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    Joan Scott History Writing As Critique 2007

    Uploaded by

    Cristiana Schettini

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    pb 2007 bia ak Sate Min Pk Abeta, Osea OX cen Fee ine — Se vee lehang Feat tea ete fom he Rh Like Meat fr Key afi td tare by Ke ekg Snip et iw aro fran Boke ‘en atewerd oy Hei hie Inde itigrpticl ferences nd inde Hc thopay. fein en 143- 1 Morgen, Sue, 1957- Bieanses ago ois a776-5 by disse gb Senin cases eae HBNGpreoaiesrr7 al IBeN13 rbaaah oes EO) Manifestos for History Edited and Introduced by Keith Jenkins, Sue Morgan and Alun Munslow R fouecae | 18 Robert A. Rosensone i The pon sae When ol ora ans ‘or the bird to fly. ee 4 Traditional ory his manifesto isnot ant a a atack on books o adtonal wock ‘of history. The tradition of such scholarship isa ret tradition and one thar wild conta of sown et: Then ana “The Tether aca ones ast one we have sie oa thet tanned ‘imply wong. Thea cal for opening our eg we ahr wap fling shoving spsuning, eaten noes nae Sater of uma’ payout des abrnay forte ean who we mt bom This ta clr woe ae incur readrig uf ou onship tothe pat and whe gene those trained in history, for + 4 7 2 History-writing as critique! Joan W. Scott ‘The genuine historian mut have he szegth trea the well town oto soci never Bed blo B Nische 1a stg, ce sera Tar de Hnservieade vont, clade Vinee silt M. Fossut kis fashionable these days o talk about posstructrsitsheory inthe past tense, a8 disruptive momeat that once threatened to undermige the dis cipline of history, sabsiuting fancy French distractions for seriou expel investigations. Orthodox disiplinavans, slong with journalists pliteans and publi inellectual, have declared this theocyto be dead. And not only dead, buethankflly one is held sxponsble forall mane of eth lapses, eanging from the decline of academic ttandards (plain, lack of attention 10 factual accuracy, radical seepiciam abovt cath ard the Possibly of objectiviy eo the vagaries of multicltaraiom (disunity, loss ‘of coherence and shared fos), the erosion of society's moral cen the defeat of working-class political movements, tolerance for volons of sniversal human eights in che aame of cultural relativism, and sven tote Al Sepremberterorscatacs in New York City and Washington, D.C ‘Those who celebrate the pasing of posttsucturaliom (and thece i @ convergence heze of right andl have a common a yearning for eertay, security and stably. “Balance and "neatealiy’ ae currently che watchword of political conservatives in che United States who, in the ame of seat Tights, ate against any expression of opinion or point of view by clasrcom teachers? This is partclarly evident in Mile Eastern studies programmes ‘hat are under survllance by sighting euppocer ofthe curtent tpi Sn ral, but alto in many courses which take up questions af incgealigy or socal justi. In various humanities and socal science disciplines thee has been recourse o sient model of investigation to sinina subjective ‘sssessments and replace them with slid facts, There hasbeen oo, conag 4 201 Joan W. Sco ‘of borders in what wee once disraprve inrerventios on che lef the formal ising of some theories that ued to encourage innovation, the imposition of ‘orthodoxy in formery troublesome feds wich ae women's studies, “Among historians, the search for security takes various forms a enewed emphasis on empiricism and quantitative snalsi, the cehabliation of the sutonomous willing subject asthe agent of history, the eseailising of polite caegores of dency by the evidence of ‘experience’, the turn to ‘roltionacy psychology far explanations of hasan behaviour, he endorse. ‘ment ofthe timelessness of universal values, and the tiviaiation and enunciation ofthe ingusticten’~ an atempr to deay is serious place a the recent fe of te dissipline* Often the rezun otaltione! dseipinaiey is depicted as innovation once ie was the new eultalhetory’ now i he ‘naw empiccism’) bue this should not mislead us; despite any number of {quarrels abou the eases ofthe Civil War oc the Prenet Revolution its the old sles abowt the canspareny of language (words mean what they #3), Snaytic categories are objeeve) and the equally transparent relaioship between socal organisation and iadividval eel peception (ther isa place foc alienation, inerpellation, sbjectivation os the unconscious) ha ate being asserted atthe only accepable rule ofthe game.” Thaoughout the 1980s tnd 1990s ~ the supposed heyday of postetuceuralist teary inthe United State ~ there were zo be ste, esstances inthe name ofthe eight way ‘doing history bur ces have now become eumaphals proclamations that no longer engage debate; they simply declare victory. Poreeuctaralism's harhes erties now cegulalycongratlate themselves on thei prescence So t surely won't he long before the authors of Telling the Towth about Hhstory offs theic 1934 eocelasion as an obitaazy notice In the final ‘nals, then, there canbe no postmdern harry, We tara now othe task of elaborating models for the forure af history, models foe understanding the search for historical ruth within she framework ofa cevitalised and tsansformed practice of objet, © ‘want to argue that soch an obituary would be nat only premature but fools, for at east wo ceasons. The fst eta ike itor not, Wea ina pote ‘modern gs, and possroensrlsm ~ 01 c be confused seis in tae 1994 ‘ext I just cited with postmodernism ~ is «cite! practice for the post ‘modecn age. As Bzabeth Desde Ermacth has saintained, To be “again” postmoemity is about as informed a poston asitwasto be agains Galea And Luther: the pecece gesture for» postmodera Mr Podsnep, Dickens's sharater who sweeps sway with grandilognentgertres what he will not for cannot understand.” Ermareh’t ea histcieal points postmodernist sn epemic moment (of beeogencty, discontiniy, fragmentation} With ‘ts owa cepresenatonal and eral demands (we ae, in other wordy no longer living inthe ninesesth centry), and I aan acguing that post- structuralsm meets ome of those demands, This leads othe second reason poustroctralsm sone ofthe etcal theories that inepted the practice of history as risque in slat evenieth-cenary form, a peacbce tat nec 0 Historpsriting as critique 2 be protected and reinforced in the face ofa conservative revolucon than, the academy asin polities, sexe to dcr clique as dscuptive, discordant, tren aisloyl, Those onthe lft who welcome the end of poststrocaraliss In the name ofthe ‘auth’ about the experiences of women, workers, pos Colonial subjecs and mioriie unwitingly ola thee collegues on che fighe who astociteanti-zelativism with mocliry. They are not only reln~ fgishag oe important rial weapon; they ace becoming part of the SSnscons they aay they want to chllege. My argument, ro puri bre, ipthee a postrutarlisthstogy isnot only possible, but necessary. NOW ‘more then ever ‘History's resistance t0 theory “The attack on posstractsali by US horn (even by thos who should now bat sal pom probaly eeflcary a longsandingaacourse wich posts histery ta cpposton to pilosphy (Ths discourse i nat Tretuirely Ansem pbesoneno; ts hereto th ninety Ceatry ovis of inte tory) My geeradon imbibed iin graduate sil e rl yinoagae te en ng source and page number on every noted an exec handbag ois wa all we neded wove teste ci a Soeig mr Sweat more rigoroun world dior the eu accel ditancing chrom tke people whoteexpesene we mart wadesand, Evea when stone inoped by Ea Hoke ond. Thompon, twas as ofen Tate ty were tovatie archiva bnterta Because they were Maris Shirin the 1960s, te heyday of ling etdensocal uot, ache USA social hor wat soo minnting the ves of he common mast ind inter worn, And foen combined quantatve methods (bud 00 ihe premise of objet and revolonary oe at at forms 2piatons. ‘Thre wan indepen for ome of nT da’ want deny fs ontming importer ring the tres of thee les into consideatn, Seng her vile at a vay of cocetng the cord evege and powet ac eplety excluded pe, away of saliing agency nthe eset {hroug deneason wth examples from the pase Bur the empha was ‘Shear wa ce pos nt on ou difetenes from i om continu, Sido the universality of categories soc aca race and gender fn he felt ofhinoy second wave lena one cateal ofthe cxon of woe, barretcet bout eos Wha thorsing thre was mos en voked nivel ruses of prsaeyy sod ae domination. Eve ‘uende™ Aquchy became sonyaous, fox with women, den with an aeady- row unqunl nshipferwee he see ent handy label whose ppc eared ater han dae tring questions ino aves tele thny had even been ated? “The gent prcozupation though, bas been wih objectvn’- Of ous, it aknowodged ha tv objet imposible, bu the pons io gt 22 Joan W. Scot 4 close rit a posite. Or to have the appearance of beng cote, an appearance erented precly y bring say hina pilose pre Poston, any avowed theory of human belavou een when theres one Ersied bench the ins an appearance ached by nsiting thet human subjects atin al comand of he intent that werd erly me ‘wha hey sy, and hae nae” os expen” are assparen tego side he each of pity, plsophy or thor, Read the pein fcresses tothe Ameian Hiri Associaton snes founding in 1885, ‘ih lw exceptions they are sbovtsbstanive ters mae abut pac {ee or method, bu ot eo, On the exceponsw Cat Becker ho seus condensed by many of his olengies for hi strong ploopbicl reoazupaony iaded, ies thought he ough not tobe constdeed * hircian ata Go back o Lawrence Stone iinforned ack on Michel Foucaulein the pages ofthe Now York Review of Boos. Stone Sismises Foucault 8 hatosan pretond® Although he digptes some of Foucul’s facie toda th, he pe mologeachlege ae {oe Stone pus oucal ouside the compeay of onan Ready ihre journals the aepave o aialst eres of book ad ae endore Ings linguist un hey search for ‘bjs ecurenes that can be tke o ele he mention of lngsage= naturel dase, hore deal iss, sexual ference Listen to Lyon Hunt and Joyce Ape, spas tyen the endo the prem censy ofthat "nobe seam’ =e Specs sbjciviy soupy hisroraaSeilin 2004 «hema eof the ura Hstonyand Theory Bods historians snsouly cing the lace of hick inthe wating of story, Although mort egte agit what mus ow bea seaw man ~ the ies tat moral evens le evade say respon, silts that historians ought tobe asked to meet they do so without lnerogating the meaning ofthe morality hey take vo bea shared alt ‘vide set of belts Indeed, tics for most o thee were refes {closed sen of evaluat, cin whic ed categories othe pod an ‘the us are apple to evens and actions ia the pase The Lind of cele ‘sci examination ofthe historians own moral aegries(aed or by fossa is rgd abet n thie aempt fo conc ee and Eotral object. There i anothe es confoaainal way in which histor’ isienee on the abetive epic rests theory. Ths restance takes the fom of saperfcalaceptanceof the vocabulry of theory in the seis of te domestication, Tink fal tse books and arses tat begin wth grand tir hry andthe peru rae ioral are {ting us that ‘ae ot‘ or ene (snp ote ett ego the predictable effet of epialtnor patriarchy Western imperatams ovis postcolonial aermath. The quertoning of these categorie at = cal for by the theory” Being gee to absent es sfc vogue ment ofthe dpine cane! our the potently dupe flea he theory, lng she knorian o che cea aka cory enon, Nowhere Historyuritng as eritique 23 isthisasclearas inthe miseppropistion of some ofthe terminology of pose ‘cst, ring it compl en ofthe ake the word ‘deconntruton' repeatedly missed a4 syouyen for ‘xine (tneybe for ‘analy’ but with no tense of bow eo perform the ext Inteogsion of metaphysc the we the aim of Derda’s wok eis perhape oe expected that the anata anim of mos mai- cen ori the Unite Sate takes the form of esisanceoteory hd an endorsement of objectivity’ ata stndacd for rate beats, among tes thing, obetvy i takea te an antidoe to le) poles. But Stiscuconesrting to Bnd Marni, to, condemning poststuctarai ab 2 felLou of tut schoing Hobsbawmn's comments i his recent manifest, hich biter blame ‘portmaderin’ andthe sdety group spawned “hnvonalss, feminist gays, Blacks and othe) forthe faire ofthe vworkingsat moremest he s fervenly suppored." Before others secled Ino orthodony, Marx's writing was pesely an endorsement of erigae ot polis! economy's natrased eategores and ofthe offical ory of polis offered by bourgeois bea! regimes, but aloof its own analytic Etegories. That ite adhernts today fal to sea thei Kinship with por “crac i damaying saps someting about the way che hav os touch withthe tension of critgue, an imporeant asp of which was sel Scag total or the chest work of Max and many of hi fllowers. Critique Cia is fen mitakely hough to be synonmose with, bt ‘Tinea more pres and tena een. key nition fom te Ihe ete Babar Joon who wees ‘A crkgue of any theoretical system is not an examination ofits flaws fad imperfections. Irs not ast ofertas designed to make the system. ‘eter eit an analysis that focses oa the grounds ofthe system's possiblity. Tae ertique zeade backwards from what seems astral, ‘bvious elfevident universal ia ordest show that ches things ave ‘theishitory, cei reasons for being te way they are her efecss on ‘what follows from them and tht the stazsag poate nota [oatutl) ‘given bute (euler) construc, usualy blind 0 ele int of etgn is to mak vibe thte lind pot in ode to open ptm to chang, Now to sepac what wth aly formated flan, buco open the pony for inking (ands0 sting) dillretly. In Urecharecesanton of cigue ofeed by Theodor Adorn, “Open inking pois beyond ial. ‘ekigue he long bee associated with philosopher: Plat, Kant, Hegel Mace de Plank school Nites, name ony sme Bata et sce 2A Joon W. Scott the een centr, concern halo ben with sory, wih pei snd anaying the mab socal and pola comers iin whch {eandstional concep are deployed Hep ertgne of Kane and Mar af Hegel involved seein tote socal bass fora mvaliy Ken (end the alignment sok to beunivet. ln aferent way, Hegel and Mare Iisorced the nme Kan refed ro challenge: Nuch, too, called for 2 cir of all moral valu through an examination of th geesogy. ‘Wenzed o know the condone fom which they have sprung Bow Ge dave developed and changed: Moray, he argo, was aympiom whos reipttingcondtons ust be ehcdated, a al at consguencs {nd eteas = both the symptom an eles were peeminely mater of history. But Niche tls waned again he parlyeifloene of tedional hoes which ofc the bappnes of owing oneal not be'wholacisacy and scien, bu her rowing ou ofthe as ‘she, fower and fri. When the ded ry sheng he wrote creat foues Become inponble™ alot sms a choo the tak were to guard storys tht nothing cold come of tut stro ba by 90 ‘ees haory-making event “The elaonshipbesween itor and history-making events Was lt to Mavs The immediate ako phlwophy, whichisin neers of hin) be wocin is Chitgue of Heges Pilsoply of igh (1843) evo uate human sealenation inser form now tht tha ben oma ints sce foam The way todo this wat nor aberaty with «Pri! philosophical conep, but Concrete thvogh the enalisof nang Sorel stuatons. This woul exportheGalecel posts inimanent in realy andsocalege teen tha the world oni fed eens tna ret or Mac he sing of htxy wa one form ge As fr Mary 0 for Adorn, history defined the concep philoso sight employ: "Whaceve ates ice win hiner of heconecp aye felts someting ofthe movement of eelnye™ What Adorvoealed ‘cal itor” a par of he cea theory Be and hi Fear school coleagis daboratel) sined ar wmasng ie wneamined pesipestions fnclaig thse of eral heron themes) he served pte soci inequy. alaintaqueaton sumption show cesar ks ieee tt ad pr te ight ly pein a cone orryconepios ont the pes a ileion of Coan, se discontinuity instead. David Hoy writes of Adorno, . = ‘The effect of ciel history is remporls it focuses ou attention onthe present. Critical history, however, does this with nether the cationalit ‘intent of making the presen seem the culmination ofall ha has gone before nor the neo-cansrvative intent of preserving the watts Instead. de intents make certain the presen el ope 9 the fara despite is problema coanection to the past2* “Hisory-urting as etique 28 “Thelen of staying open to the oar ihe ey beat of exigue and defines isan ee! poe thongh avery diferent one em ha ao- Sted with eben. The eso bevy, bed up byte sigh othe Ine adranas cle agen; peel sad metodologealy om tere we lea emancedviorof vones or wot ‘Segue or clogs the laividal heim of axtonal des. The ies fetus in cams in endowment an undead Bary sero oe dsm ths aspera crigue akin of negatvin (pom Strate eset denounce a) besa oer ese team to plan fr What comer nex. Crtgucs proponents py that that Spray tale. Rant deed he pase gre sty of enti two oclatygreaeo and Keping tre rom eros Ts purpose, be ‘wots not to cmend Knowledge, but only co corres snd fo spi ¢ Touchtone of the vie or lack of value of ll «prior knowledge ‘Athough te et a aot jcted the de of ite body of knowlege, dhe coors she nguite iy of cig: Mara alin for'A Rust {Cilio Evert Exiting 1644 splaed the es thet reformer (ugh nortokave a ear sen of what te fare should be “That, however, est the advantage ofthe new tend: that we do noe attempe dogmutialy to peeBigare the frsre, but want co ad the new ‘work! ony trough eicism ofthe ld "We aball confront the word not as dactinies... We develop new principles tothe wodld ont of ts own principles. We only show the ‘world what i i fighting for, and consciousness something that the ‘world must acquit, ike or nat2® ‘With ‘consciousness wosld come che shedding of illusion and the ability to change the circumstances that produced alienation; what might follow ‘woul inevitably emancipatory, butts form could noe be prescribed. Mare {sociated presripaon with dogmatism and so did Adorno: "A pllosophy that would se self up a total, ae 4 syste, would Become a delusional fysten.? Adorno esw the cl for constructive ciique’ as acontradieson ‘a would under its fore: is by 29 means always posible wo add to {tique the immediate peicheal recommendation of something betes?! Tadeed, the repressive intolerance tothe chought that i not iumediately ‘scconpanitd by inrtzucions for acon founded on anxiety” The impor ance of critique, after ally ay precisely inthe power to reset exabished ‘pinions and fo reset existing insstuions and at the same cine co reflect {pon ise “Aa adequate philosophical sinking snot only eiicl of che ‘Shtus quo and its eied seplics in consciousness but ie equally exit of il This elenese resistance to common practices and her jasteatons vw, for Adora, ‘sseaal to democracy. Not only dacs democracy sequire the Freedom t0exitcve and need {tcl impulses, Democray is nahin est than defined by ertgue. Tis 26 Joan W Scott canbe secalled simply inthe historical fact thatthe conception ofthe separation of powers, upon which every democracy s based, rom Locke fnd Montesquieu and the American constitution up to toy, has is lifeblood in enigue.™ Ic is noe fe leap from Adorno's linkage of open-ended ext wih democracy 0 smile comecon made by Jcgts Dera (Alough should af hee hat Adora would Bae ha may cscoms of Det, ts Desi did of Adorno norte smi ofhetepiesoph tha Tan into, ba he shred comment othe ies of paso asccague)® Witngin the ery 1980 nde pisopn, by stack ‘re thei of hiking defn cosgney Dt wee “Taaag "sft ee, ip he aan ft demon Hl fo cone a the pomby ss “tinkae,scemiingyneognte e ce co Semoctees eg ie carentdeminatios nage phlowphalfeesopy, fn ahace decors ie By deontce Deda mean ont adap ‘ove slim hiskericalysbove ts operons asec Seta democracy, bt to mprove tay yerunatzlated wape Despite he many port itso among tem, ise phsophere understand thenseves as pac ofa plc titonn which eg ithe meu. Adorno ptt seine cue aloe hea of ie robin and is arguments, so the slopsion of escved hese, es thefondaton or what may bconared the rode niyo ie ey of philosophy." Aad Ded fre the meuphor ofthe ever whieh ‘scding to Alexander Dickow, pater oe prope eden owncds et ieee eo» Although hte same phvophe ene om hy 48 centadiio and daconity sc fo are aunt te ots of tation, the commiemen fo cdg unde intrmenaly an ‘gains ye rece ncn to Scion few a may oF erage ‘ening For hirian here a dvb chalege hero Wee he Wad aX fsoy tht wile a ety nen ting the founda premics So wh scl aad lve es nee an hi ‘ond art fthecalngel to cl pce forthe operate of hans ‘ote desion cannot be cermin whose ea wll mvs come ip ‘pests that porescriam pods tach ver tha oto ey oftevalsng tol engi ns ponmoser,poncoloial wold. ‘The genealogy of Michel Foucault One ofthe grec accomplishments of Michel Foucault was to theorte the idea of critical history and to operatonalis ito demonscae in specie {iis How tight be don. focus on Foucal erases ners story argue was 30 explc not because want co limit our possiblities only to his approsch. My intent is exemplifiation not prescription) Historysriting as eritique 27 Genealogy wat Foci name fo it ites. Citi eno onget fing to peated in che seach fo fora strates with univers vale Bor sateen trial inversion into the evens tht hve le 9 nite uslves su to eeconie ousacles a subjects of what we ace ding thinking eying In contre 0 Kant explorations of he sof season, Fosauebad« diferene goa, one eshaced wh Niza was {owt inory tatters to show how te-whih-s has nor alway to, {edo how wy and how tarvlichs might no longer be tat which- ‘8. The rening cones of modernity, beginning with eso, weve be Noied treated nora anscnden cacgtes wine neti ening trated the probes of phbsophes, but at atemps by Nacoseallyonated Ininass to deine and redefine who they were. Le others coe about ‘eon; Bent wademoo eo wrists sary stb echoing the word of [prophets bot yong wt consent of madoe~ an temp os {nelecal td nstional heared to foray cason a he elton ‘tian. This atenton tothe role of diffrenein the contraction of meng {oe of he haliar of pons hisory ‘Aer reson, Foveule wrote abot discipline and sexuality andthe cnergence of the man sence in te enunciation ofthe moder subject Fisory il id no ede bs atenon; nded, he apued tat hte teas of thinking were themacves time bound By te tinereath centr, “Totry oot be andertoed at the eompation of factual suc ‘fons seqience ache may ve ocsered iis he fondamental mode of Being of ecpisites .Sines rthe mode of bg ofall ar i gen ut inenperenes, Hix as bsome the unaoideble lament ino noghe™ Foucaules intrest was ia the way difereae epochs posed problems and found salons othe the way in which some soltons cae o seem Sneriable and necessary wile otfece were ovetlooked or cee. In what healed “the profusion of lose event Fovesst called ito question the ‘sleproclaimed nevablty af ny moa socal sate." David Hoy cal ths Ubchinory of roblemataatn'® The pony ofcourse, war to eso caret uodertandings of curves asthe eles of proceses of problem toting, process wich articulated selon of power a hey Metlied jects of knowledge, Another way of puing this sto sy that what counted {a Risto war sees of daconnnoous nape tite 1 interpretation were the slow exposuse of the meaning hidden ia fn origin, then only metaphysics could inerpet the development of Ihumanity. Bu if intespreation is he violent or surreptitious apo ‘ration ofa system ofrles, which in tlt hat no esential mening, Inoede to imposes direction, beaditto anew wil o force its pati pation ins diferent game, and to subject to secondary rales, then the evelopment of humanity isa seves of interpretations. The cole of ‘genealogy it to record its history: the history of moms ideals, and retaphysical concept, the history ofthe concept of liberty or ofthe 28 Joan W. Scott scat lf as hey stand forthe emergence of diferent interpretations, "hey must be madero appear as event on the stage of store! process Siac intentions wet an ongoing slimiredpeocess—the product fn sroppsble aa dese for Enowedge~ genealogy could provoke tag desc rate ha sai i When any taken forgeate ides ot cbse fecisandesod tobe an inerpestionof ely ate tha aly ea, its history canbe writen by speityng is operations snd searching forgonenlerativs eso then, an eile conequnc ofthe atch fin, bt ast of options thee prev by malig out ote The reat Ohi Knd ef enquiry an opening intepremtions : “Hiscory becomes ‘fective to che degree that it introduces discontinuity ino ou very being... Ec hitory deprives the self of the easung stably of life and nature and it will noe permit isl to he teenaported bya voizeless obstinacy toward a milennial ending e wil upeoot ss sradtional foundations and elenlessly disrupts pretended continuity, This is because knowledge isnt made for understandings ei mae foe nti Fuel’ ior as erga provides leverage uprodng ett for an unspecified faewe geet a Many bioins,mising the etic epistemological thus of Foals ‘works ave ihr quelled with hich op, perodston oat linn toro duce hin) on an free ene han sea ie eae hematal ltosady pore ays pons sexual ors noe in comparative penpucive. Among se emulators ate om who on oe ‘sch ads the subj as lbs rather than levers for earn ‘Bening Or thot wh invoke power as it were dteabe eat ree than a consid elton coniming the obeoas ater ho tees chs Focal’ ate oe eaonalconintono pony tel diac frm ‘easton locaton, peal tea ‘This eink ico mis the pong amistad hs eenpe ty theacae ne 4 4 operon of itary weting. Tat operation he tla nes ae ‘ih guetion: ‘in whan gen tow at onveel,necetiay, tie what pice is ocupid by whatever i singula contingent sesh eae faery cones" The put of snswes etn quesion a the frm of mote questions, What costs es nivenal (Fee the terol human tuts ofthe Enlightenment ae crested o8 mathe teolety ot ‘ston, How ha natre (or some other ovale sence tora comity, for example) been Invoked to enalish tie seccy of eran exlatons of oblgstory social behaviour Flow fe obi -nowedge Beco polialo leg! or economic or toil sues Thee usin ae ao meant o have gene snewe ince hep at oe concrete historical nvestguons,ivesigeions that may ofr dies Historyseriting as critique 29 ‘explanations thas his, diferent ways of undetstanding the psychological Gimensons of sabjet formation, for example. The criteal points howe is that the end of these avastigations not to establish tmeess patterns of hhuman conduct, but precitey to historicise cur belt in such paterns and the categories upon which chey east. "We wen hiorians to conf our belt thatthe present rests upon proford ineationt and immutable neces. Bac the cue historical sease confirms our existence among couatlss loss events, without landmark or point of reference" Achieving tis ‘tae historical sense" meant refusing the femeworks and analyses of other historians. “Even fT eer to and nae many heal stad, aiays do my ‘om historical analyse inthe areas which interest me" ones’ inteestin he consitation ofthe human subject has sometimes been taken fora denial of egency when, ia fat his ai ito explain how gency isesablished, how concep seuctre one undeceanding of ourselves tnd others, how the waits and characteristics stributed to iferent kinds of prople come into being, affect behaviour, and change In place ofthe sutonomous willing indivdeal of liberal individualism whose agency is Inherent in his humanity, we ate given an individual whose ver ele arcs lated = conceprualised~socaly,ehrongh language, the result of historical proceses shat need tobe explored. The emplass on cscourse was one of the ways Foucault disinguished himself from the Frankfuse school philo- sophers who, he felt gave short shift ro the importance of concepts aad ‘des. For Fovcaul, taking account ofthat which goes tough the head Of someone, or of a sries of individuals, o in the dscoutse they hold is cffetvely part of history: o say something ian event (dire quelgue chase stun boénemant) Foucaule talked ofthe subject, nor the self, as « way of insisting onthe procis which subjected individual to certain constraint even a it defined ‘hem as feeling agents. Here, too, he jected the Frankfort scat’ Ihumanise edition of che subjece, because tendoveed the idea that there ‘vas an essence ofthe human.‘ don't think shar the Frankfort School could audit char what we have 1 dois aot recover our lost identity, os liberate fur imprisoned natu, or fad che fundamental ruth of ourselves but go in an entiely different dicection .-. We have to produce sorething that doesn't yer exist and of which we can have ao idea what ie wil bee For Foucault che poine was, in the words of one of his Kalan interviewers, to think about the exgins of man in hisrorieal-geneslogicl sense rather than in metaphysical terms’ The homosexual es eng in pot. Foucalt insisted that hough same-sex behaviour ha existed for centrist notion that that behaviour was enacted by a person whose very being ws defined by his sexuality ~ who bose the identity of invert or “homosexual = was & late nineteenth-ceatary conception.” The attcbution of identity made homosexuals objects of science and subjects of law, and to provided the rounds for collective sdentifeation and, eventually, politeal econ, Wecan take other examples, some not expressly mentioned by Foucault, Feminists 30 Joon W. ott foc ot, whose agency (nd conteqen ‘ie ction) Lagu chewkee were enslaied pracy by tht exlalon as ato ise eat

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