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 PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
22PH102

UNIT II

ELECTRON THEORIES OF MATERIALS

Department : FIRST SEMESTER – ECE, EEE, VLSI & ACT

Batch/Year : 2023-2024 / I

Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, RMKEC

Date : 20-09-2023
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. No. CONTENTS PAGE

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Syllabus 8

3 Course Outcomes 9

4 CO - PO/PSO Mapping 10

5 Lecture Plan 11

6 Activity Based Learning 12

Lecture Notes: Unit – II Electron Theories of Materials

2.1 Classical Free Electron Theory 13

2.2 Electrical Conductivity 15

2.3 Expression for Thermal Conductivity 18

2.4 Wiedemann-Franz Law 21

2.5 Successes and Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory 22

7
2.6 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function 23

2.7 Density of States and Average Energy of Electron at 0 K 25

2.8 Energy Bands in Solids 30

Solved Problems 36

Video Links 40

Quiz 41

8 Assignment 42

9 Part A – Questions with Answers 43

S. No. CONTENTS PAGE

10 Part B – Questions 48

11 Supportive Online Certification Courses 49

12 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and to Industry 50

13 Contents Beyond the Syllabus 52

14 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books 53

15 Mini Project Suggestions 54

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course will enable the learners to

• Educate the fundamental important concepts in Physics and apply the

knowledge in solving scientific and engineering problems

• Impart the basic concepts of light propagation in waveguides,

conducting materials, semiconducting materials, opto and
nanoelectronic devices and photovoltaic technology
 SYLLABUS

L T PC
3 02 3

UNIT 1I ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity –

Thermal conductivity expression - Wiedemann-Franz law - Success and
failures of CFT - Effect of temperature on Fermi function - Density of
energy states and average energy of electron at 0 K - Energy bands in
solids.
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On successful completion of this course, the students will be able to

CO1: Discuss the basic principles of working of laser and their

applications in fibre optic communication

C02: Summarize the classical and quantum electron theories and

energy band structures

C03: Describe the conductivity in intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors and importance of Hall effect measurements

C04: Associate the properties of nanoscale materials and their

applications in quantum computing

C05: Explain the concepts of photovoltaic technology and its

applications.
 CO – PO/PSO MAPPING

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
COs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO3 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO6 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -
 LECTURE PLAN

No. of Pertaining Taxonomy Mode of

S.No. Topics to be Covered
Periods CO Level Delivery

Classical free electron

PPT, Chalk
1 theory – Electrical 1 CO2 K1
& Talk
conductivity

Classical free electron

PPT, Chalk
2 theory - Thermal 1 CO2 K2
& Talk
conductivity
Widemann-Franz law
and Successes and PPT, Chalk
3 1 CO2 K1
failures of clcassical free & Talk
electron theory
Effect of temperature on PPT, Chalk
4 1 CO2 K2
Fermi function & Talk

Density of states - PPT, Chalk

5 1 CO2 K3
Derivation & Talk

Carrier concentration of PPT, Chalk

6 1 CO2 K1, K2
electrons at 0 K & Talk

Average energy of an PPT, Chalk

7 1 CO2 K1
electron at 0 K & Talk

PPT, Chalk
8 Energy bands in solids 1 CO2 K1, K2
& Talk

PPT, Chalk
9 Problems 1 CO2 K3
& Talk
 ACTIVITIES

For the below activities, students will form small groups with 3 or 4 students in each
group.

1. Proving Wiedemann-Franz law

After deriving the expressions of electrical and thermal conductivities through the
classical free electron theory, the teacher may introduce the Wiedemann-Franz law
to the class. Then, the teacher will let the students to take the ratio between the
thermal and electrical conductivities, to see by themselves, whether or not the
classical free electron theory proves the Wiedemann-Franz law.

2. Size of a quantum state

Prior to this activity, the teacher will give an overview of the quantum states and
make the students aware that the quantum states are not physically observable and
always be represented through mathematical equations / graphs. Now, for this
activity, the teacher will represent the quantum states of a particle in a 3D box as
dots in n-space spanned by nx, ny and nz. Then, the teacher will let the students to
find the size of one quantum state in the given space.
2.1 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY
It is very important to know the different properties such as mechanical, optical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, etc. of materials to use them for various applications.

The knowledge of Classical free electron theory, Band theory of solids and Quantum
theory are very essential to understand the different behaviour of the materials.

Classical Free Electron theory is also known as Drude – Lorentz theory. In the year
1900, Drude presented a model for metals. In this model, valence electrons are
assumed to behave like a gas, with the positive ions constituting the core of a metal.
The electrons are confined to move within the metal due to the electrostatic
attraction existing between them and the positive ion core.

In 1909, Lorentz proposed that free electrons in a metal obey the Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics under equilibrium conditions. A combination of the salient points
of both the Drude and Lorentz theories constitutes the Drude – Lorentz classical
theory.

2.1.1 POSTULATES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

 In the absence of external electrical field

Fig. 2.1 Electron motion in the absence of electric field

1. Free electrons move randomly inside the metal similar to gas molecules inside
the container.

2. The potential energy of the free electrons is assumed to be zero.

 3. During random movement, free electrons collide with one another and with the
ions of the metal.

4. The collision is elastic and hence energy is not lost during collision.

5. Between collisions, electrons move in straight line path.

 In the presence of external electric field

Fig. 2.2 Electron motion in the presence of electric field

1. The motion of the free electrons are streamlined

2. The electrons have acquired a drift in its velocity. This velocity is known as drift
velocity (vd).

2.1.2 DEFINITIONS

Drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 )

It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in the presence of
an external applied electric field.

Mobility (𝝁)

It is the drift velocity acquired by the free electron per unit applied electric field.
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸

Relaxation time (𝝉)

The time taken by the free electrons to reach the normal state from the disturbed
condition in the presence of electric field is known as Relaxation time
Collision time (𝝉𝒄 )

The average time taken by the free electrons between two successive collisions is
known as Collision time.

Mean free path (𝛌)

The average distance travelled by the free electron between two successive
collisions is known as Mean free path.

2.2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 2.3 Uniform rod with potential difference V

A uniform rod of length 𝑙 and uniform area of cross-section ‘𝐴’ is given a potential
difference of 𝑉 as shown in the Fig. 2.3

Let ‘𝑛’ be the number of free electrons per unit volume (electron density) in the rod
and ‘𝑒’ be the charge of an electron.

Total number of free electrons in the rod 𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙

Total charge in the rod

𝑄 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙(−𝑒) …(2.1)

The free electrons acquire a change in velocity due to the applied voltage 𝑉. This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

Total charge
Current flowing through the rod 𝐼 =
Time
𝑄
𝐼= …(2.2)
𝜏
Substituting eqn. (2.1) in (2.2)
𝑛𝐴𝑙(−𝑒)
𝐼= …(2.3)
𝜏
We know that the current density
𝐼
𝐽= …(2.4)
𝐴
Substituting eqn. (2.3) in (2.4)
𝑛𝐴𝑙(−𝑒)
𝐽=
𝜏A
𝑙
Since, the drift velocity, 𝑣d =
𝜏
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑣𝑑 (−𝑒) …(2.5)
According to Ohm’s law,
𝑉
𝐼= …(2.6)
𝑅
We know that
𝜌𝑙
𝑅= …(2.7)
𝐴
Substituting eqn. (2.7) in (2.6)
𝑉𝐴
𝐼= …(2.8)
𝜌𝑙

𝑉 1
Since the electric field, 𝐸 = and the conductivity, 𝜎 = , eqn. (2.8) can now be
𝑙 𝜌
written as
𝐼 = 𝐴𝐸𝜎 …(2.9)
On substituting eqn. (2.9) in (2.4), we get
𝐴𝐸𝜎
𝐽=
𝐴
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 …(2.10)
Comparing eqn. (2.5) and (2.10)
𝜎𝐸 = 𝑛𝑣𝑑 (−𝑒)

𝑛𝑣𝑑 (−𝑒)
𝜎= …(2.11)
𝐸
𝑣𝑑
Since the mobility, 𝜇=
𝐸 eqn. (2.10) can be written as

𝜎 = 𝑛𝜇(−𝑒) …(2.12)
2.2.1 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 2.4 Stream line motion of the electrons in the presence of the field

When an electric field is maintained between the two ends of metallic rod, as shown
in Fig. 2.4, the electrons will move towards the positive field direction and produces
current in the rod.

Current flowing through unit area, i.e, current density

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑣𝑑 (−𝑒) …(2.13)

𝑛 - free electron density, 𝑒 - charge of an electron

Due to the electric field applied, the electron gains the acceleration ‘𝑎’
Drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 )
𝑎=
Relaxation time (𝜏)
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 …(2.14)

If 𝐸 is the electric field intensity and ‘𝑚’ is the mass of the electron, then, the force
experienced by the electron is given by
𝐹 = (−𝑒)𝐸 …(2.15)

From Newton’s second law of motion, the force on the electron is given by
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 …(2.16)
Equating eqn. (2.15) and (2.16),
𝑚𝑎 = (−𝑒)𝐸
−𝑒 𝐸
𝑎= …(2.17)
𝑚
On substituting eqn. (2.17) in (2.14), the expression for drift velocity is
−𝑒 𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏 …(2.18)
𝑚
Now, on substituting eqn. (2.18) in (2.13), the expression for current density is
−𝑒𝐸
𝐽 = 𝑛 −𝑒 𝜏
𝑚

𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸𝜏
𝐽= …(2.19)
𝑚

If the applied electric field 𝐸 is more, then the current density 𝐽 will also be more,
i.e.,
𝐽∝𝐸

𝐽=𝜎𝐸 …(2.20)

𝜎 is the proportionality constant known as electrical conductivity of the material.

Comparing eqn. (2.19) and (2.20)

𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸𝜏
𝜎𝐸=
𝑚

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎 = …(2.21)
𝑚

Eqn. (2.21) is the expression for the electrical conductivity of a conducting material.

2.4 EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 2.5 Electron flow from high temp to low temp through uniform rod

Let us consider a uniform rod AB as shown in Fig. 2.5. The temperatures at A and B
are 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 respectively. 𝑇1 is greater than 𝑇2 ..
Consider a point ‘C’ on the rod which is at a distance equal to the mean free path (λ)
of the electron between the ends A and B of the rod

The amount of heat (𝑄) conducted by the rod from A to B is given by

𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑡
𝑄∝
2𝜆
𝐾𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑡
𝑄= …(2.22)
2𝜆

where 𝐾 ⟶ Co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the material

𝐴 ⟶ Area of cross section of the rod
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ⟶ Temperature difference between the ends A and B
𝑡 ⟶ Time for conduction
2𝜆 ⟶ Length of the rod

From equation (2.22), co-efficient of thermal conductivity per unit area per unit time
is given as
𝑄 (2𝜆)
𝐾= …(2.23)
𝑇1 − 𝑇2

Let us assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the six
directions as shown in Fig.2.6. Since each electron travels with thermal velocity 𝑣, if
‘𝑛’ is the free electron density, then on an average 1 6 𝑛𝑣 electrons will travel in any
one direction per unit area per unit time.

Fig. 2.6 Possible directions of free electron movement in a material

Number of electrons crossing C through unit area per unit time
1
= 𝑛𝑣 …(2.24)
6
The average kinetic energy of an electron at A of temperature 𝑇1
3
= 𝑘 𝑇
2 𝐵 1
The average kinetic energy of an electron at ‘B’ of temperature T2
3
= 𝑘 𝑇
2 𝐵 2
where 𝑘𝐵 ⟶ Boltzmann constant = 1.380 x 10-23 J/K
Number of electrons moving from end A
The heat energy transferred to B across C per unit area per unit time
per unit area per unit time = ×
from end A to B across C Average kinetic energy of an electron at
end A which is at temperature 𝑇1

1 3
= 𝑛𝑣 × 𝑘 𝑇
6 2 𝐵 1
1
=
4
𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 …(2.25)

Similarly, the heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from B to A across
C is
1
= 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇2 …(2.26)
4

∴ The net heat energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time across C
can be got by subtracting eqn. (2.26) from eqn. (2.25)
1 1
𝑄= 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 − 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇2
4 4
1
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 …(2.27)
4
On substituting eqn. (2.27) in (2.23), we get the expression for thermal conductivity
as
𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 2𝜆
𝐾=
4 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 𝜆
𝐾= …(2.28)
2
 𝜆
For conducting material, 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑐 =
𝑣
𝜆 = 𝜏𝑣 …(2.29)

On substituting eqn. (2.29) in (2.28), we get the thermal conductivity as

𝑛𝑣𝑘𝐵 (𝜏𝑣)
𝐾=
2
𝑛𝑣 2 𝑘𝐵 𝜏
𝐾= …(2.30)
2

Equation (2.30) is the classical expression for thermal conductivity of conducting

material.

2.4 WIEDEMANN – FRANZ LAW

Law: The ratio between the thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of a
metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.
𝐾
∝𝑇
𝜎
𝐾
= 𝐿𝑇
𝜎
where 𝐿 is a constant called as Lorentz number whose value is 2.44 × 10−8 W Ω K-2
(Quantum mechanical value) at temperature T = 293 K.

Proof:

(i) By Classical Theory

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Electrical conductivity of a material 𝜎=
𝑚
𝑛𝑣 2 𝑘𝐵 𝜏
Thermal conductivity of a material, 𝐾=
2
𝐾 𝑣 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑚
∴ = …(2.31)
𝜎 2𝑒 2

According to kinetic theory of gases, kinetic energy of an electron can be related as

1 3
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 …(2.32)
2 2
On substituting eqn. (2.32) in (2.31), we get
𝐾 𝑘𝐵 3
= 𝑘 𝑇
𝜎 𝑒2 2 𝐵
2
𝐾 3 𝑘𝐵
(or) = 𝑇
𝜎 2 𝑒
2
𝐾 3 𝑘𝐵
(or) = 𝐿𝑇 where 𝐿=
𝜎 2 𝑒

Substitute the value of Boltzmann constant 𝑘𝐵 = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 and the charge of
electron e = 1. 6021 x 10-19 C, we get L=1.12 x 10-8 W Ω K-2

However, it is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only half of the
experimental value (i.e.,) 2.44 x 10-8 W Ω K-2

This discrepancy in the experimental and theoretical value of ‘L’ is the failure of
classical theory. This discrepancy can be rectified by quantum theory.

2.5 SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF CLASSICAL FREE

ELECTRON THEORY
Success

1. It was able to establish the movement of electrons in any given conductor.

2. It was used to explain and derive the relaxation time, the electron mean free
path, mobility and electrical and thermal conductivities.

3. It verifies Ohm’s law.

4. It was used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.

Failure

1. It could not explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, Paramagnetism,

Ferromagnetism, etc.

2. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat is not matched.
 𝐾
3. By classical theory , = constant at all temperatures. But by quantum theory, it
𝑇σ
is not constant at all temperatures.

4. Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with the
experimental value.

2.6 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

2.6.1 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Definition: Femi Function F(E) represents the probability of an electron occupying a

given energy state. The mathematical representation of the Fermi function is given
by
1
𝐹 𝐸 = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) …(2.33)
1+ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where 𝐸 is the energy of a quantum state, 𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi energy, 𝑘𝐵 is the
Boltzmann constant and 𝑇 is the temperature in kelvin scale.

2.6.2 FERMI ENERGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Fermi energy level (𝑬𝑭 )

Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto which the electrons can be
filled at 0 K.

Importance

(i) Thus it acts as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled states at
0 K.

(ii) It gives information about the filled electrons states and the empty states.

(iii) At 0 K, below Fermi energy level, electrons are filled and above Fermi energy
level, it will be empty

(iv) When the temperature is increased, few electron gains the thermal energy and
it goes to higher energy levels.
2.6.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

The effect of temperature on the Fermi function 𝐹 𝐸 can be discussed with respect
to eqn. (2.33).

At T=0 K
At T = 0 K, the electrons can be filled up to a maximum energy level called Fermi
energy level. Above that, all the energy levels will be empty. It can be proved from
the following conditions.
(i) When 𝑬 < 𝑬𝑭 , eqn. (2.33) becomes
1 1
𝐹 𝐸 = −∞
= =1
1+𝑒 1

(i.e.) 100% chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level.

(ii) When 𝑬 > 𝑬𝑭 , eqn. (2.33) becomes

1 1
𝐹 𝐸 = = =0
1 + 𝑒∞ ∞

(i.e.) 0 % chance for the electron to be filled the given energy level E.

(iii) When 𝑬 = 𝑬𝑭 , eqn. (2.33) becomes

1
𝐹 𝐸 = = Undefined
1 + 𝑒∞

The Fermi function F(E) is undefined at E = EF.

F(E)

EF Energy E of the state

Fig. 2.7 Graphical representation of variation of the Fermi function with temperature
At T = 0 K, the Fermi function is uniquely defined for all values of E less than EF and
also for all values of E greater than EF; at E = EF, the Fermi function is undefined.

At any temperature T > 0 K

At any finite temperature T > 0 K, the Fermi distribution function smoothly
decreases to zero as shown in Fig 2.9.

Explanation:
Due to the supply of thermal energy the electrons within the range of kBT below the
Fermi level (EF) alone takes the energy ≈ kBT and goes to higher energy state.
Hence at any temperature (T), empty states will also be available below EF.

2.7 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES AND AVERAGE

ENERGY OF ELECTRON AT 0 K

2.7.1 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

Definition: Density of states 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 is defined as the number of available electron

states per unit volume in an energy interval d𝐸.

nz

ny

nx

Fig. 2.8 Energy states of a bulk material in n-space spanned by the quantum
numbers nx, ny and nz.
Number of energy levels in a cubical metal piece

Let us consider two energy levels 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 . The number of energy states
between 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 can be found by finding the number of energy states
between the shells of radius 𝑛 and 𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛, from the origin.
4
The number of energy states within the sphere of radius 𝑛 = 𝜋𝑛3
3

Since 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 and 𝑛𝑧 will have only positive values, we have to take only one octant
of the sphere (i.e) 1/8th of the sphere volume.

The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius 𝑛

1 4 3
= 𝜋𝑛
8 3
1 3
= 𝜋𝑛
6
1
The number of energy states within a sphere of radius 𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛 = 𝜋(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3
6

Number of available energy states between the spheres of radii 𝑛 and 𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛,
1 1
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3 − 𝜋𝑛3
6 6
1
= 𝜋(𝑛3 + 𝑑𝑛3 + 3𝑛2 𝑑𝑛 + 3𝑑𝑛2 𝑛 − 𝑛3 )
6

As 𝑑𝑛 is small, higher orders of 𝑑𝑛 are neglected.

1
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋(3𝑛2 𝑑𝑛)
6
𝜋
= 𝑛2 𝑑𝑛
2
𝜋
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑛(𝑛𝑑𝑛) …(2.34)
2

Energy of an electron in a cubical metal is given by

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸=
8𝑚𝑎2
8𝑚𝑎2
𝑛2 = 𝐸 …(2.35)
ℎ2
 1
8𝑚𝑎2 2
𝑛= 𝐸 …(2.36)
ℎ2

On differentiating eqn. (2.35), we get

8𝑚𝑎2
2𝑛 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝐸
ℎ2

8𝑚𝑎2
𝑛 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝐸 …(2.37)
2ℎ2

On substituting eqn. (2.36) and (2.37) in eqn. (2.34), we get

1
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2 8𝑚𝑎2
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2 2ℎ2
3
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2
= 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ2

Since each energy level provides two electron states,

3
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 2 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ2

On simplifying the above equation, we get

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎3 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 …(2.38)
2 ℎ2

Density of states 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 is the number of energy states per unit volume. So,
keeping 𝑎3 = 1 in the above equation, we get the density of states as
3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 …(2.39)
2 ℎ2

2.7.2 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN METALS

Definition: It is the number of electrons per unit volume in a given energy interval.
 𝑛 = 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹(𝐸) …(2.40)

On substituting 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 from eqn. (2.39) in eqn. (2.40), we get

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑛 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹(𝐸)
2 ℎ2

.At 0 K, if 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 , 𝐹 𝐸 = 1, then

3 𝐸𝐹0
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑛 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2
0

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2 𝐸𝐹30 2
𝑛 =
2 ℎ2 3 2

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑛 = 𝐸𝐹30 2 …(2.41)
3 ℎ2

3
3𝑛 ℎ2 2
𝐸𝐹30 2 = …(2.42)
𝜋 8𝑚

Fermi energy at 0 K
2
3𝑛 3 ℎ2
𝐸𝐹0 = …(2.43)
𝜋 8𝑚

2.7.3 AVERAGE ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON AT 0 K

The average energy of an electron at 0 K can be determined from the expression

shown below
Total energy of all the electrons at 0 K (𝐸𝑇 )
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = …(2.44)
Total number of electrons at 0 K (𝑁𝑇 )

In general, the total number of electrons in a solid can be obtained by counting the
total number of states that have been occupied by electrons, i.e.,

𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹(𝐸) …(2.45)
On substituting 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 from eqn. (2.38) in eqn. (2.45), we get
3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑁𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹(𝐸)
2 ℎ2

.At 0 K, 𝐹 𝐸 = 1 for all values of 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 and 𝐹 𝐸 = 0 otherwise, then

3 𝐸𝐹0
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑁𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2
0
3
𝜋 8𝑚 2 𝐸𝐹30 2
3
= 𝑎
2 ℎ2 3 2
3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑁𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸𝐹30 2 …(2.46)
3 ℎ2

Eqn. (2.46) is the total number of electrons at 0 K in a cubical solid of volume a3.

Now, in a metal, not all the electrons posses the same energy. The energy of an
electron is dependent on the energy state that an electron occupies. Also, from
Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons occupy the same state. However, as
there is degeneracy in a 3-dimensional solid, multiple states may have the same
energy. So, electrons occupying those degenerate states posses the same energy.

With this knowledge on the energy of the electrons, the total energy of the electrons
in a solid is given by

𝐸𝑇 = 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 𝐸 𝐸 …(2.47)

In the above eqn. (2.47), the product of 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 and 𝐹(𝐸) gives the number of
occupied states with energy 𝐸, i.e., the number of electrons with energy 𝐸.

On substituting 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 from eqn. (2.38) in eqn. (2.47), we get

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹(𝐸) 𝐸
2 ℎ2

At 0 K, 𝐹 𝐸 = 1 for all values of 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 and 𝐹 𝐸 = 0 otherwise, then the above

equation becomes
 3 𝐸𝐹0
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸1 2
𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2
0

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2 𝐸𝐹50 2
= 𝑎3
2 ℎ2 5 2

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑎3 𝐸𝐹50 2 …(2.48)
5 ℎ2

On substituting eqn. (2.46) and (2.48) in eqn. (2.44), we get

3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑎3 𝐸𝐹50 2
5 ℎ2
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑎3 𝐸𝐹30 2
3 ℎ2
3
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸
5 𝐹0

2.8 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy associated
with it. But in case of solids all the atoms are close to each other, so the energy
levels of outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighbouring atoms.

When two single or isolated atoms brought close to each other, then the electrons in
the outermost orbit of the two atoms interact or shared with each other. i.e, the
electrons in the outermost orbit of one atom experiences an attractive force from
the nearest or neighbouring atomic nucleus. Due to this, the energies of the
electrons will not be in same level, the energy levels of electrons are changed to a
value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the electron.

The electron in same orbit exhibits different energy levels. The grouping of these
different energy levels is called energy band. However, the energy levels of inner
orbit electrons are not much affected by the presence of neighbouring atoms.
 Fig. 2.9 Energy band diagram depicting the important energy bands in solid

2.8.1 IMPORTANT ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

There are number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important, to
understand the behaviour of solids. These energy bands are

 Valence band

 Conduction band

 Forbidden band or forbidden gap

Valence band

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of
the valence electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called as valence band.

Valence band is present below the conduction band as shown in Fig. 2.9. Electrons
in the valence band have lower energy than the electrons in conduction band.

The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound to the nucleus of atom.

Conduction band

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the free
electrons is called as conduction band.
Generally, the conduction band is empty but when external energy is applied the
electrons in the valence band jumps in to the conduction band and becomes free
electrons. Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in
valence band.

The conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of atom.

Forbidden gap

The energy gap which is present between the valence band and conduction band by
separating these two energy bands is called as forbidden band or forbidden gap.

In solids, electrons cannot stay in forbidden gap because there is no allowed energy
state in this region. Forbidden gap is the major factor for determining the electrical
conductivity of a solid. The classification of materials as insulators, conductors and
semiconductors is mainly based on forbidden gap.

The energy associated with forbidden band is called energy gap and it is measured
in unit electron volt (eV).

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J

The applied external energy in the form of heat or light must be equal to the
forbidden gap in order to push an electron from valence band to the conduction
band.

2.8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON FORBIDDEN

GAP

Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical conductivity of
material. Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types, they
are

 Insulators

 Conductors

 Semiconductors
 Fig. 2.10 Energy band diagram of an insulator

Insulators

The materials which do not allow the flow of electric current through them are called
as insulators. Insulators are also called as poor conductors of electricity.

Normally, in insulators the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to
sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the neighbouring atoms. Whereas the
conduction band is empty, i.e., no electrons are present in conduction band.

The forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large in
insulators. The energy gap of insulator is approximately equal to 15 electron volts
(eV).

The electrons in valence band cannot move because they are locked up between
the atoms. In order to move the valence band electron into the conduction band
large amount of external energy is required that is equal to the forbidden gap. But in
insulators, this is practically impossible to move the valence band electrons into
conduction band.

Rubber, wood, diamond, plastic are some examples of insulators. Insulators such as
plastics are used for coating of electrical wires. These insulators prevent the flow of
electricity to unwanted points and protect us from electric shocks.
 Fig. 2.11 Energy band diagram of a conductor

Conductors

The materials which easily allow the flow of electric current through them are called
as conductors. Metals such as copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc. are good
conductors of electricity.

In a conductor, valence band and conduction band overlap each other as shown in
Fig. 2.11. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a conductor. A small amount of
applied external energy provides enough energy for the valence band electrons to
move in to conduction band. Therefore, more number of valence band electrons can
easily moves in to the conduction band.

When valence band electrons move to conduction band they become free electrons.
The electrons present in the conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of an
atom.

In conductors, large numbers of electrons are present in conduction band at room

temperature, i.e., conduction band is almost full with electrons. But valence band is
partially occupied with electrons. The electrons present in the conduction band
moves freely by carrying the electric current from one point to other.
 Fig. 2.12 Energy band diagram of a semiconductor

Semiconductors

The material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an
insulator is called as semiconductor. Silicon, germanium and graphite are some
examples of semiconductors.

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band is
very small. It has a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV) as shown in Fig.
2.12.

At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and
conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence band do not have
enough energy to move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves
as an insulator at low temperature.

However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains enough
energy in the form of heat and moves in to conduction band.

When the temperature increases, the number of valence band electrons moving in
to conduction band also increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. i.e. a semiconductor has
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. The resistance of semiconductor
decreases with increase in temperature
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory.

Solution:

From Wiedemann-Franz law,

2
𝐾 3 𝑘𝐵
= 𝐿𝑇 where 𝐿=
𝜎 2 𝑒
By substituting the values, we get
2
3 1.38x × 10−23
𝐿= = 1.12 × 10−8 W Ω K −2
2 1.602 × 10−19

The Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory is 1.12 × 10−8 W Ω K −2 .

2. Thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 W/m//K

and 5.87 x 107 (Ωm)-1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.

Solution:
𝐾
𝐿=
𝜎𝑇
390
=
5.87 × 107 × 293

= 2.267 × 10−8 W Ω K −2

3. The density and atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg/m3 and 63.5
respectively. The relaxation time of electrons in Cu at 300 K is 10-14s.
Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper.

Solution:

The density of electrons 𝑛 in copper can be calculated as follows

Avogadro′ s constant × Density × Number of free electrons per atom
𝑛=
Atomic weight
6.022 × 1023 × 8900 × 1 × 103
=
63.5
= 8.44 × 1028 m−3
The electrical conductivity 𝜎 of copper can be calculated as follows
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚𝑒
8.44 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19 2
× 10−14
=
9.1 × 10−31
= 2.374 × 107 Ω−1 𝑚−1

4. Calculate the drift velocity of conduction electrons in copper at a

temperature of 300K, when a copper wire of length 2 m and resistance of
0.02 Ω carries a current of 15 A. Given that μ= 4.3 x 10-3 m2 / V- s.

Solution:

Given data: Length of the wire, 𝑙 =2m

Resistance of the wire, 𝑅 = 0.02 Ω

Current through the wire, 𝐼 = 15 A

Mobility, 𝜇 = 4.3 x 10-3 m2 V-1 s-1

From Ohm’s law, we shall find the potential difference between the ends of the wire
as follows
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

= 15 × 0.02 = 0.3 V

Then, the electric field can be calculated as follows

𝑉
𝐸=
𝑙
0.3
= = 0.15 V m−1
2
Finally, the drift velocity is calculated as shown below
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸

= 4.5 × 10−3 × 0.15 = 0.65 × 10−3 m s−1

5. Calculate the conduction electron density in caesium, if its Fermi energy

is 1.55 eV.
Solution:

Given data: Fermi energy, 𝐸𝐹 = 1.55 eV

= 1.55 x 1.602 x 10-19 J

= 2.48 x 10-19 J

The density of conduction electrons in caesium can be calculated from the Fermi
energy through the following relation
3
𝜋 8𝑚 2 3
2
𝑛= 𝐸𝐹
3 ℎ2

Other useful data to calculate the density of electrons are as given below

Mass of the electron, 𝑚 = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Planck’s constant, ℎ = 6.63 x 10-34 J s

Using all the above data, the density of conduction electrons can be calculated as
follows
3
𝜋 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 2
3
𝑛= 2.48 × 10−19 2
3 6.63 × 10−34 2

= 8.61 × 1027 m−3

6. Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity of

electrons.

Solution:

Given data: Temperature of the metal, 𝑇 = 24600 K

The Fermi velocity of the electrons can be determined by equating the kinetic
energy of the electrons at the Fermi level to the thermal energy, which is given as
1 3
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2

3𝑘𝐵 𝑇
⇒ 𝑣=
𝑚
Other useful data to calculate the Fermi velocity of electrons are as given below

Mass of the electron, 𝑚 = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Boltzmann constant, 𝑘𝐵 = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1

Now, on plugging the data, the Fermi velocity of the electrons can be calculated as
follows
3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 24600
𝑣=
9.1 × 10−31

= 1.06 × 106 m s−1

7. Evaluate the lowest energy that a neutron possesses while it is confined

inside the nucleus of an atom.

Solution:

Useful data to evaluate the lowest energy of a neutron inside the nucleus are as
follows

Typical size of a nucleus, 𝐿 = 10-14 m

Mass of a neutron, 𝑚 = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

Planck’s constant, ℎ = 6.626 x 10-34 J s

As the neutron is confined within a nucleus, the energy of a neutron inside the
nucleus can be calculated using the formula for the energy of a particle confined in
a 3-dimensional box, which is given as
ℎ2
𝐸𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = (𝑛2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 )
8𝑚𝐿2 𝑥

For the energy of the particle to be lowest, we have 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛𝑦 = 𝑛𝑧 = 1.

So, the lowest energy of the neutron inside the nucleus is

ℎ2
𝐸111 = (12 + 12 + 12 )
8𝑚𝐿2
6.626 × 10−34 2
= × (3)
8 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 10−14 2

= 9.86 × 10−13 J
 VIDEO LECTURE LINKS

1. Free Electron Theory of Metals

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-eOdZFt9BY

2. Derivation of Electrical Conductivity of Metals from Classical Free

Electron Theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2zgAs5O7I8

3. Derivation of Thermal Conductivity of Metals from Classical Free

Electron Theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6fx2oMbf6s

4. Derivation of Density of States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smKQtZUhtBQ

5. Band Theory of Solids

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BsZe9MVv8Yc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwlWIfNvt1w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcE2Wcpm05k
 QUIZ

After completing the course, students are instructed to take the following quiz to
quantify their understanding of the concepts on the conducting materials.

1. https://forms.gle/4Js19RLQ2dZDox5T7

2. https://forms.gle/KiuJ5JoDHoUZGQpJ7

3. https://forms.gle/66YDFH2DQcJ1GGL58

RESULTS
Repeat your learning, if your score is less than 60%.
Congratulations, if your score is above 90%.
 ASSIGNMENTS

1. List out conducting, semiconducting and insulating materials that you

see at your home or at other places. Your list must contain materials
not less than five (05) under each category. You need to name the
material with its chemical formula and its purpose.

2. A cubical box of size L is consisting of 25 identical, distinguishable and

non-interacting particles of mass m. Show the ground state
arrangement of particles at different energy levels.

3. Draw the band diagrams of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

You must give at least two (02) elemental solids as examples under
each category. Please note that conductors have two band diagrams –
one with the partially filed valance band and the other with the overlap
of valance and conduction bands. So, in total, there must be four band
diagrams and two (02) elemental solids as examples under each
category.

4. Plot to the scale the Fermi – Dirac distribution function for three (03)
different temperatures: 0, 1000 and 2000 K. Take the Fermi energy as 2
eV and use graph sheet for the plot.
 PART A – QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. Define mean free path. (K1, CO3)

The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions

inside a metal is known as mean free path.

2. Define relaxation time. (K1, CO3)

Relaxation time is the time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position
from its disturbed position, due to the field applied.

3. How does the classical free electron theory lead to Ohm’s law?
(April/May 2018) (K3, CO3)

From classical free electron theory, current density is given by

J = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
= 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝐸
J=𝜎𝐸

The above relation is the microscopic form of the Ohm’s law. Hence, the classical
free electron theory has led to the Ohm’s law.

4. Define collision time (𝝉𝒄 ). (K1, CO3)

Collision time is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive
collisions.

5. Define drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ). (May / June 2014) (K1, CO3)

The average velocity acquired by a free electron in a particular direction, due to the
application of electric field, is called drift velocity.

6. Define mobility of electron (µ). Write its unit?

(April / May 2015, Nov / Dec 2016) (K1, CO3)

Mobility is defined as drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 per unit electric field 𝐸.

𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1.
7. Distinguish between drift velocity and thermal velocity of an electron.
(May/June 2016) (K2, CO3)

S.No Drift velocity Thermal velocity

Drift velocity is the average velocity Thermal velocity is the velocity of

1 acquired by the free electron in the the electron acquired due to
presence of the electric field change in temp.

The electrons moves in the direction The electron moves in random

2
opposite to that of the field direction

The velocity is very less in the order The velocity is very high in the
3
of 0.5 m/s order of 105 m/s

8. What are the sources of resistance in metals? (K1, CO3)

The resistance in metals is due to

 impurities present in metals

 temperature of the metal

 defect in the arrangement of atom

9. Mention postulates of classical free electron theory. (K1, CO3)

(i) A metal consists of very large number of free electrons which can move freely
throughout the body of the metal.

(ii) These free electrons move randomly in all possible directions just like gas
molecules in a container.

(iii) In the absence of electric field, free electrons move in a random manner.

(iv) In external electric field, electrons acquire applied electric field and begin to
move towards positive potential.

10. Define electrical conductivity. (K1, CO3)

Electrical conductivity (σ) is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per

second through unit area of cross-section by maintaining unit potential gradient.
11. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?
(Nov/Dec 2014, May / June 2016) (K1, CO3)

(i) It verifies Ohm’s law.

(ii) It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.

(iii) It states Wiedemann-Franz law.

(iv) It explains optical properties of metals.

12. Mention the drawbacks of classical free electron theory.

(Nov / Dec 2014), (April / May 2015) (K1, CO3)
(OR) What are the properties of metals described inadequately by
Drude’s model? (Nov / Dec 2016) (K1, CO3)

(i) The phenomena such as Photo-electric effect, Compton effect and Black body
radiation could not be explained by classical free electron theory.

(ii) Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators couldn’t be explained

using this model.

(iii) Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.

(iv) Mismatch of theoretical and experimental value of Lorentz number.

(v) The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic
specific heat are not matched.

13. Define co-efficient of thermal conductivity (K) of a material.

(K1, CO3)

It is defined as the quantity of heat conducted per second through unit area of
cross-section by maintaining unit temperature gradient.
𝐾=𝑄

14. Define density of states. What is its use?

Density of states 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 is defined as the number of available energy states per

unit volume in an energy interval 𝑑𝐸. It is used to calculate the number of charge
carriers per unit volume of the solid.
15. State Wiedemann - Franz law. (April / May 2015) (K1, CO3)
Wiedmann-Franz law states that the ratio of thermal conductivity K to electrical
conductivity σ of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal (T).
𝐾 𝐾
∝𝑇 (or) = 𝐿𝑇
𝜎 𝜎
L is proportionality constant and it is known as Lorentz Number

16. Calculate Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory. (K3, CO3)
From Wiedemann - Franz law,
2
𝐾 3 𝑘𝐵
= 𝐿𝑇 where 𝐿=
𝜎 2 𝑒
By substituting the values, we get
2
3 1.38x × 10−23
, 𝐿= = 1.12 × 10−8 W Ω K −2
2 1.602 × 10−19
But the quantum mechanically calculated experimental value of Lorentz number is
2.44 × 10−8 W Ω K −2

17. Define Fermi level. (K1, CO3)

It is the maximum energy level up to which the electrons can be filled at 0 K.

18. Write Fermi – Dirac distribution function. (K1, CO3)

The probability 𝐹 𝐸 of an electron occupying an energy level E is given by Fermi -
Dirac distribution function.
1
𝐹 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1+ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵𝑇
EF - Fermi energy, kB – Boltzmann constant

19. Write the classification of materials based on forbidden gap.

(K1, CO3)

Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types, they are

 Insulators

 Conductors

 Semiconductors
20. What is meant by degenerate and non-degenerate states? (K1, CO3)

If the energy state which has same energy eigen value but different eigen functions
for several combination of quantum numbers, then it is called as degenerate
state.

If the energy state which has same energy eigen value and same eigen functions for
several combination of quantum numbers, then it is called as non-degenerate
state.

21. Define zero probability, unit probability and fractional probability.

(K1, CO3)

Zero probability: It is the state which remains always empty and the electrons
cannot be filled in it, i.e. F(E) = 0

Unit probability: It is the state which is always filled with the electron, i.e. F(E) =
1.

Fractional probability: It is the state which may be filled or empty or partially

filled by electron or it is the state which is filled by the electrons for some time and
then will become empty, i.e. F(E) will be a fraction like 0.5, 0.6.

22. Explain the concept of hole and give its advantage.

(April/ May 2018) (K1, CO3)

When the electrons are accelerated in a periodic potential, its mass varies and it
moves in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied field. This variation of
mass of an electron is called as negative mass behaviour of electrons.

Hole: The electrons with negative mass is called as hole, which has same positive
mass as that an electron but instead of negative charge, the hole will posses positive
charge.

Advantage: If we have ‘n’ number of empty states in a nearly filled band, then
these ‘n’ number of empty states can be considered as ‘n’ number of holes.
 PART B – QUESTIONS

1. Derive expressions for electrical and thermal conductivities on the basis of

classical free electron theory and deduce the value of Lorentz number.
(Nov/Dec 2014, Nov/Dec 2016, May/June 2016) (K1, CO3)

2. Deduce a mathematical for electrical conductivity of conducting materials and

hence obtain Wiedemann Franz law. (April / May 2018, 2015) (K1, CO3)

3. On the basis of classical free electron theory, derive an expression for thermal
conductivity of metals. State and prove the Wiedemann-Franz Law. (K1, CO3)

4. What is density of states? Derive an expression for the density of states.

(April / May 2018) (K1, CO3)

5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the
carrier concentration in metals. (K1, CO3)
(May/June 2014, Nov/Dec 2014, April/May 2015, Nov/Dec 2016)

6. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function varies with
Temperature. (K1, CO3)

7. Explain the origin of band gap when the electron is moving in a periodic
potential. Also explain the effective mass of electron in a periodic potential.
(K1, CO3)

8. Discuss qualitatively how band theory of solids leads to the classification of solids
into conductors, semiconductors and insulators.. (K2, CO3)
 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

NPTEL COURSES

1. Introduction to Solid State Physics

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/115/104/115104109/
Duration of the course: 12 weeks

2. Physics of Materials
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/106/113106039/
Duration of the course: 12 weeks
 REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY TO DAY LIFE AND
INDUSTRY

1. Metals with high electrical conductivity are used as power transmission lines and
also at homes for electrical wiring.

2. In all electrical and electronic devices, the electrical connection between different
components of the circuit is established by metals with high electrical
conductivity. In the below figure, metals are identified as the continuous lines
which connect different components of the printed circuit board.
3. Metals due to their high thermal conductivity are used in cookware for a fast
transfer of heat to the food items being cooked. This helps in cooking faster.

4. Insulators provide electrical and thermal insulation to devices and in turn,

provide safety and avoid potential hazards.

5. Semiconductors find applications as LED bulbs at homes and other places, and as
electronic component in TV, computer, laptop, mobile phone and so on.
 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. E Vs k, Brillouin Zone and the Origin of Energy Bands

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGDvXBu9LJ4

2. Kronig-Penny Model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZemvjQdLffo

3. Concept of Effective Mass

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qmZ-JX1Zlnw

52
 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXTBOOKS

1. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A text book of Engineering

Physics”, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.

2. R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, Dhanpat Rai

Publications (P) Ltd., Eighth Ed., New Delhi, 2001.

3. V. Rajendran, “Materials Science”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2011.

4. R.A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”,
Ninth Ed., Cengage Learning, 2014.

5. C. Kittel, “Introduction to Solid State Physics”, 8th Ed., John Wiley &
Sons, NJ, USA, 2005.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, “Fundamentals of Physics”, 9th

Ed., John Wiley & sons, 2011.

2. R.P. Feynman, “The Feynman Lectures on Physics - Vol. I, II and III”,

The New Millennium Edition, 2012.

3. N.W. Aschroft and N.D. Mermin, “Solid State Physics”, Harcourt College
Publishers, 1976.

4. S.O. Pillai, “Solid state physics”, New Age International, 2015.

5. M.A. Wahab, “Solid State Physics”, 3rd Edition, Narosa Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., 2015

6. N. Garcia and A. Damask, “Physics for Computer Science Students”,

Springer-Verlag, 2012.
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

1. Which material conduct electricity?

https://youtu.be/mWhwVygdjPo

2. Basic circuit kit – Conductors and insulators

https://youtu.be/7KXkjoJr8kU

3. What conducts electricity?

https://youtu.be/Y66PW1nIea0
 Thank you

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