death. For instance, maternal
deaths among Black and American Indian/Alaska Native women are disproportionately due to
(a) preconception initiation of LDA may result in better pregnancy outcomes, particularly among
women of low socioeconomic status and women with metabolic syndrome (54, 55), and that
(b) starting LDA preconception may reduce risk of pregnancy loss (56). Although replication of
these findings is needed, they are consistent with the more general idea that interventions aimed
at preventing APOs and their long-term consequences may offer additional benefits when started
before conception.
Regardless of the complex causal structure underpinning the high rates of maternal mortality
in the United States, its shifting epidemiology demonstrates that maternal mortality is no longer
a discipline-specific issue confined to obstetrics. Instead, reducing maternal mortality requires
integrated and continued care that spans the preconception period, pregnancy, and the period
after delivery. At the two ends of this continuum, expertise of primary care providers and internists
may be particularly useful in identifying and addressing issues that could result in a mother’s
premature death.
Chronic Diseases
The frequency of chronic disease–related pregnancy complications in the United States has paral-
leled trends in delayed childbearing and increased prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome
(35, 42). Chronic diseases prior to pregnancy—including hypertension, type 2 diabetes, heart
disease, chronic kidney disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, asthma, and thyroid disease—are
associated with higher risk of most APOs (2–20, 61–64) (Table 2). Furthermore, women who have
more than one chronic condition have a nearly threefold higher risk of severe maternal morbidity
and mortality compared to those without prepregnancy morbidity (65).
Access provided by 177.248.218.200 on 08/25/23. See copyright for approved use.
The identification and management of preexisting heart disease are of particular importance,
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
given the increased cardiovascular demands of pregnancy itself and the increasing contribution
of diseases of the cardiovascular system to pregnancy-related death. In-depth practice guidelines
for the management of heart disease in pregnancy are discussed elsewhere (66). Briefly, practice
guidelines emphasize the importance of identifying cardiac pathology and relevant family history
most likely to result in hemodynamic destabilization and significant morbidity during pregnancy,
including structural defects (e.g., congenital heart defects, valve disease), arrhythmias, and func-
tional impairment. Screening for mutations in MYH7, which is linked to cardiomyopathy, may be
considered. Identification of any of these issues should result in a cardiology consultation and the
establishment of a pregnancy heart team comprising the obstetrician, the primary care provider,
and a consulting cardiologist, with increasing involvement of cardiology, maternal–fetal medicine,
and other medical and obstetric subspecialists as necessary (66).
Despite high consistency across guidelines recommending preconception management for
women with preexisting diseases, data on the effectiveness of preconception interventions are
scarce. Evidence from observational studies suggests, however, that preconception education of
women with established diabetes results in meaningful reductions in pregnancy complications
(67). Preconception control of hyperglycemia could result in a significant reduction in HbA1c
in the first trimester and lower the risk of preterm birth and congenital abnormalities (68).
Whether similar benefits could be achieved by active preconception management of other chronic
conditions is uncertain.
Lifestyle Factors
In addition to management of chronic conditions, addressing behavioral and lifestyle risk factors
during the preconception period is key to pregnancy health. There is universal agreement that
use of alcohol, tobacco products, and illicit drugs during the preconception period and pregnancy
must be discouraged on the basis of evidence linking these to APOs (30). There is less consensus
about the role of other lifestyle factors in preventing APOs.
Prepregnancy weight management. In 2018, ∼40% of US women of reproductive age had obe-
sity (69), defined as a body mass index (BMI) over 30 kg/m2 . More than half of women who entered
pregnancy did so with overweight or obesity (70). Prepregnancy overweight and obesity are well-
documented risk factors for a wide range of adverse pregnancy and neonatal events including
pregnancy loss, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), preeclampsia, cesarean delivery, and post-
partum hemorrhage (44, 45). A 10% increase in prepregnancy BMI was associated with at least a
10% higher risk of preeclampsia, GDM, preterm delivery, and stillbirth (46).
Review of medication that may Counseling about medications that chronic conditions
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
affect reproduction and may have teratogenic risks Review of medications and
pregnancy identification of potential
teratogens
Sexually transmitted Screening and counseling Screening and education None
infection
HIV Antiretroviral therapy Antiretroviral prophylaxis (therapy) None
Reduction of risk of perinatal Reduction of risk of perinatal
transmission transmission
Genetic conditions Counseling and screening Counseling and screening None
Other infectious Counseling about potential None None
diseases exposure to infectious
diseases, such as Zika
Lifestyle: body weight Achievement and maintainance BMI in normal range Lifestyle or surgical
of body mass index (BMI) in interventions to maintain
normal range healthy BMI
Prevention of long-term weight
gain by adoption of healthy
lifestyle
Lifestyle: nutrition Folic acid and multivitamin Adequate intake of micronutrients No clear recommendation of
supplement what constitutes a healthy diet
Dietary quality
Lifestyle: physical Regular physical exercise Promotion of exercise Existing data do not suggest
activity (exercise moderately at least harms associated with physical
30 min/day, 5 days/week, for activity
a minimum of 150 min
moderate exercise per week)
Lifestyle: recreational Assessment and cessation advice Interventions on alcohol, tobacco, None
substances on use of alcohol, nicotine and psychoactive substances
products, and drugs
Teratogens and Assessment and education Education and prevention None
environmental
exposures
(Continued)
Given the well-documented increased risk of APOs associated with excess adiposity, efforts
to lose weight prior to pregnancy among women with overweight and obesity should be en-
Access provided by 177.248.218.200 on 08/25/23. See copyright for approved use.
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
couraged. For women eligible for bariatric surgery, benefits may outweigh risks. Meta-analyses
of observational studies have found that bariatric surgery is related to a substantially reduced
risk of GDM, hemorrhage, and HDP (with comparable benefits for preeclampsia and gestational
hypertension) (71, 72). Furthermore, the risk of adverse maternal outcomes in pregnancies follow-
ing bariatric surgery may approach that observed in women without obesity (72). Nevertheless,
bariatric surgery is associated with a significant reduction in gestational length and increased risk
of preterm birth, possibly due to continued maternal weight loss or micronutrient deficiency that
affect fetal nutrition (72, 73). Surgery-to-conception interval and type of surgery do not seem to
influence pregnancy outcomes (72, 73). While some studies have suggested that high risk of preg-
nancy loss persists 1–2 years after the surgery, findings remain inconclusive, and there is no robust
evidence reporting benefits from a delayed surgery-to-conception time (44).
Evidence on the benefits of weight loss through lifestyle interventions is more equivocal. A
meta-analysis reported that preconception lifestyle interventions aimed at weight reduction low-
ered risk of HDP by ∼50% (71). Similarly, the PREPARE trial found that a behavioral weight
loss intervention improved glycemia in early gestation (74) and decreased the risk of spontaneous
pregnancy loss (75), although the trial found no differences in gestational weight gain (the trial’s
primary outcome), GDM, pregnancy-induced hypertension, or preterm birth. It is worth noting
that even though the difference in the risk of GDM was not statistically significant, the observed
differences (25% in the intervention arm versus 35% in the control arm) were substantial (75)
and suggest an actual benefit of preconception weight loss on GDM risk despite the trial being
underpowered for this outcome.
Results of preconception weight loss trials in special populations pose challenges to interpret-
ing the net benefit of preconception weight loss among women with overweight and obesity.
For example, weight loss trials among women with infertility not only have found no benefit of
weight loss on fertility but also have found no differences in APOs despite substantial prepreg-
nancy weight loss (76–78). Discrepant findings, and the possibility that weight loss efforts may not
yield immediate benefits related to pregnancy health, do not mean that these are wasted efforts.
Although numerous weight loss trials have documented that many individuals regain weight after
discontinuing weight loss interventions, long-term follow-up of infertile women in one of these
weight loss trials revealed that women randomized to intervention who lost weight during the
trial were able to maintain this weight loss 4–7 years after the conclusion of the trial (79). It is
unclear if this finding is an outlier within the broader literature of weight loss trials or if weight
loss interventions in the preconception period may result in different long-term outcomes than
interventions at other points in the life course.
Systemic lupus Pregnancy loss 1.51 (1.26–1.82) Active disease status is associated with worse
erythematosus Preeclampsia 1.91 (1.44–2.53) maternal outcomes
(12, 13) Gestational diabetes 1.08 (0.49–2.41)
Preterm delivery 3.05 (2.56–3.63)
Stillbirth 1.70 (1.34–2.16)
Mild congenital heart HDP 11.3 (9.2–14.0) None
diseasesb (14) Preterm delivery 5.8 (4.3–7.9)
Postpartum hemorrhage 10.4 (8.3–13.0)
Moderate congenital Pregnancy loss 16.1 (10.6–23.6) None
heart diseasesc (14) HDP 11.8 (8.9–15.5)
Preterm delivery 13.9 (11.4–17.0)
Postpartum hemorrhage 10.6 (8.3–13.5)
Severe congenital heart Pregnancy loss 33.7 (24.2–44.7) None
diseasesd (14) HDP 10.3 (5.2–19.4)
Preterm delivery 50.5 (36.4–64.6)
Postpartum hemorrhage 10.9 (7.9–14.6)
Asthma (15–17) Pregnancy loss 1.41 (1.33–1.49) Disease severity (e.g., steroid dependency,
Preeclampsia 1.54 (1.32–1.81) exacerbation) is associated with risk of adverse
Gestational diabetes 1.39 (1.17–1.66) outcomes
Preterm delivery 1.41 (1.22–1.61)
Antepartum hemorrhage 1.25 (1.10–1.42)
Postpartum hemorrhage 1.29 (1.17–1.66)
Thyroid diseases Pregnancy loss 2.31 (1.90–2.28) Guidelines recommend controlling TSH level
(18–20) Preeclampsia 1.41 (0.89–2.25) not >2.5 mIU/L for women diagnosed with
Gestational diabetes 1.38 (0.97–1.96) hypothyroidism before pregnancy or with
Preterm delivery 1.30 (1.05–1.60) TPOAb, but not other low-risk women
Stillbirth 2.12 (1.30–3.47) (63, 64). However, preconception TSH >
2.5 mIU/L in women not previously
diagnosed with hypothyroidism is associated
with higher risk of miscarriages, preterm birth,
and operative vaginal delivery (61, 62).
TSH < 0.37 mIU/L is associated with preterm
birth (62)
a
Maternal mortality estimates need to be interpreted with caution because the meta-analysis includes studies with too few events or >50% studies reported
0 events.
b
Mild: atrial septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus, and ventricular septal defect.
c
Moderate: coarctation of the aorta, Ebstein’s, pulmonary stenosis, tetralogy of Fallot.
d
Severe: double-outlet right ventricle, Fontan, pulmonary atresia, transposition of the great arteries, Eisenmenger’s.
Abbreviations: HDP, hypertensive disease of pregnancy; TPOAb, thyroid peroxidase antibodies; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone.
greater risk of GDM, HDP, the fetus being large for gestational age, cesarean delivery, and still-
birth in a dose-dependent fashion, and that these relations are pronounced in women within the
normal BMI range (81, 82).
Nutrition. Although the importance of preconception iron and folic acid supplementation is
well established, benefits of supplementation with additional micronutrients are less definitive.
Based on data from 20 randomized trials comparing the effects of multiple micronutrient (MMN)
supplementation during pregnancy versus iron/folic acid supplementation alone (83), the WHO
recommends that MMN supplements be a core component of routine antenatal care (84). The
MMN formulation recommended by the WHO is consistent with the ACOG recommendation of
preconception supplementation with folic acid (30) and comparable to the formulation of generic
multivitamin supplements available in the United States (Table 3). This and comparable formu-
lations are known to reduce the risk of low birthweight, possibly by reducing the frequency of
preterm births, and in particular very preterm births (before 34 weeks) (83). It is important to
note that 19 of the 20 trials supporting this recommendation were conducted in low- or middle-
income countries where micronutrient deficiencies are more common than in the United States,
and hence the benefits of MMN supplementation in the United States may be more modest than
those identified in the trials supporting the WHO recommendation.
There is currently no consensus on what constitutes a healthy diet during preconception and
pregnancy. Nevertheless, diets consistent with recommendations for the prevention of chronic
diseases in the general population may also have benefits specific to pregnancy. Results from
large prospective cohort studies suggest that greater prepregnancy adherence to healthy dietary
patterns—such as the alternate Mediterranean diet, the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hyperten-
sion (DASH) diet, and the alternate Healthy Eating Index diet—are associated with reduced risk
of GDM (85, 86) and preeclampsia (87).
Physical activity. Extensive evidence from more than 50 randomized trials summarized in multi-
ple meta-analyses shows that physical activity during pregnancy decreases the risk of multiple
pregnancy complications, including GDM (approximately 40–50% lower risk), HDP (∼80%
lower risk, primarily gestational hypertension) and preterm birth (∼35% lower risk among women
with prepregnancy overweight or obesity) (88–90). Notably, these randomized trials have not iden-
tified any major harms associated with physical activity during pregnancy, suggesting that most—if
not all—women would benefit from it, in agreement with current recommendations by ACOG
regarding physical activity during pregnancy and the postpartum period (91).
a
As β-carotene. Preformed vitamin A (retinol) is teratogenic.
Although there is not as much evidence of the potential benefits of physical activity during the
preconception period, data from physical activity trials during pregnancy suggest that earlier ini-
tiation may be favorable. For example, the benefit of physical activity on lowering the risk of HDP
appears to be greater in trials that randomized women early in pregnancy (average 9 weeks gesta-
tional age) (92, 93) than in trials that began the exercise intervention later in pregnancy (average
15 weeks gestational age) (94–96). Data from large prospective cohort studies suggest that pre-
conception physical activity should be part of standard preconception care counseling. Moderate
to vigorous physical activity before pregnancy is related to lower risks of developing gestational
hypertension, preeclampsia (97, 98), and GDM (99, 100). Of note, the potential benefits reported
in these observational studies are restricted to women with the highest activity levels (97, 99).
HDPs are the pregnancy outcome most consistently associated with long-term cardiovascular
risk. Preeclampsia and preterm preeclampsia are associated with subsequent risk of early-onset
chronic hypertension and subsequent common cardiovascular events as early as 1 year after the
affected pregnancy (25, 102). Even higher risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) are seen among
women who have preterm preeclampsia or recurrent preeclampsia (103). The association may be
mediated by hypertension and diabetes (25), and risk may be reduced by adherence to a benefi-
cial lifestyle, including keeping a normal weight, high physical activity, high DASH score, and low
sodium/potassium intake (104). Of note, reports that women who experience preeclampsia or ges-
tational hypertension are at an elevated risk of premature death, mostly due to an elevated risk of
CVD-related mortality, provide evidence that elevated risk associated with HDP may persist for
many decades postpregnancy, even in the absence of subsequent development of chronic hyperten-
sion (21). Active surveillance for hypertension and lifestyle interventions focused on cardiovascular
risk reduction are the current recommendations for women with a history of HDP.
Identifying women with preexisting medical conditions that may heighten the risk of death is a
Annu. Rev. Med. 2023.74:199-216. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
crucial step. Preconception management of risk factors for major APOs through weight manage-
ment, physical activity, and dietary improvements may have a role in preventing maternal deaths
associated with APOs. Primary care visits within the first year after delivery should be seen as an
opportunity to provide preconception counseling for women planning additional pregnancies and
contraceptive care otherwise. Such visits are also opportunities to assess long-term health risks for
women whose APOs may signal increased risk of chronic diseases such as hypertension, diabetes,
and CVD. More generally, recognizing that all primary care encounters with women of repro-
ductive age are opportunities to obtain a reproductive history relevant to long-term health risks,
and to consider preconception care, will begin to address gaps in medical care contributing to the
unacceptable rates of maternal mortality in our country.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
LITERATURE CITED
1. WHO. Reproductive Health. https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/reproductive-
health. Accessed May 2022
2. Al Khalaf SY, O’Reilly EJ, Barrett PM, et al. 2021. Impact of chronic hypertension and antihyperten-
sive treatment on adverse perinatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Heart Assoc.
10:e018494
3. Zetterstrom K, Lindeberg SN, Haglund B, Hanson U. 2005. Maternal complications in women with
chronic hypertension: a population-based cohort study. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 84:419–24
4. Aagaard-Tillery KM, Holmgren C, Lacoursiere DY, et al. 2006. Factors associated with nonanomalous
stillbirths: the Utah Stillbirth Database 1992–2002. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 194:849–54
5. Zhou H, Liu Y, Liu L, et al. 2016. Maternal pre-pregnancy risk factors for miscarriage from a prevention
perspective: a cohort study in China. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 206:57–63
6. Shand AW, Bell JC, McElduff A, et al. 2008. Outcomes of pregnancies in women with pre-gestational
diabetes mellitus and gestational diabetes mellitus; a population-based study in New South Wales,
Australia, 1998–2002. Diabet. Med. 25:708–15
7. Inkster ME, Fahey TP, Donnan PT, et al. 2006. Poor glycated haemoglobin control and adverse preg-
nancy outcomes in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review of observational studies. BMC
Pregnancy Childbirth 6:30
38. Building U.S. Capacity to Review and Prevent Maternal Deaths Project Team. 2018. Report from nine
maternal mortality review committees. Rep., Assoc. Maternal and Child Health Programs, CDC Found.,
Cent. Dis. Control Prev., Rollins School of Public Health, et al. https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/
default/files/files/ReportfromNineMMRCs.pdf
39. Petersen EE, Davis NL, Goodman D, et al. 2019. Vital signs: pregnancy-related deaths, United States,
2011–2015, and strategies for prevention, 13 states, 2013–2017. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 68:423–29
40. Davis NL, Smoots AN, Goodman DA. 2019. Pregnancy-related deaths: data from 14 U.S. maternal mortality
review committees, 2008–2017. Rep., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., CDC, Atlanta, GA
41. Geiger CK, Clapp MA, Cohen JL. 2021. Association of prenatal care services, maternal morbidity, and
perinatal mortality with the advanced maternal age cutoff of 35 years. JAMA Health Forum 2:e214044
42. Nelson DB, Moniz MH, Davis MM. 2018. Population-level factors associated with maternal mortality
in the United States, 1997–2012. BMC Public Health 18:1007
43. Lean SC, Derricott H, Jones RL, Heazell AEP. 2017. Advanced maternal age and adverse pregnancy
outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 12:e0186287
44. Guelinckx I, Devlieger R, Vansant G. 2009. Reproductive outcome after bariatric surgery: a critical
review. Hum. Reprod. Update 15:189–201
45. Vats H, Saxena R, Sachdeva MP, et al. 2021. Impact of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index on
maternal, fetal and neonatal adverse outcomes in the worldwide populations: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 15:536–45
46. Schummers L, Hutcheon JA, Bodnar LM, et al. 2015. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes by prepreg-
nancy body mass index: a population-based study to inform prepregnancy weight loss counseling. Obstet.
Gynecol. 125:133–43
47. Mhyre JM, D’Oria R, Hameed AB, et al. 2014. The maternal early warning criteria: a proposal from the
national partnership for maternal safety. Obstet. Gynecol. 124:782–86
48. Moaddab A, Dildy GA, Brown HL, et al. 2018. Health care disparity and pregnancy-related mortality
in the United States, 2005–2014. Obstet. Gynecol. 131:707–12
49. CDC. 2020. Maternal mortality by state, 2018. Table, Natl. Cent. Health Stat., US Dep. Health Hum.
Serv., CDC, Hyattsville, MD. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/maternal-mortality/MMR-2018-State-
Data-508.pdf
50. Hoyert DL, Danel I, Tully P. 2000. Maternal mortality, United States and Canada, 1982–1997. Birth
27:4–11
51. Geronimus AT, Hicken M, Keene D, Bound J. 2006. “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load
scores among blacks and whites in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 96:826–33
52. Bryant AS, Cahill AG, Kuller JA, et al. 2021. Low-dose aspirin use for the prevention of preeclampsia and
related morbidity and mortality. Pract. Advis., Am. Coll. Obstet. Gynecol. and Soc. Matern.-Fetal Med.,
Washington, DC. https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/articles/
2021/12/low-dose-aspirin-use-for-the-prevention-of-preeclampsia-and-related-morbidity-
and-mortality
59. Wang S, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Hart JE, Chavarro JE. 2021. Dynamics of pregnancy intention and
pregnancy incidence among professional women. Fertil. Steril. 116(Suppl.):E294
60. WHO. 2013. Preconception care to reduce maternal and childhood mortality and morbidity: policy brief. World
Health Organ., Geneva, Switz. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/340533
61. Chen S, Zhou X, Zhu H, et al. 2017. Preconception TSH and pregnancy outcomes: a population-based
cohort study in 184 611 women. Clin. Endocrinol. 86:816–24
62. Yang Y, Guo T, Fu J, et al. 2021. Preconception thyrotropin levels and risk of adverse pregnancy
outcomes in Chinese women aged 20 to 49 years. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e215723
63. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, et al. 2012. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults:
cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid
Association. Endocr. Pract. 18:988–1028
64. Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association
for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid
27:315–89
65. Admon LK, Winkelman TNA, Heisler M, Dalton VK. 2018. Obstetric outcomes and delivery-related
health care utilization and costs among pregnant women with multiple chronic conditions. Prev. Chronic
Dis. 15:E21
66. ACOG. 2019. ACOG practice bulletin no. 212: pregnancy and heart disease. Obstet. Gynecol. 133:e320–56
67. Willhoite MB, Bennert HW Jr., Palomaki GE, et al. 1993. The impact of preconception counseling
on pregnancy outcomes. The experience of the Maine Diabetes in Pregnancy Program. Diabetes Care
16:450–55
68. Wahabi HA, Alzeidan RA, Bawazeer GA, et al. 2010. Preconception care for diabetic women for im-
proving maternal and fetal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth
10:63
69. Hales CM, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. 2020. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity among
adults: United States, 2017–2018. NCHS Data Brief 360:1–8
70. Dalenius K, Brindley P, Smith B, et al. 2012. Pregnancy nutrition surveillance: 2010 report. US Dep. Health
Hum. Serv., CDC, Atlanta, GA
71. Schenkelaars N, Rousian M, Hoek J, et al. 2021. Preconceptional maternal weight loss and hypertensive
disorders in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 75:1684–97
72. Kwong W, Tomlinson G, Feig DS. 2018. Maternal and neonatal outcomes after bariatric surgery; a
systematic review and meta-analysis: Do the benefits outweigh the risks? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 218:573–
80
73. Johansson K, Cnattingius S, Naslund I, et al. 2015. Outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. N.
Engl. J. Med. 372:814–24
74. LeBlanc ES, Smith NX, Vesco KK, et al. 2021. Weight loss prior to pregnancy and early gestational
glycemia: Prepare, a randomized clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e5001–10
Rev. 21:e12974
82. Nagpal TS, Souza SCS, Moffat M, et al. 2022. Does prepregnancy weight change have an effect on
subsequent pregnancy health outcomes? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 23:e13324
83. Keats EC, Haider BA, Tam E, Bhutta ZA. 2019. Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women
during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3:CD004905
84. Tuncalp O, Rogers LM, Lawrie TA, et al. 2020. WHO recommendations on antenatal nutrition: an
update on multiple micronutrient supplements. BMJ Glob. Health 5:e003375
85. Zhang C, Schulze MB, Solomon CG, Hu FB. 2006. A prospective study of dietary patterns, meat intake
and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 49:2604–13
86. Tobias DK, Zhang C, Chavarro J, et al. 2012. Prepregnancy adherence to dietary patterns and lower risk
of gestational diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:289–95
87. Arvizu M, Stuart JJ, Rich-Edwards JW, et al. 2020. Prepregnancy adherence to dietary recommendations
for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in relation to risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 112:1429–37
88. Meher S, Duley L. 2006. Exercise or other physical activity for preventing pre-eclampsia and its
complications. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2:CD005942
89. Han S, Middleton P, Crowther CA. 2012. Exercise for pregnant women for preventing gestational
diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 7:CD009021
90. Magro-Malosso ER, Saccone G, Di Mascio D, et al. 2017. Exercise during pregnancy and risk of preterm
birth in overweight and obese women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled
trials. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 96:263–73
91. ACOG Comm. Obstet. Pract. 2020. Physical activity and exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum
period: ACOG committee opinion no. 804. Obstet. Gynecol. 135:e178–88
92. Barakat R, Pelaez M, Cordero Y, et al. 2016. Exercise during pregnancy protects against hypertension
and macrosomia: randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 214:649.e1–8
93. Ruiz JR, Perales M, Pelaez M, et al. 2013. Supervised exercise-based intervention to prevent excessive
gestational weight gain: a randomized controlled trial. Mayo Clin. Proc. 88:1388–97
94. Stafne SN, Salvesen KA, Romundstad PR, et al. 2012. Regular exercise during pregnancy to prevent
gestational diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 119:29–36
95. Price BB, Amini SB, Kappeler K. 2012. Exercise in pregnancy: effect on fitness and obstetric outcomes—
a randomized trial. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 44:2263–69
96. de Oliveria Melo AS, Silva JL, Tavares JS, et al. 2012. Effect of a physical exercise program during
pregnancy on uteroplacental and fetal blood flow and fetal growth: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet.
Gynecol. 120:302–10
97. Arvizu M, Minguez-Alarcon L, Stuart JJ, et al. 2021. Physical activity before pregnancy and the risk of
hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Matern.-Fetal Med. 4:100556
98. Aune D, Saugstad OD, Henriksen T, Tonstad S. 2014. Physical activity and the risk of preeclampsia: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology 25:331–43
106. Shah BR, Retnakaran R, Booth GL. 2008. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young women
following gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 31:1668–69
107. Bao W, Tobias DK, Bowers K, et al. 2014. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors associated with risk
of progression from gestational diabetes mellitus to type 2 diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study.
JAMA Intern. Med. 174:1047–55
108. Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. 2020. Preterm delivery and long term mortality in women: national
cohort and co-sibling study. BMJ 370:m2533
109. Rich-Edwards JW, Klungsoyr K, Wilcox AJ, Skjaerven R. 2015. Duration of pregnancy, even at term,
predicts long-term risk of coronary heart disease and stroke mortality in women: a population-based
study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 213:518.e1–8
110. Horn J, Tanz LJ, Stuart JJ, et al. 2019. Early or late pregnancy loss and development of clinical
cardiovascular disease risk factors: a prospective cohort study. BJOG 126:33–42
Annual Review of
Medicine
v
ME74_FrontMatter ARjats.cls December 6, 2022 14:53
vi Contents
ME74_FrontMatter ARjats.cls December 6, 2022 14:53
Indexes
Errata
Contents vii