AUTOMATIC DRILLING AND TAPPING MACHINE

CHAPTER I

ABSTRACT

A device, usually motor-driven, fitted with an end cutting tool that is rotated with
sufficient power either to create a hole or to enlarge an existing hole in a solid material and
also known as driller. Tapping is the process of making thread inside the drilled hole. This
operation requires less force to operate.

In this project the drilling machine uses pneumatic power in stead of motor power.
The drilling operation is carried with the help of pneumatic cylinder which provide the up
down motion to the drill tool. This project is very useful in industrial companies in order to
save the time and manpower. This type of drilling machine consumes less time for operation
and also no man power is required. After completion of drilling operation, the tapping
process is carried out with the help of pneumatic power. In this arrangement the tapping tool
is inserted in the machine tool head in stead of drilling tool. So that making the thread on the
plate becomes very simple by implementing the tapping operation in the drilling machine.
Time control unit is used to control the drilling operation time in the machine. This automatic
is only applicable for continuous operation of drilling. Tapping operation requires less
working force so that this force is provided by gearing arrangement. So this makes less
revolution during the tapping operation.
 CHAPTER II

INTRODUCTION
The main objective of our project is to perform various machining operations using
“Auto feed mechanism” in grinding machine with the help of pneumatic sources. For a
developing industry the operation performed and the parts (or) components produced should
have it minimum possible production cost, then only industry runs profitability. In small-
scale industry and automobile maintenance shops, there are frequent needs of tightening and
loosening of screws, grinding, boring, grinding. Further for every operation separate machine
is required. This increases the initial cost required, large area requirements and large number
of machines is required. In our project the above complicated are rectified.

Selection Of Pneumatics

Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by mechanical

power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization particularly for
sequential (or) repetitive operations.

Many factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which is capable of
providing the power (or) energy requirements and the control system (although equally
pneumatic control systems may be economic and can be advantageously applied to other
forms of power).

The main advantage of an all pneumatic system are usually economic and simplicity
the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have out standing advantages in
terms of safety.
 CHAPTER III

COMPONENTS USED
The components used in this project are:

 Bearings
 Pneumatic system
 Turbine
 Spring

Bearings:

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a
fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear
on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to
the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.

Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical
systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure
supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a
hole. Lubrication is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce
sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are
located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing
designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum
efficiency, reliability, durability and performance.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings
are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form,
size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into
a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding
applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest
standards of current technology.

TYPES OF BEARINGS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1. BALL BEARINGS:

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and
axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit
the loads through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing
races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a
much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of
rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races.
However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least expensive,
primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. There are
several common designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be
made from many different materials, including: stainless steel, chrome steel, and
ceramic. A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal.

1.1. Single-row ball bearing:

a) General:

The rigid bearing with a row of balls is a bearing presenting a very good
performance/price ratio; it is relatively universal.

b) Aptitudes:

It has a good capacity to support the radial loads and also the axial loads in the two
directions. It presents a swivelling and exists in an instrumented version making it
possible in particular to determine the rotational speed of the shaft.
c) Uses:

This type of bearing is used in all the fields of mechanical engineering in general
(flaps, bearings of jet engines, transmissions of helicopters, on-board equipment...). It is
available with a segment which allows an axial immobilization without any retaining
wall in the housing.

1.2. Double-row ball bearing:

a) General:

These bearings require a good coaxiality between the shaft and the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

This type of bearing allows strong radial and axial loads in the two directions.
 A preferential way is sometimes noticed, in case of filling notches. This
bearing can be installed alone or together with another bearing (where alignment
is necessary).

c) Uses

This type of bearing is used in pumps, reducers (wheel and screw), equipment...

1.3. Double-row self-aligning ball bearing:

a) General:

The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls and a common concave sphered
raceway in the outer ring. The bearing is consequently self-aligning and insensitive to
angular misalignments of the shaft relative to the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are designed for less demanding
applications using commercial grade shafting. The special bore tolerance allows easy
mounting and dismounting.

c) Uses
 It is particularly suitable for applications where considerable shaft deflections or
misalignment are to be expected.

Additionally, the self-aligning ball bearing has the lowest friction of all rolling
bearings, which allows it to run cooler even at high speeds.

Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are axially located on the shaft by
means of a pin or shouldered screw, which engages in a slot at one side of the inner ring
and also prevents the inner ring from turning on the shaft.

When two self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are used to support a
shaft, they should be positioned so that the inner ring slots either face each other, or are
at the outboard positions of the bearings.

If this is not the case, the shaft is axially located in one direction only.

1.4. Single and double -row angular contact bearing:

a) General:

Angular contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings that are
displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that
they are designed to accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and
axial loads.

b) Aptitudes:
 The axial load carrying capacity of angular contact ball bearings increases with
increasing contact angle.

The contact angle is defined as the angle between the line joining the points of
contact of the ball and the raceways in the radial plane, along which the load is
transmitted from one raceway to another, and a line perpendicular to the bearing axis.

The contact angle varies from 15° to 40° and is measured relative to a line running
perpendicular to the bearing axis. Angular contact bearings are unidirectional thrust
bearings that can withstand heavy thrust loads and moderate radial loads.

See below: Single angular contact bearing.

c) Uses:

Angular contact bearings can have a number of different styles of seals or shielding.
Seals and shields provide protection from contamination and as a retainer for lubricant.

Seals provide better protection and lubricant containment than shields, but have
lower maximum speed capabilities.

Bearings with ball screw support are specially designed for use in ball screw or lead
screw applications.

Some bearings may also be flanged. Angular contact bearings may have a variety
of lubrication options.
 See below: Double-row angular contact bearing.

2. ROLLER BEARINGS:

Roller bearings are one of the most widely used industrial bearings. They are called as
roller bearings because they are able to carry a load by placing round elements between
the two pieces. With the movement of the two pieces, these round elements roll, thereby
helping to carry the load.

Most roller bearings use cylinder whose length is slightly greater than its diameter.
Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity compared to ball bearings but higher
friction and a low axial capacity under axial loads.

2.1. Applications of roller bearings:

Roller bearings are used in rotary applications to replace sliding movement with low
friction, rolling.

Automated roller bearing setting techniques offer many advantages like reduced
setting time, assembly cost, and and reliable setting. To select the right roller bearing,
one must determine the desired bearing life and a sufficient basic dynamic load rating to
meet that life requirement.

Roller bearings are used in power generation, wind turbines, gear drives, rolling
mills, machine tool spindles, gear reduction units etc.
 Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing.

2.2. One row, two row cylindrical bearings:

a) General:

This type of bearing supports axial loads only in one direction. They are thus
generally used in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be regulated in order to
obtain a good rigidity for the connection. They can also be installed side by side.

Conical tapered roller bearings:

a) General:

These bearings consist of an internal ring (the cone), conical rollers spaced by a
cage and an external ring (the basin) separated from the rest. They support the axial loads
only in one direction and are generally installed in pairs, opposing each other. Their play
must be adjusted.

b) Aptitudes:

They are bearings adapted to the high axial and radial loads, but they do not support
high rotational speeds. For high axial loads, a bearing with a significant contact angle,
which can vary from 10° to 30°, is used.
 c) Uses:

They are installed in reducers, wheels of the landing gear, etc

Pneumatic Systems:

The word ‘pneuma’ comes from Greek and means breather wind. The word
pneumatics is the study of air movement and its phenomena is derived from the word
pneuma.Today pneumatics is mainly understood to mean s the application of air as a working
medium inindustry especially in driving and controlling of machines and equipment.
Pneumatics has been considered to be used to carry out simple mechanical tasks. But, in
today’s world it is playing an important role by becoming one of the major sources for
automation, and the recent developments in this field has made it a useful technology in the
field of complex automated application. Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of
compressed air which must be available insufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the
capacity of the system. When the pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time,
however it will indeed be necessary to deal with the section of compressed air supply. The
key part of any pneumatic machine is supply of compressed air is by means reciprocating
compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain pressure and delivers
the air at a high pressure.
Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered. And the volume
expressed is that of the air at intake conditions The compressibility of the air was first
investigated by Robert Boyle in 1962 and found that the product of pressure and volume of a
particular quantity of gas is constant.

In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressure which is about 14.7 Psi. Any gas can be
used in pneumatic system but air is the mostly used system now a days.

Selection of Pneumatics Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual

effort by mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost mechanizations
particularly for sequential(or) repetitive operations. Many factories and plants already have a
compressed air system, which is capable of providing the power (or) energy requirements and
the control system (although equally pneumatic control systems may be economic and can be
advantageously applied to other forms of power). The main advantage of a pneumatic system
is it is economically cheap and simple in design, also reducing maintenance costs. It can also
have an outstanding advantage in terms of safety.[16] 2.3 Pneumatic power Pneumatic
systems use pressurised gas to transmit and control power. Pneumatic systems typically use
air as the fluid medium because air is safe, free and readily available The advantages of
pneumatics

• Air used in pneumatic systems can be directly exhausted in to the surrounding environment
and hence the need of special reservoirs and no-leak system designs are eliminated.

• Pneumatic systems are simple in design and economical.

• Control of pneumatic systems is easier

The disadvantages

• Pneumatic systems exhibit spongy characteristics due to compressibility of air

• Pneumatic pressures are quite low due to compressor design limitations (less that 250 psi)

Production of Compressed Air

Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must be made available in
sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. [9] The key part of any
pneumatic system for supply of compressed air is by means using reciprocating compressor.
A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain pressure and delivers it at a
higher pressure. Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered.
And the volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere
pressure and normal ambient temperature. Clean condition of the suction air is one of the
factors, which decides the life of compressor. Warm and moist suction air will result in
increased precipitation of condense from the compressed air.

Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and applications of

compressed air in our daily life in general and manufacturing automation in particular.
Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly available and can be
exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.

1. Basic Components of Pneumatic System:

Components of a pneumatic system

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by
 using a dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for
control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system.

g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is

used to drive the compressor.
h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in
the air receiver.

Actuators are output devices which convert energy from pressurized hydraulic oil or
compressed air into the required type of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or
pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or moving operations in industry. These
operations are carried out by using actuators.
Actuators can be classified into three types.
1. Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into
linear motion.
2. Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into
rotary motion.
3. Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to control the flow and
pressure of fluids such as gases, steam or liquid.
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar. However they
differ at their operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is
about 100 bar and of pneumatic system is around 10 bar.
Single acting cylinder

Single acting cylinder

These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion hence they are named as
single acting cylinders. Figure 6.4.1 shows the construction of a single acting
cylinder. The compressed air pushes the piston located in the cylindrical barrel
causing the desired motion. The return stroke takes place by the action of a spring.
Generally the spring is provided on the rod side of the cylinder.

Double acting cylinder

Double acting cylinder

The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston, piston rod, cylinder
tube, and end caps. These are shown in Figure 6.4.2. The piston rod is connected to
 piston head and the other end extends out of the cylinder. The piston divides the
cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end side and piston end side. The seals
prevent the leakage of oil between these two chambers. The cylindrical tube is fitted
with end caps. The pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through the ports
provided. In the rod end cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to prevent the leakage of
oil and entry of the contaminants into the cylinder. The combination of wiper seal,
bearing and sealing ring is called as cartridge assembly. The end caps may be attached
to the tube by threaded connection, welded connection or tie rod connection. The
piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear of piston head and the tube.
These seals are replaceable. End cushioning is also provided to prevent the impact
with end caps.

Pneumatic controllers

In automated industrial processes, it is always essential to keep the process variables

such as temperature, flow rate, system pressure, fluid level, etc. at the desired value
for safety and economical operation. Consider an example where the flow of water
through a pipe has to be kept constant at some predetermined value (Fig. 6.5.1). Let
the value of flow to be measured is ‘V’ (process variable PV). This flow rate is
compared with the required flow value say ‘V1’ (set point SP). The difference
between these two values is the error which is sent to the controller. If any error
exists, the controller adjusts the drive signal to the actuator, informing it to move the
valve to give the required flow (zero error). This type of control system is called
closed loop control system. It mainly includes a controller, actuator and a measuring
device.
Closed loop control system

The control can be achieved by using control electronics or by pneumatic process

control. The pneumatic systems are quite popular because they are safe. In the process
industries like refinery and chemical plants, the atmosphere is explosive. Application
of electronics based systems may be dangerous in such cases. Since the pneumatic
systems use air, there are very scant chances of any fire hazards. Even though
electrical actuators are available, but most of the valves employed are driven by
pneumatic signals.

The pneumatic components which can be used to implement the mentioned task are as
follows:
• double acting cylinder
• 3/2 push button valve
• 3/2 roller valve
• shuttle valve
• 3/2 foot pedal actuated valve
• 5/3 pneumatic actuated direction control valve
• compressed air source and connecting piping

Turbines
 A radial turbine looks similar to a centrifugal compressor. The diffuser vanes are
replaced by a ring of nozzle guide vanes. Gas flow with a high tangential velocity is directed
inwards and leaves the rotor with as small a whirl velocity as practicable near the axis of
rotation. The rotor is normally followed by a diffuser at the outlet to reduce the exhaust
velocity to a negligible value. Under normal design conditions, the relative velocity at the
rotor tip is radial (zero incidence) and the absolute velocity at the exit is axial

Radial-inflow turbines have been established as a viable alternative to its axial-flow

counterpart, specifically in power-system applications. Radial turbines are capable of
extracting a large per-stage shaft work in situations with low mass-flow rates. Radial turbine
also offers little sensitivity to tip clearances, in contrast to axial-flow turbines. Bulkiness and
heavy weight virtually prohibits its use in propulsion devices. Radial turbines are best used in
micro- gas turbines, turbochargers and stationery power plants.
 Vaned stator as part of the turbine non-rotating assembly

Springs:

The figures below show the schematic representation of a helical spring acted upon
by a tensile load F and compressive load F. The circles denote
the cross section of the spring wire. The cut section, i.e. from the entire coil
somewhere we make a cut, is indicated as a circle with shade.
 If we look at the free body diagram of the shaded region only (the cut section) then
we shall see that at the cut section, vertical equilibrium of forces will give us force, F
as indicated in the figure. This F is the shear force. The torque T, at the cut section
and it’s direction is also marked in the figure. There is no horizontal force coming into
the picture because externally there is no horizontal force present. So from the
fundamental understanding of the free body diagram one can see that any section of
the spring is experiencing a torque and a force. Shear force will always be
associated with a bending moment. However, in an ideal situation, when force is acting at the
centre of the circular spring and the coils of spring are almost parallel to each other, no
bending moment would result at section of the spring ( no moment arm), except torsion and
shear force.

Turbine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Turbine (disambiguation).

A steam turbine with the case opened.

A turbine (from the Latin turbo, a vortex, related to the Greek τύρβη, tyrbē, meaning
"turbulence")[1][2] is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and
converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating
electrical power when combined with a generator.[3] A turbine is a turbomachine with at least
one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached.
Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.

Gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the
working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to Anglo-Irish
engineer Sir Charles Parsons (1854–1931) for invention of the reaction turbine, and to
Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern
steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically
varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

The word "turbine" was coined in 1822 by the French mining engineer Claude Burdin from
the Latin turbo, or vortex, in a memo, "Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires à
grande vitesse", which he submitted to the Académie royale des sciences in Paris.[4] Benoit
Fourneyron, a former student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine .
Operation theory
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head).
The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed
by turbines to collect this energy:

Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting
impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is
no pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case
of a steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the
nozzles). Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by
accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process
exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the
fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newton's second
law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines. Impulse turbines are most efficient
for use in cases where the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. [3]

Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The
pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. [3] A pressure
casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the
turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing
contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted
by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible
working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas
efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Reaction
turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head
(upstream pressure) is low. [3]

In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine applications or for land-based
electricity generation, a Parsons-type reaction turbine would require approximately double
the number of blade rows as a de Laval-type impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal
energy conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the
overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine
for the same thermal energy conversion.

In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying
degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the
moving fluid and impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the
impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle. Turbines with multiple stages may use either
reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam turbines were traditionally more impulse
but continue to move towards reaction designs similar to those used in gas turbines. At low
pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure.
Under these conditions, blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the
blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As
the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower
speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the
base, to a high reaction-style tip.

Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis
related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were
used at first. Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a
highly efficient machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the
calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical
mechanics. As with most engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made.
Turbine inlet guide vanes of a turbojet

Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits
the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at
velocity U. Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance
is Vr1. The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However,
in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using
these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through
the blading (for example: hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean
stage radius. Mean performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at
this radius, using the Euler equation:

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid

dynamics dispenses with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical
formulas and computer software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady
improvements in turbine design over the last forty years.

The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes
the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate.
The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow
conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an
appropriate turbine design selected.

The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an
existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance.

Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.

Types

 Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as
plants using coal, fuel oil or nuclear fuel. They were once used to directly drive
mechanical devices such as ships' propellers (for example the Turbinia, the first turbine-
powered steam launch,[5]) but most such applications now use reduction gears or an
intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to generate electricity, which then
powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical load. Turbo electric ship
machinery was particularly popular in the period immediately before and during World
War II, primarily due to a lack of sufficient gear-cutting facilities in US and UK
shipyards.
 Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature
an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to
one or more turbines.
 Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines
remains subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas flow
becomes supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream
velocities normally become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure
ratio than normal but are usually less efficient and uncommon.
 Contra-rotating turbines. With axial turbines, some efficiency advantage can be obtained
if a downstream turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit. However,
the complication can be counter-productive. A contra-rotating steam turbine, usually
 known as the Ljungström turbine, was originally invented by Swedish Engineer Fredrik
Ljungström (1875–1964) in Stockholm, and in partnership with his brother Birger
Ljungström he obtained a patent in 1894. The design is essentially a multi-stage radial
turbine (or pair of 'nested' turbine rotors) offering great efficiency, four times as large
heat drop per stage as in the reaction (Parsons) turbine, extremely compact design and the
type met particular success in back pressure power plants. However, contrary to other
designs, large steam volumes are handled with difficulty and only a combination with
axial flow turbines (DUREX) admits the turbine to be built for power greater than ca 50
MW. In marine applications only about 50 turbo-electric units were ordered (of which a
considerable amount were finally sold to land plants) during 1917-19, and during 1920-
22 a few turbo-mechanic not very successful units were sold. [6] Only a few turbo-electric
marine plants were still in use in the late 1960s (ss Ragne, ss Regin) while most land
plants remain in use 2010.
 Statorless turbine. Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary) inlet
guide vanes that direct the gas flow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a stator-less turbine
the gas flow exiting an upstream rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an
intermediate set of stator vanes (that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the
flow) being encountered.
 Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and vanes) are made from
nickel based alloys and often use intricate internal air-cooling passages to prevent the
metal from overheating. In recent years, experimental ceramic blades have been
manufactured and tested in gas turbines, with a view to increasing rotor inlet
temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating air cooling. Ceramic blades are more brittle
than their metallic counterparts, and carry a greater risk of catastrophic blade failure. This
has tended to limit their use in jet engines and gas turbines to the stator (stationary)
blades.
 Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have shrouding at the top, which interlocks
with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping and thereby reduce blade flutter. In
large land-based electricity generation steam turbines, the shrouding is often
complemented, especially in the long blades of a low-pressure turbine, with lacing wires.
These wires pass through holes drilled in the blades at suitable distances from the blade
root and are usually brazed to the blades at the point where they pass through. Lacing
wires reduce blade flutter in the central part of the blades. The introduction of lacing
 wires substantially reduces the instances of blade failure in large or low-pressure
turbines.
 Shroudless turbine. Modern practice is, wherever possible, to eliminate the rotor
shrouding, thus reducing the centrifugal load on the blade and the cooling requirements.
 Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the
blades as in a conventional turbine.

3 types of water turbines: Kaplan (in front), Pelton (middle) and Francis (back left)

 Water turbines
o Pelton turbine, a type of impulse water turbine.
o Francis turbine, a type of widely used water turbine.
o Kaplan turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine.
o Turgo turbine, a modified form of the Pelton wheel.
o Cross-flow turbine, also known as Banki-Michell turbine, or Ossberger turbine.
 Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and interstage
guide vanes. An exception is the Éolienne Bollée, which has a stator and a rotor.
 Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons turbine by using
a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and then a rank of fixed and rotating
blade rows, as in the Parsons or de Laval, typically up to ten compared with up to a
hundred stages of a Parsons design. The overall efficiency of a Curtis design is less than
that of either the Parsons or de Laval designs, but it can be satisfactorily operated through
a much wider range of speeds, including successful operation at low speeds and at lower
pressures, which made it ideal for use in ships' powerplant. In a Curtis arrangement, the
 entire heat drop in the steam takes place in the initial nozzle row and both the subsequent
moving blade rows and stationary blade rows merely change the direction of the steam.
Use of a small section of a Curtis arrangement, typically one nozzle section and two or
three rows of moving blades, is usually termed a Curtis 'Wheel' and in this form, the
Curtis found widespread use at sea as a 'governing stage' on many reaction and impulse
turbines and turbine sets. This practice is still commonplace today in marine steam plant.
 Pressure compound multi-stage impulse, or "Rateau", after its French inventor, Auguste
Rateau. The Rateau employs simple impulse rotors separated by a nozzle diaphragm. The
diaphragm is essentially a partition wall in the turbine with a series of tunnels cut into it,
funnel shaped with the broad end facing the previous stage and the narrow the next they
are also angled to direct the steam jets onto the impulse rotor.
 Mercury vapour turbines used mercury as the working fluid, to improve the efficiency of
fossil-fuelled generating stations. Although a few power plants were built with combined
mercury vapour and conventional steam turbines, the toxicity of the metal mercury was
quickly apparent.
 Screw turbine is a water turbine which uses the principle of the Archimedean screw to
convert the potential energy of water on an upstream level into kinetic energy.

Uses
Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine of some type. Very high
efficiency steam turbines harness around 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest exhausted
as waste heat.

Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid and
fuel as do all nuclear ships and power plants.

Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may refer to an
internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor, heat-
exchanger, fan and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an alternator.
Combustion turbines and steam turbines may be connected to machinery such as pumps and
compressors, or may be used for propulsion of ships, usually through an intermediate gearbox
to reduce rotary speed.

Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by their
exhaust to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration known as
a turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo".
Turbines can have very high power density (i.e. the ratio of power to mass, or power to
volume). This is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle
main engines used turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to
feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion
chamber. The liquid hydrogen turbopump is slightly larger than an automobile engine
(weighing approximately 700 lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW).

Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

Military jet engines, as a branch of gas turbines, have recently been used as primary flight
controller in post-stall flight using jet deflections that are also called thrust vectoring. [7] The
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration has also conducted a study about civilizing such thrust
vectoring systems to recover jetliners from catastrophes.[citation needed]

CHAPTER IV

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 CHAPTER V

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 The compressed air from the compressor is used as the force medium for this
operation. The pneumatic double acting cylinder used .The air from the compressor enters to
the four way junction. From four way junctions one way of air enters to the barrel unit. In
side the barrel having vane arrangement is welled. The other way of air enters to the solenoid
valve.
The function of solenoid valves all of air correct time interval. From solenoid valve
air enters to the pneumatic double acting cylinder through flow control valve.
The solenoid valve ON condition, the grinding head is automatically downwards and
grinding operation occurs. After some time, the solenoid valve is OFF; the grinding head is
automatically released.

CHAPTER VI
MERITS

 It reduces the manual work.

 Quick operation
 Accuracy is more
 Low cost machine
 Its used multipurpose device like Grinding, screw driving.

DEMIRITS

 Noise produced

CHAPTER VII

APPLICATIONS
  Used automobile workshops like carburetor holes
 Used small scale industries
 In welding shop for grinding
 For performing the operations in huge part which cannot be done in ordinary
machines. Since it’s portable.
 In such places where frequent change in operation are required.

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSION

The concept of automated part transfer line fabricated as an experimental setup can be
extended to an industrial application with further modification in the manufacturing and
assembly process to achieve quality in the machine as per the test charts provided by leading
machine tool manufacturer. On a whole, it is concluded that the automation is an inevitable
process though the rate at which it should be introduced will have to be carefully planned in order
to bring social justice and to accrue economic benefits.