Review of Related Literature

The individual interest of students is a significant factor in their academic performance

and completion. The lack of such interest has previously resulted in the loss of determination of

children posing a hindrance in their behavioral participation in academic activities and causing

notable losses during transitions from middle school to high school. Individual interest plays a

role in the intrinsic motivation of students as it can dictate their knowledge to a certain extent,

the effort and attention they dedicate to each subject, and their quality of work. It also manifests

the full engagement of students by allowing them to see the value and relevance of their learning.

Through understanding and considering these individual interests, educators will be able to aid

students in excelling overall and exerting the same effort and attentiveness in all subject areas.

Lack of Interest and Losses of Motivation in Transitions from Middle to High School

Various articles have tackled the trend in losses experienced by children as they advance

in their education, specifically exploring the loss of their determination and motivation brought

by the lack of interest as they work on academics. This has resulted as a hindrance in their

behavioral participation in academic activities, eventually even affecting their acquisition of

knowledge. These losses and their possible causes have distinctively been investigated by

Wigfield et al. in two recent reviews.

Wigfield et al. (2015) highlight the development and loss of motivation undergone by

diverse groups of children as they advance into the different levels of education and as they

mature, giving attention to the decline in motivation for many children as they grow. There are

also important individual and group differences in the development of achievement motivation,

which they have summarized, paying particular attention to the new work on culture, ethnicity,

and motivation.
 Wigfield et al. (2015) also tackled the correlation of increased interest to greater task

engagement, motivation, and a higher ability to understand material (Fredricks et al., 2004;

Hattie, 2009; Wigfield, Eccles, et al., 2006, as cited in Wigfield et al., 2015). Interesting tasks

bring about improved intrinsic motivation and the development of a strong character of

commitment to education (Deci & Ryan, 2002b; Eccles, 2009 as cited in Wigfield et al., 2015).

However, the researchers emphasize that this increased interest has not been present as needed.

Larson (2000) provides evidence that the highest rates of boredom when working on academic

tasks, notably passive work, and specifically in the subjects of social studies, mathematics, and

science, are reported among middle-school children in the United States (as cited in Wigfield et

al., 2015). This has served as an indication that educational tasks through time have not been in

alignment with the intellectual advancement, emotional demands, life encounters, interests, and

personal motivational needs of children as they move to a higher level (Eccles, 2009; Juvonen,

2007; Wigfield, Eccles, et al., 2006 as cited in Wigfield et al., 2015). Wigfield et al. (2015)

further express that lack of challenge, meaning, and relevance in academic work may then be one

of the causes of the decline in the interest and eventually the motivation of adolescents.

Correspondingly, Wigfield et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive review asserting that

students tend to lose interest in their academic subjects as they move through middle and high

school years, further discovering that this loss is brought by the higher emphasis placed on

evaluation and performance-based outcomes as students progress through their education. The

study lines this with the notion that intrinsically motivated people tend to participate in activities

out of their own interest rather than external rewards. Hence, their intrinsic motivation for

academic topics diminishes (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001 as cited in Wigfiled et al.

2019), and their appreciation for achievement is also reduced (Jacobs et al., 2002 as cited in
Wiegfiled et al. 2019). The general trend discovered is a decrease in motivation across all studies

that involved different transformations the students experienced as they lost interest in their

schooling.

Both of the presented articles of Wigfield et al. provide an in-depth discussion of the

reality of student engagement in various age groups, as well as notable and possible causes of

declining motivation and determination. The first article presents the effect of culture as well as

the lack of relatability, challenge, and meaning in the material on interest and subsequently in

student motivation and engagement, while the second review article discusses how the emphasis

on performance-based rewards has decreased motivation. Both studies provide potential steps for

further research, especially at different grade levels and the need for effective interventions for

middle and high school students. However, concrete solutions to the problems are not

emphasized by the articles. The potential role of socioeconomic factors on student motivation

and in-depth analysis of the student’s individual experiences also lack emphasis in the articles

though these may be considered significant factors as they go through their schooling.

Nevertheless, such literature reviews provide insight into the factors that can lead to motivational

loss and highlight the importance of providing positive reinforcement and an environment that

encourages learning and exploration by considering competence-related beliefs, values, goals,

interests, and intrinsic motivation in material creation and instruction. Generally, these articles

support the present researchers’ stance on interest playing a role in students’ motivation,

determination, and overall academic performance in various subjects. These have also pushed the

present researchers’ to infer that academic performance as well as continual motivation of

students is shaped by other factors, such as the influence of culture, past experiences, as well as

the relevance and challenge of the topics.

Interest and its Effects on Intrinsic Motivation and Learning Outcomes

Interest has also been found as a factor that can control the students’ knowledge, the

effort and attention they dedicate to their various academic subjects, and their quality of work,

and consequently, plays a role in intrinsic motivation. The facilitating and mediating effects of

interest on academics and motivation has been observed in different contexts, such as writing

(Albin, Benton, & Khramtsova, 1996), studying psychology (Harackiewicz, Durik, Barron,

Linnenbrink & Tauer, 2008), learning statistics (Hay, Callingham & Carmichael, 2015), in

learning STEM Education (Laine et al., 2020), and in Mathematics (Adamma et al., 2018).

In the study of Laine et al. (2020), the relationship between interest and learning was

validated through the examination of how the relationships between students’ self-reported

interest and learning in STEM subjects develop and vary in one school year, specifically through

checking if interest is reflected in grades. According to Laine et al. (2020), interest is an essential

for learning to transpire. This interest may be acquired through one’s personal interest or through

arousing situational factors. Furthermore, students who find ways to connect with topics of lower

interest, develop a sense of curiosity and desire to know more about the topic, opening

opportunities for learning, which may over time be recognized as a more well-developed

individual interest (Renninger, 2000 as cited in Laine et al., 2020). Proceeding to the

methodology, a longitudinal study on 7th grade students was executed to test the predictive

validity of three hypotheses in the context of secondary school STEM education. Data were

collected through questionnaires and grade evaluations in Mathematics and Biology three times

during the school year: at the beginning of the autumn semester, at the beginning of the spring

semester, and after the spring semester at the end of the school year. The standard hypothesis of

whether or not interest was a predictor of learning outcomes was supported only during either the
autumn semester or the spring semester, but not throughout the school year, while the second

hypothesis on whether students’ learning outcomes predicted their individual interest was

supported in the spring semester showing that students who received higher grades at the

mid-semester evaluation were more likely to express higher levels of interest in the subject at the

end of the school year.

Emphasizing the practical implication of the results, the findings point out that supporting

students’ interest in studies should in itself be viewed as an important goal as well as designing

curriculums and learning environments that offer experiences of success for each student. In

terms of theoretical relevance, this study has a longitudinal setting spanning over a whole school

year that revealed patterns that are not easy to explain within existing frameworks. Previous

research literature has usually focused only on narrow time frames where fluctuations may easily

stay out of sight. Analyzing the weaknesses of the article, it can be seen that information about

students’ learning outcomes was obtained only twice during the school year. Although students’

grades are the normal way of evaluating school performance, it may be that the pressure for

students to receive a better final grade during the spring semester is greater than during the first

half of the school year. Because their initial knowledge levels on STEM subjects were not

controlled at the beginning of the school year, there was no exact way of knowing how much

learning had taken place between time points. Furthermore, the participants were 7th graders

who were in their first year of secondary education. It can be argued that the pressure to perform

well increases towards the end of 9th grade, when they need to start making choices about their

future education, and the possible negative consequences of that also probably have a bigger

effect. Nevertheless, as compared to other articles that only account for how interest predicts

students' course choices or how interest affects certain results of their academic performance, this
article has a more detailed view of what takes place during a single school year. The study of

Laine et al. (2020) specifically presents interest as an antecedent for learning and acquisition of

knowledge which agrees with one of the current study’s points of discussion.

Similarly, Albin, Benton, and Khramstova (1996) investigated whether individual

differences in undergraduate students’ interest in two topics are related to the substance and

degree of accuracy in their writing. The researchers emphasize previous findings on the topic:

elementary students have been proven to comprehend more information from texts dealing with

their interests; middle-school students with high interest in the topic write qualitatively better

stories than those who have low interest; and finally, college students easily comprehend ideas

for topics of their high interest and make more meaning-related inferences than with a less

interesting topic to them. Moving forward, to test the hypothesis of the study stating that high

individual interest would be associated with better planning and thematic development in

narrative writing, 224 undergraduate students were asked to write about the top half of the inning

of a baseball game and about one-half of a soccer game. Furthermore, the participants completed

two six-item interest inventories and tests of baseball knowledge and soccer knowledge.

Analysis eventually revealed that individual interest in a topic is related to both interindividual

and intraindividual differences in narrative writing. Additionally, students wrote more

topic-relevant information on the baseball story—a relatively high-interest topic—than on the

soccer story, a relatively low-interest topic. These results imply that students’ interests in and

knowledge about writing topics can be assessed reliably and validly, students should be given the

opportunity to select personally interesting topics to them for writing well to be more probable,

and inconsistency should be expected in the quality of students’ writing across topics.
 This study advances previous findings regarding the role of interest in writing through

investigating individual differences in terms of interest in two ways, as compared to previous

research done such as that of Benton et al. (1995) who investigated only interindividual

differences among middle school and undergraduate students whose individual interest in a

single topic varied in intensity. In this study, the undergraduate students’ individual interests in

two topics, soccer, and baseball, were assessed and they were asked to write narratives on each

topic. Moreover, the findings of the study further push teachers to consider developing interest

and knowledge inventories as presented, to reliably assess students’ interests. In terms of

weaknesses, there may have been negative reliability on the soccer knowledge test of the study

since as mentioned in the paper, the test was short and the sample was relatively small and

homogenous in its lack of soccer interest, and the test items may have been too difficult

considering the students’ lack of soccer knowledge. Difficult items may have led to random

guessing, resulting in the relationship between interest and writing in soccer presenting

disagreeing and unusual results. Nevertheless, the present findings still lend clarity to the

relationship between topic knowledge and individual interest.

On the other hand, Adamma et al. (2018) investigated the influence of both extrinsic and

intrinsic motivation affected greatly by interest in the academic performance of students in

Mathematics. The study highlights intrinsic motivation as an internal drive that motivates

students to engage in academic activities as well as to search for and face new challenges,

brought by their interest in certain themes and enjoyment of the learning process (Schiefele,

1991 as cited in Adamma et al., 2018). The study also mentions various information collected

about intrinsic motivation from preceding authors. According to Stipek (1988), intrinsically

motivated students willingly and independently move to master concepts, undertake challenging
tasks, pride themselves in their work, joyfully undergo the learning process and involve

themselves in various responsibilities which they always persevere to comply with (as cited in

Adamma et al., 2018). In relation to the topic, Adamma et al. (2018) conducted a descriptive

survey design wherein the findings of the study illustrate that motivation improves the academic

performance of the students, underlining the importance of catering to the interests of the

students and supporting them over the performance outcomes (Daniels, Kalkman, & McCombs,

2001 as cited in Adamma et al., 2018). Furthermore, the results present a gender difference in

the variable of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on academic performance, suggesting that

females were more intrinsically motivated than males. In contrast, males were more extrinsically

motivated than females. The possible explanations for these findings are that males are expected

to be the main breadwinner of the family in our society. For females, academic performance and

motivation are based on self-exploration and internal satisfaction.

In terms of its weaknesses, the study’s results are based on only one grade level and its

consistency among different grade levels remains questionable. Furthermore, in contrast to the

aforementioned by Laine et al. (2020), Adamma et al. (2018) only based on the results from a

one-time taken questionnaire as opposed to a study spanning at least a whole semester. This may

pose a question as it has been previously noted that students’ interests, motivation, and learning

vary during the time period of one school year (Laine et al., 2020). Regardless, the study still

presents an insightful examination of the effect of both intrinsic and extrinsic on the

mathematical performance of pupils. It specifically gives insight as to how motivation brought

by interest affects their desire and drives in learning and their performance in outputs. The

findings further suggest that teachers should explore and use this strategy as well as link

concepts to experiences to make students more determined and efficacious to learn mathematics.
Furthermore, the findings of the study also present a wider perspective on factors that affect

motivation, specifically highlighting gender.

The three immediate articles provide background to the hypothesis of the current study

undertaken by the researchers which focuses on discovering the impact of the PSHS-WVC

scholars’ individual subject interests on their motivation for the completion of subject

requirements and the quality of their outputs. They support the view that interest does control the

knowledge of students to a certain extent, as well as their efforts and quality of work. Ideas

extracted from the studies such as the potential correlation between gender on motivation could

also be a basis for discussion for the current study as a potential factor that might affect the

results.

Interest and Engagement

Individual interest has enabled students to be more engaged by allowing them to see the

value and relevance of their learning. By giving students the opportunity to explore topics that

are of personal interest to them, they are more likely to take an active role in their learning and

understand why the educational materials are important. This active engagement creates a

meaningful learning experience, resulting in improved performance and a better understanding of

the topic being taught.

The study by Albrecht & Karabenick (2018) provides an overview of the history of

educational relevance among educators and presents new perspectives from researchers from

education and psychology. They concluded that an instructional program flow given to students

should be built based on their cultural backgrounds and personal experiences, making it relevant

to them and increasing their interest in the lessons. These findings were reported and concluded

by The National Research Council's Committee on Increasing High School Students'

Engagement and Motivation to Learn (NRC, 2003), sharing the notion that education should be

tailored to the relevant needs and interests of students (as cited in Albrecht & Karabenick, 2018).

Consequently, the review has revealed the presence of substantial disagreement, stating that not

all agree that education should be made relevant and cater to the interest of students. In an article

for the Chronicle of Higher Education, Braswell (2017) argued that debates over the relevance of

education are often about selling initiatives based on their extrinsic value rather than accepting

initiatives because of their presumed intrinsic worth (as cited in Albrecht & Karabenick, 2018).

Furthermore, along with Gibbons (1998), stated that education should be presented as a solution

to economic needs to motivate students. Although the same article presents that teachers, who

have sought to instill a passion for learning their subject recognize the need for students and

society alike to acknowledge the value of education beyond merely addressing economic needs.

That is, through catering to their personal interests and allowing topics to be relevant to their

experiences.

Similarly, the research of Shernoff et al. (2003) has revealed that student engagement is

composed of concentration, interest, and enjoyment. Through the researchers’ longitudinal study

of 526 high school students from the US, it is identified that engagement is increased when the

task instructions are perceived to be relevant and interesting. Students are more engaged when

the tasks given have a balanced level of difficulty and they have autonomy. For teachers, this

means creating activities that are challenging and pertinent, yet still allow students to feel

empowered and confident in their capabilities. Such activities should require students to focus,

provide enjoyment, and deliver immediate gratification and fulfillment in order to encourage

further engagement. The action of taking into account student development levels and interests in

preparing instruction has likely been a major factor in the success of teachers in providing
engaging experiences to their students (Shernoff et al., 2003). The mentioned studies by Albrecht

& Karabenick (2018) and Shernoff et al. (2003) both emphasize the importance of tailoring

educational programs to meet the individual needs and interests of students. While these studies

do not give an in-depth discussion of how to implement strategies to promote engagement, these

still provide a starting point for further research that can explore various components of

instruction to better cater to students’ preferences and behaviors in different fields of education.

The Role of Understanding Students’ Interests

Finally, various articles support that through understanding individual interests, educators

are provided with the ability to aid students in excelling overall and exerting the same effort and

attentiveness in all subject areas.

Kember et al. (2008) report findings from a study that interviewed 36 undergraduate

students about aspects of the teaching and learning environment that motivated or demotivated

their study. It was found that students were motivated by a teaching environment characterized

by eight main elements: establishing relevance, establishing interest, allowing a choice of

courses so that interest can be followed, learning activities, teaching for understanding,

assessment of learning activities, close teacher–student relationships and sense of belonging

between classmates. The interviewees found that teaching abstract theory alone was

demotivating, and that relevance should be established in discussion to pique the interest of the

students in studying. Furthermore, in this study, students taking professional and

non-professional courses both supposed teachers to ignite their motivation by encouraging

interest in topics through highlighting their relevance. Thus, establishing relevance and creating

student engagement appear to be intertwined. If relevance was made clear, students developed an

increased interest in the subject (Kember et al. 2008). This article has been on the topic of the
importance of establishing relevance in motivating student learning. The reported insights have

been drawn from a wider and more general examination of factors in the teaching and learning

environment that university students found motivating or demotivating. It is appropriate to note

that the sample of the study contains a variety of disciplines which were chosen to be as

representative as possible of a full range, given the limitation of a qualitative study. The study

also specifies the ways in which teachers may build relevance and interest, especially as they

teach a more mature age range.

Tackling a similar topic, Sauer (2012) focused on investigating if and how student

interest and instructor effectiveness impacted student performance. The research was conducted

with two middle school students. The data was gathered by administering questionnaires,

collecting student work, and recording observations. Findings revealed that students’ interest and

their relationship with the instructor were contributing factors to successful academic

performance. Therefore, the data implied that teachers need to consider student interests and

develop a relationship with them in order to foster student growth and success. It was

emphasized that lack of student engagement comes as a result of students not being invested in

their learning (Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008 as cited in Sauer, 2012). This

has an extensive impact affecting the learning of not only one, but everyone within a classroom

setting. Teachers have struggled with lesson plans that fail to engage and draw the students'

interest. Though these lessons are unavoidable and arise occasionally – and can provide

opportunities for reflection – teachers could make maximize their effort and time by recognizing

and understanding their students’ interests beforehand. This can be done through questionnaires,

rating scales, personal interviews, and exchanges. School directives and curriculum may also

limit the teachers’ choices of texts and material they provide to the students. Sauer (2012) then
states that fundamentally, it would be beneficial for teachers to be equipped and aware of how

certain topics affect the performance of students so that they may prepare lessons made to

augment the learning of their students.

The content of this article provides insight for the teachers into considering and involving

the student's interests as they formulate instruction and select materials to engage students and

improve their performance. In addition, the implication of the study’s stance is that students

value having their voices heard and are more likely to take ownership of their work when their

input is a consideration. In terms of weaknesses, while students did show improvements in scores

when reading high-interest texts as compared to low-interest texts, the study spanned only three

weeks. Given more time, the results could have been stronger and more conclusive. In addition,

the study was done with two middle school students, both female. Therefore, the research

explores only one age group and only one gender. A more effective study would encompass a

broader range of ages and include both male and female participants. This study would also leave

one wondering what a similar action research project would look like in an actual classroom.

Here, the students did not face any academic consequences if they failed to answer a question

correctly or gave up on a writing assignment. The question of those behaviors would have

occurred in the classroom setting, where grades, GPAs, and report cards are a factor still remains.

It would also be interesting to compare the results with a larger sample of students as well.

Although the data was qualitative, both of the students in the study were well-behaved,

motivated, and of the same age, gender, and ability level. The question as to how this study

would result with academically- or emotionally-challenged students still remains as well.

Overall, both studies provide support, insight, and a basis for the expected outcome of the

present research, specifically in supporting the need for teachers to innovate to cater to the needs
of their students in terms of enticing them for learning and performing well in their academics,

taking into account their interests as well as the relevance of the topics to the students in terms of

their personal experience and their future careers. Especially in terms of encouraging

engagement in classrooms, the present researchers also agree with the premise that the voices of

the students in terms of their interests and needs must be heard and that authorities must consider

their interests from the onset, principally in designing a flexible curriculum of instruction.

This research review is intended to provide background and a thorough understanding of

how individual interest and other potential factors have affected the academic performance and

motivation of students as investigated by previous research. It is clear from the studies reviewed

that fostering the interest of the students along with ensuring challenge and relevance in learning

materials and instruction is highly demanded as a necessity in improving the academic outcome

of students, most especially in encouraging engagement in classrooms. Furthermore, individual

interest is seen to manifest intrinsic motivation that has provided students with the drive to learn

and engage in academic activities brought by their willingness and not by the reward they could

potentially receive. The facilitating effect of interest in learning is also emphasized, proven by

the variation in students’ knowledge and quality of work across topics of high and low interest to

them. Alongside interest, relevance, culture, gender and challenge were also presented as

important considerations for learning and motivation. The significance of understanding student

interest for the teachers and other authorities in the field of education was also highlighted with

researchers stating that this can equip the aforementioned with the best capacity to encourage

student engagement and promote the best learning outcomes. However, it was seen that some

authors disagree to prioritize catering to the interest of students and building relevance in

learning as a way of motivation and provision of value for education, rather prefer to executing
this through presenting education with its extrinsic value and as a server of economic needs. But

undoubtedly, most teachers countered this stating that education should be more than merely

addressing economic needs. The present researchers stand with the premise that student interest

must be given heavy consideration in the field of education as it has a significant effect on

academic performance and motivation. Much research has definitely been done on the topic of

interest and its effect on learning outcomes, student engagement, and motivation. However, these

have been limited to only one grade level or for specifically chosen school subjects only. Studies

involving a wider range of year levels in the sample as well as involving the actual range of

subjects taken by the students to see its realistic effect on their performance are needed.

Furthermore, more investigation is necessary, especially in educational environments that are

characterized by high standards and a wide range of student backgrounds since these can have

significant effects on student interest, and eventually, on academic performance as well.

Discovering and exploring the individual subject interests of students is essential as it is a

significant factor in academic motivation and completion. By understanding the unique

challenges and interests of students, teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders can develop

more effective strategies to support the learning needs of the students.

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