STRESSES AND STRAINS - A REVIEW LL INTRODUCTION 2. STRESS ANALYSIS 2.1 Cauchy Stress Principle 22 State of Stress ata Point 23 Siate of Stress on an Inclined Plane 24 Force and Moment Equilibrium 255 Stress Transformation Law 2.6 Normal and Shea Stresses on an Inclined Plane 2.7 Principal Suesses 28 Stress Decomposition 29 Octahedral Stresses 2:10 References 3. STRAIN ANALYSIS 3.1 Deformation and Finite Strain Tensors 3.2 Small Deformation Theory 3.3 Interpretation of Strain Components 344 Strain Transformation Law 3.5 Principal Strains 366 Strain Decomposition 3.7 Compatibility Equations 3.8 Strain Measurements 3.9 References 4, PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 4.1 Plane Stress 4.2 Plane Strain ‘CEN 5768 - Leste Note 3 (OB AmdelA INTRODUCTION Rock mechanics, being an interdiseplinary field, borrows many concepts fiom the field of continuum mechanics and mechanics of materials, andin paiculr, the conceptsof stessandstrain Sess is of importance to geologists and geophysicists in order to understand the formation of seologeal structures such s folds, faults, ntsons t..tis also of importance to civil, mining and petroleum engineers who ae interested in the stability and performance of man-made siuctures (tunnels, cavems, mines, surface excavations, tc.) or the suabilty of boreholes. list of ei requiring knowledge of stesses is given in Tale I. Suess teminlogy is shown in Figure 1. ‘Unlike man-made materials such as concrete or steel, natural materials such as rocks (and soils) re initially stressed in ther natural state. Stresses in rock canbe divided into in stu stresses and induced stresses. In it stresses, also called natural, primitive or virgin stresses, ae the stresses that exis the rock prior to any disturbance, On the other hand, induced stresses are associated with man-made disturbance (excavation, drilling, pumping, loading, etc.) or are induced by changes in natural conditions (drying, swelling, consolidation, etc.) Induced stresses depend on many parameters such asthe in stu stresses, the typeof disturbance (excavation shape, borehole diameter, ete.) and the rock mass properties. Stress isan enigmatic quantity which, according to classical mechanics, is defined at point in a continuum and isindependent ofthe constitutive behavior ofthe medium. The concept ofstress used in rock mechanis is consistent with that formulated by Cauchy and generalized by St. Venant in France during the 19th century (Timoshenko, 1983). Because of its definition, rock stress is a fictitious quantity creating challenges in its characterization, measurement, and application ia practice. A summary ofthe continuum mechanics description of stress is presented below, More Aetals ean be found in Mase (1970). 2. STRESS ANALYSIS 2.1 Cauchy Stress Principle ‘Consider for instance, the continuum shown in Figure 2 occupying aregion R of space and subjected to body forces b (per unit of mass) and surface forces f, (tractions). Let xy.z be a Cartesian ‘coordinate system with unit vectors ey €, parallel to the x,y, and z direction, respectively. Consider a volume V in the continuum, an infinitesimal surface element AS located on the outer surface $ of V, «point P located on AS, and aunt vector n normal to AS at P, Under the effect of the body and surface fores, the material within volume V interacts with the material outside of V. Let Af and Am be respectively the resultant force and moment exerted across AS by the material ‘outside of V upon the material within V. The Cauchy siess principle asserts that the average force per unit area AP/AS tends to a limit d/dS as AS tends to zero, whereas Am vanishes in the limiting process. The limit is called the stress vector ty i. COVEN 5768 -Losture Notes 3 Page? OB. AmadeROCK STRESSES ao IN-SITU (VIRGIN)STRESSES INDUCED STRESSES (ining, excavation, drilling, pumping, injection, enegy extraction, applied Yoads, swelling, ee.) \ TABOR Ty % fey = Fabio") Rock mechanics sign convention ‘Compressive normal stresses are treated a positive and the direction of positive shear stresses is as shown in Figure 3b. The sues8 vector hay dfs have the following expressions Hen = ~O8 Sofa Tat Fan = Tati Fpl ® fey ~ “Tali Tafa 0.85 2.3 State of Stress on an Inclined Plane ‘Knowing the components of the stress tensor representing the state of stress at a point P, the ‘components of the stress vector on any plane passing by P, and of known orientation with respect tothe x, y-,and zaxes, can be determined. (Consider again point P of Figure 2 and let 0, be the stress tensor representing the state of stress at that point. The components ofthe stress vector fy acting on an inclined plane passing through P can. bbe expressed in tems ofthe 0, components and the orientation ofthe plane using a limiting process similar fo that used to introduce the stress vector concept. As shown in Figure 4, considera plane ABC of arcadS parallel tothe plane of interest passing through P. Let m be the rormal tothe plane with components n,n, and n,, The force equilibrium of the PABC tetrahedron leads to the following relation between the average stress vetors acting on its faces tS dS °F MdS“Hg MAS-O 6 where n dS, n.d and nf are respectively the areas offices CPB, CPA and APBof the tetrahedron Using equation (2), ty can be expressed as follows Farha “Maga “Hess o COVEN 5768 -Lecnre Notes Pages OB, Amadeip = ee) igure 4. State of stress on an inclined plane passing through point P.‘The stress acting on plane ABC will approach the stress on the parallel plane passing through P as the teahedron in Figure 4 is made infinitesimal. In that limiting process, the cortribution of any- ‘body force acting inthe PABC tetrahedron vanishes. Equation (6) can also be expressed in terms of the normal and shear stress components at point . Let tt, and t, be the x, y, z components of the stress vector t. When using the engineering. ‘mechanies sign convention, combining equations (3) and (6) yields f,) [ot tala Ii} = ly 9% to fel co) ke bn (On the other hand, fr the rock mechanics sign convention, combining equations (3) and (6) yields fs) | “= “=| “bl lt» % tol Pa %) be, o, | 3) ‘The (3 x 3) matrix in equations (7a) and (7b) is a matrix representation ofthe stress tensor Oy. 24 ree and Moment Equilibrium For all differential elements in the continuum of Figure 2, force and moment equilibrium leads respectively tothe equilibrium equations and the symmetry ofthe stress tensor 0, Equations of equilibrium ® (OVEN S168 - Lee Nows 3 Tage 5where p isthe density and pb, pb, and pb, are the components of the body force per uit volume of the continuum in the x, ¥ and 2 directions, respectively. The positive directions of those components are inthe positive x,y and z direction if the engineering mechanics convention for stres is used, and inthe negative x, y and z direction the rock mechanics sign convention is used instead Symmetry of stress tensor y o ‘which implies that onl six stress components are needed to describe the state of stress ata point in ‘continuum: three normal stresses and three shear stresses. 2.5 Stress Transformation Law Consider now two rectangular coordinate systems x,y,zand x'y'2'at point P. The orientation ofthe x1, y-y2-0xes is defined in terms of the direction cosines of unit vectors e', and e’ inthe x..2 coordinate system, i. a! = hetmeynge, ef = Lermestnyes (19) Lejsmeytne Let [A] be w cvordinate transformation matrix euch that ly mye Me) A) = Be mye my} an Ly mys | Matric (A] isan orthogonal matrix with [A}*~ [AJ?. Using the coordinate transformation law for second order Caresan tensors, the components of the stess tensor 0 inthe xy! coordinate System ae related tothe components ofthe sires tensor 0, inthe y,zcoordnate system as follows (CVEN 5768 -Lecure Notes 3 Pagefour tas Ty) fae me MO Sy Tele a a (12) eee tyer | Bar mye Melt Tye Salter yr my Using (6x1) matrix representation of 0',and and after algebraic manipulations, equstion(12) can be rewritten in matrix form as follows Dolev = Folllae a3) where [OT ye“l0, 5, 6, Te Fu Tae [OV yy “LO, 0, O, Tye Toe Ty) and [To] isa (6x6) mati whose ‘components ean be found in equation Ai.23 in Goodman (1989). It can be written as follows Bomb wh Omny yn gd my my yay, Atty Amy wpe [ Bm mmm any Any by mm nym maomny Mydsindy Lysth a) Ly my nay mynemgngs Mtn, Imola) Byer my) Myayy mys ly Mydys Lamy Expressions forthe direction cosines l,, m,.,.re given below for two special cases shown in Figures Sa and Sb, respectively. In Figure Sa, the orientation ofthe x-axis is defined by two angles Band é and the 2'axis lies in the Pxz plan. In this ease, the direction cosines are L,-cosbcosB; m,i=sind; n,-rcosbsind ind sins cost Jye--sinbeosB;m,.=C088; 1, Jens; m0; my as) If we take B-0, 5-0, and the 2-axis to coincide withthe -anis, the x-,y~and z-axescoincide, for instance, with the radial, tangential and longitudinal axes of a cylindrical coordinate system 1,0, (Figure 5b) with (CVEN 5768 - Lestre Notes 3 ©B. Amat Page 7yo (0 (4) (b) Figure 5. Two special orientations of x’, and 2axes with respect to the 3s £ coondinalesystem.as) ‘Substituting these direction cosines into equation (12) gives a relationship between the stress ‘components in ther, 8, 2 coordinate system and those in the x,y,z coordinate system as follows 9,-0,009°0 +0,sin?0-r+,n20 ) +, $10 +,.0088 ¥97(0,-0,)sinBeos0 +7 ,60328 2.6 Normal and Shear Stresses on an Inclined Plane ‘Consider a plane passing through point P and inclined with respect to the x, y- and z-axes, Let xyz’ be a Cartesian coordinate system attached to the plane such that. the x-axis is along its ‘outward normal and they-and 2-axesarecontained in the plane. Thexy'-and 2-axesare oriented. ‘as shown in Figure 5 withthe direction cosines defined in equation (14) ‘The state of stress across the plane is defined by one normal component 0,= 0, and two shear ‘components T,: and ,, such that (see Figure 6) oy] fae ms me ty tefl ity Myr By lEay Oy Sede an eve Mer mer efter Te afer Equation (17) isthe matrix representation of the frst, fifth and sixth lines of equation (13). The: resultant shear stress, t, across the plane is equal to COVEN 5764 - Lecture Notee3 Page 8 OB, AmadeiFigure 6. Normal and shear components ofthe stress vector acting ‘on aplane passing through paint Paif ty h 8) ‘The stress vector acting on te plane is such that Mtl? = 0,249? = oF ety Peta? as) 2.7 Principal Stresses ‘Among al the planes passing by pint P, there ae three planes (at rght angles to ach other) for ‘which the shear stresses. Tese planes ae called principal planes and the normal streses acting on those planes are called principal stresses and are denoted 6,0, and 0, with 0;>0;>0,, Finding the principal stresses and the principal stress directions is equivalent o finding the eigenvalues and igenvectors of the stess tensor, Since this tensors symmetric, the eigenvalues ae rel. ‘The cigenvalues of 6, are the values ofthe normal stress 0 such thatthe determinant of 0,-08, vanishes, ie. @0) ‘Upon expansion, the principal stresses are the oots of the following cubie polynomial ho*+ho- an ‘where |, by and I, are respectively the frst, second and third stress invariants and are equal to 120,90,%0, h0,9,+0,0,+0,9,-(si thot?) @ 9,8, hah (0,8 0,t2,00,52) For each principal stress 0, (0,02 0), there is a principal stress direction for which the direction cosines ny"e08 (0), ny"€08 (0,9) and ny~e0$ (02) are solutions of COVEN 5168 -Locrre Notes 3 Page OB. Amadeem fy FeO Feu, O Mgt =O @) aha 8 Pix" (0,-94)4°0 ‘with the normality condition nye tng emp =1 (24) 2.8 Stress Decomposition ‘The stress tensor 0, can be separated into a ipdrostatic component 0,0, and adeviatoric component ‘5 Using (x3) matrix representations the decomposition can be expressed as follows os te te] a 0 0) foro ty ty % t)-|0 0, 0|+|] ty 9-0, ty 2s) with 0,-(0,+0,*0,)3. As forthe stress matrix, thre principal deviatoric stesses 5 (k=1,23) can be calculated by siting the determinant of ss, to ze. Equation (21) is then replaced by the following cubic polynomial Pads dg- 26) where J, Jp and J, are respectively the first, second and third invariants ofthe deviatoric stress tensor and are equal to 4-0 Sorlegsgasg eden, en Wyte Megha GSAH50.0555) (CVEN 5768 - Lecture Notes 3 Page 10With "0-0, §)"0,-0, and §,-0,-0,, Note that J; can also be written as follows 4 = Hloy-037+(0,-05F (03-03) es) 2.9 Octahedral Stresses Letessume tat the x,y, and 2 directions ofthe xyz coordinate system coincide withthe pineal stress directions, ie. 0,-0,, 0,0, and 0,-0;, Consider a plane that makes equal angles with the three coordinate axes and whose normal has components nj~n,-n,-1/V3. Thisplane isan oetahedrat plane. The normal stress across the plane is called the ocrahedral normal sires, Og, and the shear stress is called the octahedral shear stress. Taq. The stesses are equal 0 9, = Wren) a 3 4 3 2) GlOrres?*@,-osFeCos-opFl = FH 2.10 References Goodman, R-E (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics, Wiley, 2nd Edition, Mase, G.E. (1970) Continuum Mechanics, Schaurn's Outline Sevis, MeGraw-Hi Timoshenko, $.P. (1983) History of Strength of Materials, Dover Publications. ‘CVEN S768 - Lecure Notes 3 Page 1 (OB. Amadei3. STRAIN ANALYSIS 3.1 Deformation and Finite Strain Tensors Consider » material coninuum which at time 1-0 can be scen in its iii oF undeformed configuration and occupies a repion R, of Euclidian 3D-space (Figure 7). Any point , in Ran be described by its coordinates X, XX, with reference toa suitable se of coordinate ates (materia coordinates). Upon deformation and at time tt, the continuum will now be sen in its deformed configuration, R being the region it now occupies. Point P, will move to a position P with coordinates, XX pata coordinates). The X,XjX, and x3, coordinate systems are ‘sssumed tobe superimposed. The deformation of the cotinuum canbe defined with respec othe ‘nial configuration (Lagrangian formulation) or with eset tthe current configuration Eulerian formulation), The vector wjoining points P, and Pisknownas the displacement vector and sequal rs unex i) ‘where x=OP and X=OP, Ithas the same three components u,,t1,and win the x, xX) and %,,X,%, coordinate systems (since both coordinate systems are assumed to coincide), Partial differentiation ofthe spatial coordinates with respect to the material coordinates Bx /@X, efines the material deformation gradient. Likewise, partial differentiation of the material coordinates with respect tothe spatial coordinates OX 0x, defines the spatial deformation gradient. ‘Both gradients can be expressed using (3x3) matrices and are related as follows 25 0%, | 38 5, sean eax,” 2) Partial differentiation ofthe displacement vector u, with espect tothe coordinates gives either the: ‘material displacement gradient u/OX,0r he spatial displacement gradient Ou/@x, Both gradients can be written in terms of (3x3) matrices and are related a follows ax, °# @) w In general, two strain tensors can be introduced deperding on which configuration is used as reference. Consider, for instance, Figure 7 where two neighboring particles P, and Q, before deformation move to points P and Q after deformation. The square ofthe linear element of length, COVEN 5768 Lestre Notes Page 1: OB AnsietFigure 7, Initial and final (deformed) configurations of a coniinuum (after Mase, 1970).between P, and Quis equal to 2%, 2X, . (OY = aka, = BY AK, = SI ie, = Cte, os) 8, ‘where Cis called the Cauchy's deformation tensor. Likewise, inthe deformed configuration, the ‘square ofthe linear element of length between P and Qis equal ar, Ox GaP = de = yds = SERRA,» Otte, co) ‘where Gy isthe Green's deformation tensor. The two deformation tensors represent the spatial and ‘material description of deformation measures. The relative measure of deformation that occurs in the neighborhood of two particles in a continaum is equal to (dx)? ~ (4X). Using the material description, the relative measure of deformation is equal to ax, 0% (iP -(@Y = Geog 8 MNMK, » 2LyakAK, oo where Ly is the Lagrangian (ar Green's) finite strain tensor, Using the spatial deseription, the relative measure of deformation is equal to. 2x, aX, (a7? = 6 AS Br, Nees, = Bybee, on where E, is the Eulerian (or Almanst' finite strain tensor. Both Land E, are second-order symmetric strain tensors that can be expressed in tems of (3x3) ‘matrices. They can also be expressed in terms of the displacement components by combining ‘equation (36) or (37) with equation (31). This gives, 2mm, 8) COVEN S168 - Locre Notes 3 Page 13 OB. Amadsi69) 3.2 Small Deformation Theory Infinitesimal Strain Tensors In the small deformation theory. the displacement gradients are assumed to be small compared 10. ‘nity, which means that the product terms in equations (38) and (39) aresmall compared to the other terms and can be neglected. Both equations reduce to 0) 424, Ge ay ‘which is called the Eulerian infinitesimal strain tensor. Ifthe deformation gradients and the displacements themselves ar small, both infinitesimal strain tensors may be taken as equal Examples Consider frst, the example ofa prismatic block of initial length I, width w,, and height h,. The ‘lock is stretched only along its length by an amount I, The corresponding engineering strain € is then equal to (11,1, The deformation of the block can be expressed as x,-X, +€X;j, x;-X, and ‘xj°Xy- Thus, the displacement components ae uj=€X,, us-us~0. For this deformation, the matrix ‘representation of the Lagrangian finite strain tensor Lis equal to frcre? 0 o wl- 3} 0 oo «@) © of For any vector AX of length &X and components AX,, dX, and dX, equation (36) canbe written as (CVEN 5768 - Lecture Notes 3 Page 4 8. Amadefollows lae+e? 0 of % ce?-dk? = (aX, dX, dX] 00 ofa « 0 0 lax, AX is parallel to the X-axis with dX,=AX-1,, €X)=4X,=0, then equation (43) yields = Late Sg, Sue oe +e (44) B 4) ‘The block doesnot experience any deformation along the X, and X,-axes, Equation (4) shows that te longitudinal Lagrangian strain, ¢ydiffers from the engineering strain €, bythe amount 05e?. For small deformations, the square term is very small and canbe neglected, ‘As a second example, consider again the same prismatic block deforming such that x)=X,, Xe-X,#AX, and X4-X,+BX,. The corresponding displacement components are uj=0; w;~AX, and 1=BX,, For this deformation, the matrix representation of the Lagrangian finite strain tensor Ly is equal 0 ft o 0 t= Yo a? asa} as) 1 2) [0 AB a? Forany vector &X of length 4X and components X,, dX, and 4X,, equation (36) can be written as follows Jo o oo [aX det-dX? = (aX, dh diJ0 8? A+B) 46) lo 4-8 0? lax, AX is parallel to the X;-axis with EX =dX-l,, AX,-UX,=0, then dx-dX, ie the prismatic block does not deform inthe X, direction. (OVEN 5768 - Lecture Noss 3 Page 15 OB AmadeIf AX is parallel to the X-axis with 4X,=dX=h,, dX -dX,-0, then equation (46) yields dx (1#B)aX’, Le the dip of vector AX is displaced in the X, drectien by an amount Bh, If AX is parallel to the X,-axis with dX-EX=w,, dX,-dX,-0, then equation (46) yields dx’= (I+A)AN, i the dip of vector AX is displaced in the X, directien by an amount Aw, Overall, the prismatic block is deformed in the X,-X, plane with the rectangular erass-section ‘becoming a parallelogram, This deformation can also be predictedby examining the components of L, in equation (45); there isa finite shear strain of magnitude 0.5(A*B) in the X,-X, plane and finite ‘normal strains of magnitude 0.5B® and 0.5A?in the X, and X, directions, respectively, Note that if ‘A and B are small (small deformation theory), those normal strains can be neglected. 33 Interpretation of Strain Components Relative Displacement Vector ‘Throughout the rest of these notes we will assume tat the small deformation theory valid and that, for all practical purposes, the Lagrangian and Eulerian infinitesimal strain tensors are equal, Consider the geometry of Figure 8 and the displacement vectors &™ and uw’ of two neighboring particles P, and Q,, The relative displacement vector du between te two particles is taken as u- ‘w, Using a Taylor series expansion forthe displacement compenents in the neighborhood of P, and neglecting higher order terms in the expansion gives. au, au an m ‘The displacement gradients (material or spatial) appearing in the @x3) matrix in equation (47) can be decomposed into a symmetric and an antisymmetric par, i. 48) Page 16‘igure 8, Definition of retative displacement veetor between two neighboring particles (after Mase 107mThe first term in (48) is the infinitesimal strain tensor, €,, defined in section 3.2. The second term is ele dhe infnlesimal rowaton tensor wud is denoted as 1,2m_ Ou 2%, a9) This tensor i ani-(or skew) symmetric with w~-w, and corresponds o rigid body rotation around the coordinate system axes. ‘Strain Components In three dimensions, the state of srain ata point P in an arbitrary x,x.%) Cartesian coordinate system is defined by the components ofthe strain tensor. Since that tensor is symmetric, only six ‘components defined the state of strain a a point: three normal srains €, €n, and €5, and three hear strains 6 :0.5Y ay "0.57 nd €,5°0.SYa5 With (30) In equation (50), Ye Yin and tae called the enginceritg shear strains and ae equal o twice the tensorial shear strain components From a physical pint of view, the normal strains €,, €» and €3, represent the change in length of | ‘nit Lines parallel othe x, X;, and x, directions, respectively. The shear strain components EE. and €,, represent one-half the angle change (Yn, ¥ yy and Y>) between two line elements originally at right angles to one another and located inthe (XX), nd (3%) planes. Note that two sign conventions are used when dealing wit strains. In both cases, the displacements 4, Ups and uy, are assumed to be postive in the the +x, 4%, and + directions, respectively. In ‘engineering mechantes, positive normal stains corespond to extension, and positive shear strains ‘correspond to a decrease in the angle between two line elements originally at right angles to one ‘CVEN 5768 Lecture Notes 3 Page 17ta nother. In rock mechanics, however, postive normal strains correspond to contraction (since compressive stresses are positive), and positive shear strains correspond to an increase inthe angle between two line clements originally at right angles to one another. When using the rock mechanics sign convention, the displacement components tu, Us, and uy in equation (50) must be replaced by typ and, respectively. 34 Strain Transformation Law The components of the strain tensor ein an xy (4s) Cartesian coordinate system can be determined from the components ofthe strain easor€, in an x32 (XXX) Cartesian coordinate system using the same coordinate transformation law for second order Cartesian tensor used inthe stress analysis. The diretio cosines ofthe unit vectors parallel tothe x.y and-axes re assumed to be known and tobe defined by equation (10) Equation (12) i replaced by ony Key Soi" Eo Bor My Mle Sp Safar Myr me lee? Sr eel fer mr lee Oe Calm mye my] Using (xt) matrix representation of ¢', and and afteralgebraic manipulations, equation (51) can be rewritten in matrix form as follows ely’ = Tlege (52) where [Tne “En Ey Ea You Yur Yar [Tye [Ee yy Exe Ye Yor Yay] and [Te] is. a 6x6) matrix ‘with components similar to those of mateix [T,} in equation (13) Itcan written as follows: Boom may ely a a a a ee ee ee de Imyams yas myrtle Imlay, Lay ay ay ma omyay mdm dy Lahm, Ide Inns yay maim nbn 1mm, CCVEN 5768- Lect Nates3 Pee 8 OB. Amadeh[T,] and [T,] are related as follows a= rts at = oo) [Note that equation (53) is valid as long as engineering shear strains (and not tensorial shear strains) are used in [Elpy and [€laye The direction cosines defined in equation (15) can be wed w detec the strain components inthe +, 8, z oylindrical coordinate system of Figure Sb. After algebraic manipulation, the strain ‘components inthe, 8, z and x: coordinate systems are related as follows oe 608816, si80 Ly sid egg €si?0 +, ,c09 ty, 9 8in20 Yaet 000-1 808 YH qsind +y,,6080 Yea (668 + 20828 4 3.5 Principal Strains ‘The principal strain values and ther orientation can be found by determining the eigenvalues and cigenvectors ofthe strain tensor €,, Equation (20) is replaced by o 68) Page 19la" € yea Enta* En6, free) 7) Mey € ab yh a 2 gabe (CEH Ete eS) For each principal strain € (€, € €:), there isa principal stain direction which can be determined using the same procedure as for the principal stresses, Let the x, y- and zaxes be parallel to the directions of €,, and €, respectively, and consider a small clement with edges dx, dy and dz whose volume V,-dxdydz. Assuming no rigid body displacement, the components of the relative displacement vector du are equal to €,dx, €xdy and ,dz. Afler deformation the volume ofthe element is equal to ¥ = (1e,)ds(1+6,)( +6, Mr ) Vm Oya, 69) For small strains, the second and third strain invariants can be neglected with respect tothe first strain invariant. Equation (59) yields (60) ‘Equation (60) indicates thatthe first tran invariant can be used as an approximation forthe cubical ‘expansion of a medium. Ifthe rock mechanics sign convention is used instead, the first strain invariant is an approximation forthe cubical contraction. The ratio AVIV iscaled the volumetric strain. 3.6 Strain Decomposition ‘The strain tensor €, can be separated into a Fydrastaic part e,5, and a deviatoric parte, Using (3x3) max sepreterons and an xy. core seen, teen deeomporiton can Be expressed as follows COVEN 5768 - Loctre Notes Page 20 OB Amelley &y &)=|0 e Ols] e, eee cy @» len ee eel [0 Oe Lee ee with eyr(€uit€y te) 37 Compatibility Equations ‘The six components of strain are related tothe three components of displacement through equation, (60). These telaions can be seen as a system of six partial differential equations with three ‘unknowns, The system is therefore over-determined ard will not, in general, possess a unique solution forthe displacements for an arbitrary choice of the six stain components Continuity of the continuum as it deforms requires that the three displacement components be: continuous functions ofthe three coordinates and be single valued. Itean be shown that this requires. the strain components tobe related by six equations calledequations ofcompatibilty. Inan arbitrary. 12 Cartesian coordinate system, these equations can be writen as follows ey Fe, My ay ax? Oxy az? ay? aye Oe oats (62) By Ot we ar ay Me “Be by Bm yy ay 8 VEN St -Lece Notes Paget OBL Amade3.8 Strain Measurements Consider an (4.3) plane and a point Pin that plane. The state of strain at point P is defined by three components, € and €, The longitudinal strain € in any diestion making an ange ® withthe ‘-axsis, according to equation (54), equal to £050 +6, sin°0 +6, sin20 ) ‘The state of strain at (or in the near vicinity of) point P can be determined by measuring three longitudinal stains, €,,€, and €, inthree different directions with angles 6,8, and 8, This gives the following system of three equations and three unknowns le 0, sin?0, sin20,] Jeol = oe, sis, sin2,| le, @ el ae, ai, siao,|! ‘which can be solved for Eq Eyy and, Longitudinal strains can be measured using strain gages invented inthe United States in 1939). A strain gage consists of many loops of thin resistive wire glued to flexible backing (Figure 9a). It is used to measure the longitudinal strain of a structural member to which itis attached. As the ‘material deforms, the wire becomes somewhat longer and thinner (or shorter and thicker) thereby changing its resistance by a small amount, Recall that the electrical resistance, R, of wire of length I, sectional area A, and res equal to pis = ot R 65) Let €,=AI/ be the longitudinal strain of the wire. As the wire stretches, its diameter decreases due to the Poissons effet. The change in resistance, A, ofthe wie i related to €, a follows = GF = 2 BP ua) 6) “where vis the Poisson's ato ofthe wire and GF is the so-alled gage factor whose value is given by the gage manufacturer. For instance for Cr-Ni gages, GF=2.05. Thus, (CVEN 5768 - Lecture Notes3 Page 22 OB. Amd‘Stra @ Active strain gage PF tHE o Figure 9. (a) Schematic representation ofa strain gage, (b) Wheastone bridge.iar ae o Equation (67) shows thatthe stain can be determined once the change in resistance, AR, is ‘measured. This ean be done by mounting the tran gage on a Wheaston bridge, Figure 9 shows a Wheastone bridge where the active strain gage has aresitanceR, The bridge is equilibrium when RR=RGRe IFR, changes by AR,, the bride wil bein equilibrium only if where AR, is changed by means ofa potentiometer. Equation (68) indicates that in order to obtain ‘high precision, ie. a large variation of R; fora given change of R, (corresponding to a certain strain, the ratio Ry/R, needs tobe as small as possible. ‘In general, the variable potentiometer used forthe experiment is calibrated so thatthe readings are immediately in microstrains(j-srains) Note that a single strain gage can only be used to measure the longitudinal deformation in one direction. Ths, in order to solve equation (64) for Ey» and thee independent gages need tobe used. Another option isto us strain gage rosettes which consist of three strain gages attached tothe ame flexible backing, Different strain gage arrangements are available as shown in Figure 10. Strainrosettes commonly used inrock mechanies include: 45° rosettes (Fig, 10a) where 8 0, 8-45, and ,-90; 60° rosettes (Fig. 106) where 0-0, 8:-60 and 8-120; and 120° rosettes (Fig. 10) where 8,-0, 8:=120 and 85-240. It is noteworthy that in the usual strain rosettes, the three separate electrical resistances are not ‘exactly mounted atthe same point, Consequently, a small error is introduced when determining the state of strain at a point. ‘The advantages of strain gages are as follows: high sensitive (about 10°), Iarge domain of variation about 15x10”), ‘negligible weight and inertia, nether mechanical nor electrical response ely, ‘minimum space requirements, ret reading of ain insead of displacement OVEN 5768 Lecue Notes 3 Page 25 ‘©B. AmadeiFigure 10. (a) 45° rosete; (b) 60° rosette; and (c) 120° rosette‘The main disadvantages include: lengthy and delicate mounting procedure, costly since they serve only once, sensitive to humidity unles encapsulated, important temperatre effects since Rg-R(I+a0) where 6 is the thermal expansion coefficient ofthe strain gage. [Note that the effect of temperature can be compensated by using special temperature compensated strain gages, Another compensation method consists of substituting the resistance Ri Figure 9b bya strain gage identical tothe one corresponding toR. The R gage is glued onto the same material as R, and is exposed tothe same environment but isnot strained. Thus, the Wheastone bridge will always be thermally equilibrated. 3.9 References ‘Goodman, R-E. (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics, Wiley, 2nd Eaton ‘Mase, GE. (1970) Continuum Mechanics, Schaum's Outline Series, MeGraw-Hill. (OVEN 5768 - Lecture Notes 3 Page 24 OB. AmadehAPPENDIX Components of matrix (T,} in equation (13) and matrix (T, in equation (52) 1m ab 2ipmy myles Be mh nh ayy Dyan Amy tmp <| 2h mh ah tm 2yngy yy ply Mates ity Mngt, Dyily*Ngtly Lying yAty) Zyilgs Mtg Mylhg Mlle Aggy Dlg Mgt Ly 2 Ay LpLys Mfg Ryle) My) RyRy! Lyf yA and Tomy nh mye Ds ls om yin Iyny myly try] Amity Agi yy ladyLyr Qmatyr 20s My, yyy Tyilgs*Dytlys Ly, fa dyDge Oimgtgr Biryr Metyremg gy Ng lta tly It, l22yLyr Ames Ziyi My) RiP? Lyf, Ag