BRIEF REVIEW
METABOLIC RESPONSES AT VARIOUS INTENSITIES
RELATIVE TO CRITICAL SWIMMING VELOCITY
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ARGYRIS G. TOUBEKIS1 AND SAVVAS P. TOKMAKIDIS2
1
Department of Aquatic Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Athens, Greece; and 2Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Democritus University of Thrace,
CX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC1y0abggQZXdtwnfKZBYtws= on 10/25/2023
Komotini, Thrace, Greece
ABSTRACT
Toubekis, AG and Tokmakidis, SP. Metabolic responses at
various intensities relative to critical swimming velocity.
J Strength Cond Res 27(6): 1731–1741, 2013—To avoid
any improper training load, the speed of endurance training
needs to be regularly adjusted. Both the lactate threshold (LT)
velocity and the velocity corresponding to the maximum lac-
tate steady state (MLSS) are valid and reliable indices of
swimming aerobic endurance and commonly used for evalu-
ation and training pace adjustment. Alternatively, critical
velocity (CV), defined as the velocity that can be maintained
without exhaustion and assessed from swimming perfor-
mance of various distances, is a valid, reliable, and practical
index of swimming endurance, although the selection of the
proper distances is a determinant factor. Critical velocity may
be 3–6 and 8–11% faster compared with MLSS and LT,
respectively. Interval swimming at CV will probably show
steady-lactate concentration when the CV has been calcu-
lated by distances of 3- to 15-minute duration, and this is
more evident in adult swimmers, whereas increasing or
decreasing lactate concentration may appear in young and
children swimmers. Therefore, appropriate corrections should
be made to use CV for training pace adjustment. Findings in
young and national level adult swimmers suggest that repeti-
tions of distances of 100–400 m, and velocities correspond-
ing to a CV range of 98–102% may be used for pacing
aerobic training, training at the MLSS, and possibly training
for improvement of V_ O2max. Calculation of CV from distances
of 200–400, 50–100–200–400, or 100–800 m is an easy
and practical method to assess aerobic endurance. This
review intends to study the physiological responses and the
feasibility of using CV for aerobic endurance evaluation and
Address correspondence to Dr. Argyris G. Toubekis, atoubekis@phed.
uoa.gr.
27(6)/1731–1741
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
training pace adjustment, to help coaches to prescribe train-
ing sets for different age-group swimmers.
KEY WORDS aerobic endurance, swimming tests, training
pace, age-group swimmers
INTRODUCTION
C
ompetitive swimmers spend most of their training
time aiming at improving aerobic endurance,
defined as the ability to sustain a high percentage
of V_ O2max for a long period (4,43), through careful
and repeated activation of aerobic metabolism. This type of
training is important for performance in events .4 minutes
and essential for long duration events performed in open
water (5 and 10 km). Such training is also significant for
swimming races of shorter duration (30 seconds to 3 minutes)
because the aerobic contribution in such events is not to be
underestimated (21). During aerobic endurance interval train-
ing, pacing, duration of the set, duration of each repetition,
number of repetitions, and rest interval need to be defined and
modified according to chronological age, training progression,
experience, and competitive level of swimmers. Pacing and
any changes on aerobic endurance during a training season
are detected by regular testing to assess the effectiveness of
the training. This may be achieved by several types of swim-
ming-specific tests (40).
For improvement of aerobic endurance and training pace
adjustment, the identification of the velocity corresponding
to lactate threshold (LT), the velocity at maximal lactate
steady state (MLSS) or the velocity corresponding to 4
mmol$L21 blood lactate concentration (onset of blood lac-
tate accumulation [OBLA]) are commonly used in children
and in young or elite competitive swimmers (27,36,46,49).
Each one of these aerobic endurance indices may represent
a different exercise domain; however, all the above testing
procedures require repeated blood sampling and data han-
dling with specific knowledge. Additionally, the time neces-
sary to complete each test is long and makes it difficult to
apply such testing and acquire the results in a large group of
swimmers in the training setting, where space is also an
issue. Easier and more practical testing procedures have
been developed for the assessment of aerobic endurance.
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 6 | JUNE 2013 | 1731
 Metabolic Responses Around Critical Swimming Velocity
One of the most commonly tested indices is the critical
swimming velocity, which has been extensively studied over
the last 20 years, and it is based on the notion of critical
power (31). This test appears to be more practical, because
it does not require blood sampling and can be easily applied
for the evaluation of swimming aerobic endurance
(29,45,50,52,53). Critical velocity (CV) is expressed by the
slope of time vs. distance regression line. This line is drawn
using the time to cover several swimming distances at max-
imal intensity or by the time to exhaustion at several given
intensities. According to its theoretical definition, this sub-
maximal CV intensity can be sustained infinitely, although
this is not the case in practice.
Since 1992, several articles in the literature have explored
the physiological meaning of CV and its practical possible
applications in swimming training (8,9,11,12,20,38,45). The
main discrepancy in the scientific literature is the location of
CV across the exercise intensity domains. Such information is
somehow fundamental for the understanding of the physio-
logical stress associated with training around CV or at CV. To
help in this direction, a comparison of CV vs. other relevant
indices and the examination of metabolic responses corre-
sponding to this intensity are essential. We believe that this
review will provide adequate evidence to enhance the existing
knowledge in this area. In the first part of this review, we have
presented the different approaches used to calculate CV in
swimming. The validity of CV, its relationship with other
indices of aerobic endurance, and selected physiological
responses at an intensity relative to CV have been reported
in the second part. The last part of this review focuses on the
lactate responses when swimming at intensities relative to CV.
In this part, the lactate responses have been reported accord-
ing to different combinations of distances used for CV calcu-
lation and according to different age-group swimmers.
The present review mainly focuses on swimming research
because (a) cycling and running studies rarely use compet-
itive athletes and (b) the findings on cycling or running may
not be directly relevant to well-trained competitive swim-
mers, because of the effect the energetic cost has on the
distance-time relationship, and subsequently on CV in
swimming (16). Indeed during swimming, the energy cost
increases exponentially with increasing intensity. In some
cases, findings from cycling or running studies will be taken
into consideration because of unavailable data on swimming.
The purpose of this review is to examine (a) the physiolog-
ical responses in swimming corresponding to CV intensity
and (b) the feasibility of using CV as an index of aerobic
endurance evaluation and training pace adjustment. This
information will provide evidence for the location of CV
across the exercise intensity domains, helping coaches to
prescribe training for different age groups.
Calculation of Critical Velocity—Methods and Limitations
Several issues must be considered when calculating CV, such
as the number of maximum effort tests, the duration of each
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1732 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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tested distance, and the mathematical model used for its
determination. In swimming, combinations of 2–6 testing
distances have been used for this purpose (7,11,50,55). The
less number of tested distances may be easier and more
practical but may increase the error of calculation (7). The
testing distances that have been used for swimmers ranged
from 50 to 1,500 m and have a duration from 25 seconds to
20 minutes. The duration of distances selected is dependent
on the level, specialty, age, and gender of the swimmers.
Younger swimmers or female swimmers tend to spend more
time on each distance, and this will affect the calculation of
CV. As a result, the selection of distances is critical and
Wakayoshi et al. (50) suggested that swimmers should com-
plete distances of 50, 100, 200, and 400 m with a maximum
intensity. Nevertheless, several combinations of less, more, or
different distances have been used for the calculation of
CV (i.e., 200 and 400; 100–800; 300–2,000; 50–1,500 m)
(7,9,11,41,55), whereas each distance can be tested in a dif-
ferent day after an appropriate warm-up.
For practical reasons, to test a large number of swimmers,
coaches can use 2 distances at the same day (same training
session), given that a complete recovery has been applied
between efforts (i.e., 50 and 400 m in 1 session and 100,
200 m on the following day with 30–40 minutes of active or
passive recovery). Testing 2 distances on the same day does
not affect the validity of the CV calculation (54). However, it
is not known whether the order of tested distances in each
session will affect the results (i.e., testing long distances first).
A large number of swimmers can be tested on the same time
when space is available. When space is not available and
many swimmers are tested in the same line, a distance of
at least 15–20 m should be kept between them to avoid the
effect of drafting (6). Additionally, the time to exhaustion at
a given intensity may be used during testing for CV calcula-
tion. However, the use of time to exhaustion is less valid
when testing swimmers (2). For an accurate calculation of
the time to exhaustion at a predetermined speed, a series of
pace lights at the bottom of the pool, or other pacing meth-
ods (walkers on the pool side, an mp3 player with prere-
corded bleep) can be used.
After completing the testing sessions, one of several
mathematical models is used for the CV calculation. Two-
parameter linear models such as the velocity vs. inverse of time
or distance vs. time and nonlinear model for the calculation of
the asymptote of the parabolic relationship of swimming
velocity with the time to exhaustion can be used to calculate
the CV. Independent of the duration of tests or the procedure
selected to calculate CV (fixed distance or time to exhaustion
trials), the selection of the mathematical model is also an
important issue. In swimming, the most commonly used
model is the 2-parameter linear model of distance vs. time.
The 2-parameter nonlinear and very recently the 3-parameter
models have been proven equally practical for swimmers (55).
To avoid the miscalculation of CV, it is important to
follow some prerequisites as described by diPrampero (17).

During an effort used to calculate CV, the swimmer should
be able to reach maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2max) and
exhaust the anaerobic energy stores (17). Furthermore, the
energy cost of exercise should be constant up to the maxi-
mum intensity (16). This cannot be the case in swimming,
because the energy cost increases exponentially at velocities
leading to an attainment of V_ O2max. A series of additional
tests with measure of V_ O2 for an adjustment in CV calcula-
tion has been suggested to overcome the exponential
increase of energy cost (16) but this would also reduce the
practical interest of CV. To satisfy some of these prerequisites
for a correct calculation of CV, recent studies have used
distances of 200 and 400; 100–800; or 300–2,000 m
(8,9,11,41). It seems that the most appropriate duration of
distances is between 3 and 15 minutes when the 2-parameter
model is used, whereas the inclusion of a shorter duration
distance of 1 minute could be better when a 3-parameter
model is used for CV calculation (55). The use of an appro-
priate distance number and combination together with the
appropriate mathematical model will lead to CV calculation
that complies with its definition (exercising for a long dura-
tion without fatigue). It is important to note that several
studies have calculated the slope of the distance-time rela-
tionship using very short-distance trials of 10, 15, 20, 25 m or
75, 100, 150 m (1,28). This parameter called anaerobic CV
has been tested for use during training sets planned to acti-
vate anaerobic metabolism (32) and should not be confused
and compared with the CV discussed in this review.
Validity and Comparison of CV With Other Aerobic
Endurance Indexes
Validity of Critical Velocity. To test the concurrent validity of
CV as an index for the evaluation of aerobic endurance, the
CV was compared with the velocity of LT, MLSS, and with
the speed during a T30 test. All the above indexes were
significantly related to CV (LT: r = 0.8–0.9) (30,46) (MLSS:
r = 0.87) (6), and (T30: r = 0.81, r = 0.89) (12,19). However,
the CV does not show a significant relationship with V_ O2max
in well-trained swimmers (r = 0.32, r = 20.16, r = 20.25, r =
0.48) (50,52,53).
A high relationship between CV and 1 index of aerobic
endurance (MLSS, LT, T30) does not necessarily mean that
these indices can be used interchangeably. The exercise
intensity domains are indeed demarcated by LT, MLSS, and
V_ O2max, and the corresponding physiological responses are
presented in Figure 1. The upper limit of the moderate inten-
sity domain is LT and continuous swimming for a given
speed within this domain will induce a likely decrease in
blood lactate concentration and V_ O2 steady state. The upper
limit of heavy intensity is demarcated by MLSS and contin-
uous exercise within this domain can be maintained with
high but stable blood lactate and oxygen consumption levels.
The next and above intensity domain is demarcated by the
V_ O2max and is the so-called severe intensity domain. It has
been suggested, however, that a very heavy intensity domain
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demarcated by the CV is located above MLSS and below
V_ O2max (10,35). Exercise within this heavy intensity domain
will progressively increase blood lactate but may not reach
V_ O2max. Swimming above CV will rapidly increase blood
lactate concentration and V_ O2 up to V_ O2max. Higher swim-
ming speed than that corresponding to V_ O2max will eventu-
ally exhaust the swimmer within a short period of time.
Critical Velocity and Lactate Threshold. According to Martin
and Whyte (30), the CV calculated in adult triathletes, using
distances of 100–1,500 m in the modeling (1,500 m; about
20 minutes), was found to be 11% faster than LT (30). The
CV of national level male swimmers calculated from distan-
ces of 50, 100, 200, 400 m (1.478 6 0.050 m$s21) and 200,
400 m (1.465 6 0.065 m s21) was found to be 8–10% higher
compared with LT (1.348 6 0.067 m$s21) (25). In the above-
mentioned studies, the LT was calculated as the inflection
point of the speed-lactate curve. It is important to note that
several protocols have been proposed for the identification
of the LT point, where lactate concentration and its corre-
sponding velocity have being protocol dependent. There-
fore, any point of the speed-lactate curve rather than
a threshold point may be important for training and evaluation
of an athlete (44); similarly, CV calculated by different distance
combinations can be valuable in practice but may be insufficient
in any comparison between LT and CV. Whatever be the case,
there is adequate evidence that the velocity at LT as defined in
various studies is 8–11% lower compared with CV (25,30).
Critical Velocity and Maximal Lactate Steady State. A steady
metabolic response was observed during intermittent 4 3
400-m or 4 3 5-minswimming at CV, an increase or decrease
in blood lactate was noticed during swimming at intensities
2% higher or lower than CV, respectively, in male swimmers
(51,52). Constant blood lactate concentration on a similar
intermittent protocol has been observed in swimmers special-
ized in sprint (50–100 m) or middle and long distance (400–
1,500 m) events (38). Similarly, Machado et al. (26) showed
that CV calculated from a distance of 50, 100, 200, 400 m was
similar to MLSS before and after a period of training. Based
on the above findings, CV was considered as intensity similar
to the MLSS. However, the intermittent swimming applied
in the above studies (4–5 3 400 m with short 30- to 40-
second rest interval) does not guarantee an accurate calcula-
tion of MLSS. Recent studies using continuous 30-minute
swims, that is, a more precise methodology to determine
MLSS, have found that CV calculated using distances of
200 and 400 m was 5–6% higher compared with MLSS
(11,34). A similar finding has been reported while the CV
was calculated with distances of 100, 200, 400, and 800 m (9).
Critical Velocity, OBLA, and Continuous 30-Minute Swimming
Test. It has been reported that the OBLA and T30 probably
represent the same intensity and a similar metabolic
response during swimming (33). The CV calculated by
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 Metabolic Responses Around Critical Swimming Velocity

Figure 1. Exercise intensity domains during continuous exercise and their respective physiological responses. On the left side, the endurance indices that
demarcate these domains are shown. On the right side of the figure, the intensity domains are described with the terminology used by swimming coaches.

distances of 200 and 400 m was found to be higher by 3.2%
compared with the speed in a T30 test (12). The difference
between CV and T30 may be increased to 5–6% when dis-
tances of 100 and 400 or 50 and 400 m were used for the CV
calculation (12). In contrast, when longer distances for CV
calculation were used (i.e., race times 50; 100; 200; 400; 800;
and 1,500 m), no difference was observed between CV and
T30 (7,19). Furthermore, CV seems to be higher compared
with OBLA (velocity corresponding to blood lactate con-
centration of 4 mmol L21) in children and young swimmers
10–15 years old and in adult swimmers (13,19,25,39). How-
ever, Costa et al. (7) reported no difference between OBLA
and CV calculated from distances of 100, 200, 400 m,
although their data show about 5% higher CV.
Physiological Responses to Relative to Critical Velocity Intensities.
Critical velocity is higher than LT and MLSS, but it is lower
than the velocity at V_ O2max (vV_ O2max), which is about the
speed of a 400-m maximum intensity in swimming (CV:
;93% of vV_ O2max; (11). To understand the location of CV
within the intensity domains well, not only blood lactate
measurements but also a continuous recording of oxygen
uptake during efforts below, above, and at CV is necessary.
This is made possible in swimming with a specifically
designed expiratory mask connected to a portable expired
gas analyzer (23). However, oxygen uptake response during
swimming at CV has not been reported yet and any conclu-
sion concerning the location of CV across the intensity do-
mains is based mainly on blood lactate concentration during
continuous and intermittent swimming. Collection of expired
the
air during recovery, after a maximal or submaximal exercise
may be used to assess the intensity of an effort. Using this
technique, Dekerle et al. (9) showed that oxygen uptake may
reach 95% of V_ O2max during a 24-minute effort of continuous
swimming at CV. Long distance runners with a CV corre-
sponding to 86% of the velocity at the V_ O2max (vV_ O2max)
were able to exercise at an intensity 90% of the vV_ O2max
without reaching maximum oxygen uptake and without
appearance of cardiovascular drift, which is normally
observed during high intensity aerobic exercise (3). Addition-
ally, in cases where a significant increase in blood lactate
concentration and a cardiorespiratory drift was observed dur-
ing running at CV, none of the participants reached V _ O2max
_
(intensity 76–90 of VO2max, duration 20–60 minutes) (5).
These data reported after exercise in cycling or running con-
firms that exercise at CV displays characteristics of very heavy
intensity exercise, where oxygen uptake is close to maximum
and blood lactate concentration very high (3,5). There is evi-
dence to support that a similar response may occur during
swimming (9). However, this needs to be confirmed with
appropriate future studies designed to examine additional
physiological parameters (i.e., V_ O2, blood pH).
Lactate Responses During Swimming to Relative to Critical
Velocity Intensities
Data Retrieval and Processing. Because of the difficulty in
collecting respiratory exchanges in swimming, blood lactate
responses have been extensively used in swimming research.
To acquire the lactate response at swimming intensity
corresponding to CV, the “Pubmed” and “Sport discus”
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1734 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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databases were searched for studies that have reported lac-
tate responses during free continuous, free intermittent, or
flume swimming. The key words used in combination with
the word “swimmers” were “critical swimming velocity,”
“critical swimming speed,” “slope of distance time.” Studies
were selected if they had reported the velocity of the swim-
ming set being studied in percentage of CV, or if it was
possible to calculate this percent from the available data.
The range, the average, and the blood lactate concentration at
the end of the set (whether continuous or intermittent) were
used for comparison. Fourteen studies in total have examined
the blood lactate responses at intensities ranging from 94 to
105% of CV. Ten of the studies were obtained from the original
search, and 4 more studies were realized from the Biomechanics
and Medicine Congresses proceeding of years 2006 and 2010.
Data from these studies are reported in Table 1. Within each
study, different groups or different experimental conditions
were used, and these were treated as separate data points.
Forty-five different data points for the average and end-lactate
concentration were analyzed.
The combination of swimming distances used for the
calculation of CV and the age of the swimmers are key
factors and should always be taken into consideration. The
ability level, the specialty, and the stage of preparation of the
swimmers are also distinct factors that affect the metabolic
responses across studies. Additional factors that may poten-
tially affect metabolic responses are the swimming stroke
and the pool length where the study was conducted (25 or
50 m), whereas the type of lactate analyzer or the bio-
chemical procedure applied for the determination of blood
lactate in each study should be considered when comparing
values of different studies. The combination of distances
used for CV calculation and the age of swimmers were
included for the analysis of data in this review. Therefore, the
data presented should be interpreted with caution. The
average and the end-blood lactate values of all studies and
groups within each study were further investigated to draw
the relationship of blood lactate with CV. Five intervals of
2% increase or decrease from CV were defined (1 study
having used an intensity of 94% of CV was included in the
intensity range 95–97%). This gave 9, 12, 15, and 8 data
points (groups) included in the intensity range 95–97, 97.1–
99, 99.1–101, 101.1–103%, respectively, and 1 study has
reported intensity .103.1% of CV. The mean age of the
swimmers was similar in all groups (16.4 6 3.9, 17.2 6 2.7,
16.8 6 3.6, 17.4 6 2.1 years), whereas swimmers in the last
step (103.1–105%) were slightly older (21.2 6 2.6 years old).
Results are illustrated in Figure 2 where a typical speed-lac-
tate curve was obtained and blood lactate concentration was
found to increase at the intensity range of 99–101% of CV.
However, this curve was plotted irrespective of the combi-
nation of distances used for CV calculation. It would now be
interesting to examine these lactate responses around CV
with an insight into the methodology used to calculate CV
and the age groups of the participants.
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Lactate Responses According to Combination of Distances. A
curvilinear relationship was expected between swimming
intensity (expressed as the percentage of CV) and blood
lactate concentration. The relationship between end-blood
lactate concentration and swimming intensity expressed in
percentage of CV is presented in more detail in Figure 3. The
end-blood lactate concentration at intensity relative to CV
calculated from distances of 200–400 m shows a weak rela-
tionship with increasing swimming velocity (r = 0.46, p =
0.43). These data are shown in the upper left panel of Figure
3. However, when using combinations of distances 50–100–
200–400 m, the second-order polynomial function shows an
adequate relationship between blood lactate concentration
and increased swimming intensity, expressed as percentage
of CV (upper middle panel, Figure 3, r = 0.74, p = 0.01).
Similarly, the CV calculated from a combination including at
least one distance longer than 400 m (i.e., 800; 2,000 m and
not including the 50 m) showed a high curvilinear relation-
ship (right upper panel, Figure 3, r = 0.73, p = 0.01). Similar
correlations were observed when the average blood lactate
concentration within each set of repetitions was plotted
against the swimming intensity expressed as percentage of
CV calculated from distances of 200–400, 50–100–200–400
m and from CV calculated with combinations including
.400-m distances (r = 0.45, p = 0.46; r = 0.75, p = 0.005;
r = 0.70, p = 0.005). In Figure 3, it seems that an increase in
end-blood lactate response close to 100% of CV occurs, at
least when using combinations of $50–100–200–400 m dis-
tances to calculate CV. However, as can be seen in the right
upper panel of Figure 3, when a combination including at
least one distance .400 m was used, the rapid distinct
change in the inclination of the lactate curve is closer to
100% of CV and in most of the studies the blood lactate
concentration corresponding to intensities below and at
CV shows values ,4 mmol L21. The data points presented
in the middle panel of Figure 3 with CV calculated form
distances 50, 100, 200, 400 m clearly show blood lactate
concentration .4 mmol L21 even at intensities 5–6% below
CV. Unfortunately, the available data points in the left upper
panel do not allow for such a comparison. Whatever the
case, this information highlights the importance of the selec-
tion of distances for CV calculation and suggest that when
combinations of distances ,400 m and including 50 m are
used, the swimming speed for aerobic endurance training
should be lower by 4–5% compared with CV to maintain
a blood lactate concentration close to 4 mmol L21.
Lactate Responses at Different Age Groups and Female Swimmers.
Competitive participation starts at a very early age (10–11
years) and a large number of children participate in a daily
training with duration of 1–2 hours performing sets of repe-
titions to improve technique, fitness parameters or both. It is
likely that metabolic and energetic responses and demands of
children differ from those of adolescent or adult swimmers
(18,37). Children may show less metabolic perturbation
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Metabolic Responses Around Critical Swimming Velocity

TABLE 1. A summary of finding concerning the metabolic responses during continuous or intermittent swimming at intensities expressed relative to critical
velocity.*†
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Set
the

CV vs. Distances Set duration

CV v400 m for CV Set of Velocity of velocity or TE Blood lactate HR PL
Reference n Sex Age (y) (m s21) (%) calculation repetitions training set % of CV (min) (mmol$L21) (b$min21) (m)
Wakayoshi 8 M 19.4 6 0.8 1.44 6 0.07 94 200–400 4 3 400 1.41 98 ;20 2.5–3.0Y 25
et al. (48) 1.44 100 ;20 3.0–3.24
1.46 102 ;20 3.2–4.2[
Dekerle 9 6M 16.1 6 1.1 1.23 91 200–400 30 min 1.19 6 0.08 97 30 4.6 6 1.3 50
et al. (7) 3F Continuous
Takahashi 16 M 19.6 6 0.5 1.57 6 0.04 90.5% Of 5 3 500 S D S D
et al. (38) 8S the 300-m velocity 1.55 1.59 98 ;30 1.5–2.0 2.0–2.54
1.57 1.62 100 ;30 2.8–3.0 3.2–3.54
8D 19.6 6 1.1 1.62 6 0.03 1.59 1.65 102 ;30 3.5–4.0 5.5–5.2[
Dekerle 8 M 20.4 6 1.9 1.31 6 0.15 93 6 3 TE 95, 100, 105, 30 min 1.28 98 ,30 5.9 6 1.9 25
et al. (12) 110 of v400 m Continuous
Greco and 14 M 11.4 0.97 6 0.10 100–200–400 30 min 0.97 6 0.10 100 30 3.8–3.84 167 6 11
Denadai (22) 11 F 11.4 1.01 6 0.09 Continuous 0.97 6 0.08 96 30 2.6–2.64 177 6 15
TM

13 M 13.9 1.10 6 0.13 1.07 6 0.11 97 30 4.3–4.94 174 6 16

13 F 13.9 0.93 6 0.06 0.91 6 0.05 98 30 3.2–3.64 174 6 10
Filipatou 15 M 11.5 6 0.6 1.17 6 0.04 97 6 0.3 50–100–200–400 4 3 300 1.12 6 0.04 95 6 0.5 ;20 3.3–3.74 171 6 10 50
et al. (19) 8C 1.17 6 0.04 100 6 1.0 ;20 4.6–5.24 183 6 6
7A 16.0 6 1.7 1.34 6 0.04 96 6 1 4 3 400 1.28 6 0.03 95 6 0.5 ;24 3.8–4.64 179 6 10
1.34 6 0.03 100 6 0.6 ;22 5.5–8.0[ 188 6 11
Takahashi 12 9M 1.17 6 0.05 50–300–2000 5 3 400 1.14 98 30 1.8–1.94 164 6 10 25
et al. (39) 3F 1.17 100 30 3.0–3.84[ 173 6 10
1.19 102 30 3.9–5.14[ 179 6 10
Ribeiro 12 M 16.5 6 1.2 1.28 6 0.07 93 6 2 200–400 5 3 400 1.28 100 21–32 5.7–7.9[ 181 6 8 50
et al. (35)
Tsalis et al. (47) 8 F 10.4 6 0.6 0.96 6 0.05 96 50–100–200–400 5 3 300 0.97 101 6 2 28 4.1–4.94[ 50
11 F 13.1 6 0.4 1.17 6 0.09 96 5 3 400 1.15 98 6 3 31 4.4–5.14[
7 F 19.9 6 4.4 1.22 6 0.05 96 5 3 400 1.19 98 6 3 30 3.5–4.14[
Dekerle 9 M 21.2 6 2.6 1.25 6 0.06 92 100–200–400–800 Continuous 1.19 95 49 3.8 25
et al. (8) Continuous 1.25 100 24 8.4
Continuous 1.31 105 8 10.2
10 3 400 1.25 100 54 4.2
Machado et al. 10 M 16.3 6 2.4 1.41 6 0.11 98 50–100–200–400 4 3 400 98 4.1–4.34
pretraining 100
(25) 102
Machado et al., 10 M 16.3 6 2.4 1.45 6 0.10 97 50–100–200–400 4 3 400 98 4.8–6.04[
posttraining 100
(25) 102
Toubekis 10 M 15.2 6 1.2 1.33 6 0.09 97 6 1 50–100–200–400 5 3 400 1.27 6 0.07 96 6 2 ;30 4.3–6.3[4 188 6 5 50
et al. (42) 10 3 200 1.29 6 0.09 98 6 2 ;30 4.8–6.1[4 192 6 2
20 3 100 1.32 6 0.08 100 6 3 ;30 4.3–6.3[4 188 6 3

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during exercise, lower blood lactate values, and faster recovery

during interval exercise when compared with adults (15,37).

*n = number of participants; CV = critical velocity; v400 m = velocity of 400 m; TE = time to exhaustion; HR = heart rate; PL = pool length; M = male; F = female; D = long distance
swimmers; S = short-distance swimmers; A = adolescents; C = children; [ = continuous tendency for increased lactate concentration; Y = tendency for decreased lactate
Furthermore, the appropriate intensity of exercise to improve
25 the biological capabilities and induce adaptations in adoles-
cents and adults may not be similar to that used in children.
Consequently, it is important to compare the physiological
responses of children and adolescents with those observed
in adults during swimming at the intensity corresponding to
4.0–5.04

CV. No difference between LT and CV in 12- to 13-year-old

3.28

4.49

trained children has been reported (45,46), whereas a signifi-

cantly higher CV compared with LT was observed in adult
triathletes and well-trained national level swimmers (25,30).
The inconsistency in comparisons between CV and LT may
be attributed to the varied methodologies used to calculate LT
30

30
20

and the different distances selected for the calculation of CV.

Furthermore, the different time required to complete each
distance in children compared with adult swimmers, adds
99 6 3
102 6 3
103 6 3

100
94

96

one more limitation when comparing the responses of chil-

dren with those of adults. Despite these methodological differ-
ences, the findings raise questions concerning the practical
application and limitation in using CV in younger swimmers.
1.27 6 0.07
1.29 6 0.09
1.32 6 0.08
1.22

1.25
1.30

Swimming at CV during intermittent swimming of 4 3 300 m

for children and 4 3 400 m for adolescents showed different
metabolic responses with blood lactate concentration progres-
sively increasing in adolescents but remaining steady in chil-
Continuous

Continuous
4 3 5 min
10 3 200
20 3 100
5 3 400

dren (20). This variable remained stable when the intensity

†In cases of repeated blood sampling, the range of values during a training set is reported.

was reduced to 95% of CV in children and adolescents,

concentration; [4 = initial increase and subsequent stabilization of lactate concentration.

although concentration values were lower in children (20).

Women may show lower lactate concentration at the same
relative exercise intensity and slower rate of lactate removal
during recovery (14). Furthermore, female participants tend to
adopt an adult profile earlier within puberty compared with
200–400
200–400

male participants because they also show earlier biological

TE

maturity (15). Female swimmers of an age range 11–19 years

old showed similar metabolic responses during an intermit-
tent set at intensity 98–100% of CV (48). These results con-
1.27 6 0.09 93 6 2

firm that metabolic differences between ages are evident in

94

male but not in female swimmers. Additionally, adult and

young female participants showed lower blood lactate com-
1.30 6 0.08

M 19.8 6 0.8 1.30 6 0.07

pared with male participants (20,22,48). However, as is

already mentioned, the limitation of the duration of each dis-
tance at different ages and genders should be considered,
because the duration of distances used for CV calculation in
21 6 8

women ranged from 32–38 seconds to 5–6.5 minutes, whereas

male participants covered the same distances in 28–32 sec-
onds to 4.5–5.5 minutes (20,48). Extending the duration of
M

a given distance will decrease the CV, possibly allowing

female swimmers to swim at a lower relative intensity. This
12

14

may be taken into consideration and could probably be over-

come by using a different approach in calculating the CV in
et al. (31)

et al. (51)
Wakayoshi

future studies (i.e., use time to exhaustion or swimming to

Pelarigo

cover a maximum distance at a given time).

As discussed previously, age is an important factor when
examining lactate responses. In this review, the age groups
were arbitrarily divided into 3 categories: below 14 years

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 Metabolic Responses Around Critical Swimming Velocity

by Federation International
Natation Amateur (14–17 years
for girls and 15–18 years for
boys is the youth category;
http://www.fina.org [24]).
Five intensity levels using per-
cent of CV and changes in
blood lactate concentrations
for these different age-group
swimmers are presented in Fig-
ure 4. The data points (groups)
were in total 8 for adult (20.3 6
4.2 years old), 16 for young
(15.8 6 0.5 years old), and 8
for children swimmers (12.3 6
1.3 years old). The trend seems
similar for all age groups,
Figure 2. The average (filled squares) and the end-blood lactate responses (crossed lines) at different swimming
intensities relative to the CV irrespective of age and combination of distance used for the calculation. despite somehow higher lactate
values for young swimmers. It
should be noted that there is
representing childhood, between 14.1 and 17.9 years repre- a lack of data for young and child swimmers for intensities
senting young age, and .18 years representing mature .102 and 100% of CV, respectively.
swimmers. It is clear that these age groups may not represent Additional information concerning the lactate responses
a given level of biological maturity, but this division repre- of different age-group swimmers is presented in Figure 5.
sents stages of competitive swimming classification arranged Data from studies corresponding to interval swimming

Figure 3. The blood lactate responses using different combinations of distances for CV calculation (see the text for details).

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CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, besides the prac-
tical application of CV in swim-
ming training and despite some
limitations concerning the phys-
iological meaning (16,17), CV
appears to be a valid and prac-
tical index of aerobic endurance.
There is strong evidence to sug-
gest that CV shows a high cor-
relation with LT, MLSS, and
OBLA (11,12,46), but it is high-
er exercise intensity as com-
pared with LT, T30, and
MLSS (11,25,30). Lactate re-
sponses during interval training
at intensity corresponding to
Figure 4. The blood lactate responses across different age groups at intensities relative to the CV. The
combination of distances used for the calculation of the CV was not considered.
CV may be steady or decreasing
in children, steady in adult but
possibly increasing in young
swimmers, showing exercise at
intensity at 100% of CV with repetitions of 300 or 400 m the heavy or very heavy domain. The duration of the selected
have been used in Figure 5. After each repetition in the 3 distances to calculate CV is critical for the subsequent meta-
different age groups, the lactate response reveals steady val- bolic responses during interval training and 2 or more distan-
ues in adults and children, whereas a progressive increase is ces with duration of 3–15 minutes is suggested for a valid
observed in young swimmers. This information suggests the estimation of CV that can be sustained for a long duration.
use of an intensity by 2–4% lesser than CV for aerobic endur- When the last criterion concerning the duration of the dis-
ance training in young swimmers, at least when a combina- tances is followed, there is strong evidence to suggest that
tion of 50, 100, 200, 400 m is used for CV calculation (47). interval swimming at a range of intensities corresponding to
This is probably more applicable to male than to young 94–100% of CV will show steady-lactate concentration of
female swimmers (20,48). about 3–6 mmol$L21. Future examination of oxygen uptake
responses during continuous
and intermittent swimming
should be applied to precisely
define the exercise intensity
domain when using CV. It is
also important to examine the
different metabolic responses
of children and adolescent
swimmers taking into consid-
eration the biological age and
the different competitive spe-
cialization (short or long dis-
tance swimmers). Special
attention needs to be given to
female swimmers because of
the different time duration of
the distances selected for CV
calculation because, as is the
case with children, using the
Figure 5. The blood lactate concentration during intermittent swimming (repetitions of 300 or 400 m) in different same distances may lead to
age groups when swimming at intensities corresponding to 100% of the critical velocity. Young swimmers: data
from 6 groups in 4 studies. Adult swimmers: data from 6 groups in 5 studies. Child swimmers: data from 2 groups the underestimation of CV,
in 2 studies. The numbers next to the SD bars indicate the number of studies on the corresponding point. compared with that of adult
male swimmers.

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 Metabolic Responses Around Critical Swimming Velocity
Irrespective of the combination of distances used for the CV
calculation (200 and 400 m; 50, 100, 200, and 400 m; 100–
2,000 m), the lactate concentration at intensities 98, 100, and
102% of CVare within a range of 2–6, 3–8, and 4–9 mmol$L21,
respectively. Therefore, the findings in young and national level
adult swimmers provide strong evidence to suggest that inter-
val training repetitions of distances 100–400 m, and intensity
corresponding to a range of 98–102% of CV may be used
for pacing swimmers for aerobic endurance training
(11,12,20,45,47). Considering these ideas, an appropriate
adjustment of the velocity that can be used during interval
training sets should be applied. There is a need for studies
using CV as an intensity criterion across ages to provide more
affined proposition for training designs. Further studies should
be conducted to support the training of elite swimmers as
well. The CV combines the easy application and the validity
required to build a practical tool for swimming coaches.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Series of repetitions of selected distances are used during daily
training practice. The appropriate planning of pace in each
series of repetition is important to avoid overloading or
underloading the swimmers at all ages and competitive levels.
The CV concept seems to provide a valid, easy to use, and
practical tool for proper pacing and evaluation of training.
Intermittent swimming at intensity 2–4% below CV will
probably maintain steady-lactate concentration. There is strong
evidence to suggest that this is more likely to happen when the
CV is calculated from distances of 3- to 15-minute duration.
Intermittent swimming at CV will probably progressively
increase the lactate concentration. This is more likely to
happen in young swimmers and less likely to happen in adult
swimmers, whereas lactate may decrease in child swimmers.
Progressive increase of lactate concentration is also more
likely to be observed when the CV has been calculated from
distances of short duration (i.e., 50, 100, 200, and 400 m) and
less likely when at least one distance of long duration has
been used (i.e., 10–15 minutes).
Swimming at intensity by 2% higher than CV will increase
the lactate concentration and exhaust young and adult male
swimmers. However, there is no data to support such
a suggestion for children, female and elite swimmers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors give special thanks to Jeanne Dekerle for her
thorough revision of the article.
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