Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69 – 79

www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Baked starch foams: starch modifications and additives

improve process parameters, structure and properties
R.L. Shogren a,*, J.W. Lawton a, K.F. Tiefenbacher b
a
Plant Polymer Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, US Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Ser6ice, 1815 North Uni6ersity Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
b
Franz Haas Machinery of America, Richmond, VA 23231, USA
Received 14 September 2001; accepted 29 January 2002

Abstract

Single-use packaging articles made of expanded polystyrene (EPS) are currently used to serve and pack a variety
of food and non-food products. Recently, there have been efforts to develop and commercialize materials from
renewable resources such as starch to replace EPS. Starch based foams are, however, brittle and sensitive to water,
and thus require expensive coating steps when exposure to cold or hot liquids is required. In this report, various
modified starches and additives were tested in baked foam plate formulations to improve strength and water
resistance properties in lieu of coating. Foam plates made from chemically modified starches had shorter baking
times, lighter weights and higher elongations at break than unmodified starch. Plates made from genetically modified
(waxy) starches and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) had elongations to break at low humidities, which were much higher
than those made from normal starches and PVOH. Addition of softwood fibers increased starch foam plate strengths
at low and high humidities. Addition of monostearyl citrate to starch batter formulations gave the best improvement
in water resistance among the compounds tested. Baked foams made from potato amylopectin, PVOH, aspen fiber
and monostearyl citrate appeared to have adequate flexibility and water resistance to function as clamshell-type hot
sandwich containers. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Starch; Foam; Biodegradable; Packaging

1. Introduction

Materials derived from agriculture are begin-


Product names are necessary to report factually on avail-
able data; however, the USDA neither guarantees nor war-
rants the standard of the product, and the use of the name
USDA implies no approval of the product to the exclusion of
other that may also be suitable.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-309-681-6354; fax: + 1-
309-681-6691.
E-mail address: shogrerl@ncaur.usda.gov (R.L. Shogren).
ning to emerge as promising substitutes for
petroleum-based plastics for a variety of applica-
tions including packaging, consumer non-
durables, non-wovens, coatings, medical plastics,
agricultural plastics, and textile fibers (Narayan,
1994; Mayer and Kaplan, 1994; Chang, 1997;
Bastioli, 1998; Petersen et al., 1999). Disposable

0926-6690/02/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 9 2 6 - 6 6 9 0 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 0 - 9
70 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
products such as plastic tableware and packaging
are targeted since they are generally used only
once and are difficult to recycle. Petroleum-based
plastics such as polystyrene foam may require
hundreds of years to degrade and can kill wildlife
if ingested. Biobased materials such as starch and
cellulose have the advantage of being biodegrad-
able into a useful compost. Plastics and fast food
industries also are realizing that they need to
begin to identify renewable sources of raw materi-
als as petroleum supplies decline. To promote this
approach, the Biobased Products Act of 2000 was
enacted to encourage the tripling of the use of
biobased materials and energy by 2010. Increasing
demand for low priced agricultural commodities
such as corn and wheat are also motivating
factors.
Previous work (Tiefenbacher, 1993) has shown
that starch/water batters can be baked in a closed,
heated mold and thereby gelatinize and foam the
starch into the shape of the mold. Starch alone,
however, is rather brittle and water sensitive so
further treatments are necessary to attain the
strength, flexibility and water resistance needed
for applications such as foam plates or clamshells
intended for moist food. Earthshell Corporation
(Andersen and Hodson, 1998a; Andersen et al.,
1999) has added mineral fillers and wood fibers to
improve strength and have coated the plates with
wax and other materials to improve water resis-
tance. These are beginning to be commercialized
as hinged lid food containers for fast-food restau-
rants. Clamshell hinges with sufficient bending
flexibility have been made by spraying the hinge
with glycerol or polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) solu-
tion (Andersen and Hodson, 1998b). However,
the effects of humidity on the containers were not
adequately characterized. Water resistance and
foam strength were improved by coating with
polyesters (Shogren and Lawton, 1998) or adding
PVOH to the batter before baking (Shogren et al.,
1998a, 2000).
In this study, we have further investigated the
possibilities for improving baked foam properties
by additions to the starch/water and starch/
PVOH solution batters. The effects of adding
modified starches, fiber, and hydrophobic com-
pounds on baking process parameters, strength,
elongation to break and water resistance were
determined. Morphologies of the foams were as-
sessed by scanning electron microcopy.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Potato amylopectin was provided by Lyckeby
Stärkelsen, Kristianstad, Sweden. Waxy corn-
starch was Amioca from National Starch and
Chemical, Bridgewater, NJ. Normal cornstarch
was Buffalo 3401 from CPC International, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ. High (50%) amylose cornstarch
and high (50%) amylose cornstarch acetate were
Amaizo 5 and Amaizo Crisp Tex, respectively,
from Cerestar, Hammond, IN. Hydroxyethyl nor-
mal cornstarch (M.S.0.06) was Ethylex 2095
from A.E. Staley, Decatur, IL. Starches contained
10–18% moisture. PVOH was 98% hydrolyzed
with average molecular weights of 85–146 000
(Airvol 325) and 124–186 000 (Airvol 350) from
Air Products, Inc., Allentown, PA. Aspen fiber
was from Super Wood Corp., Phillipps, WI. The
fibers had an average length of 3.5 mm with a
range of 1–11 mm. Guar gum and magnesium
stearate were from Sigma Chemical, St. Louis,
MO. Monostearyl citrate was from Morflex Inc.,
Greensboro, NC. Ethanedial oxalaldehyde resin
(Curez 5550), glyoxal resin (Curez 5650) and
methylated melamine resin (Melrez 5480) were
from Hopton Technologies Inc., Rome, GA.
Paraffin wax, soybean oil, polyethylene glycol
stearate, silicon oil, rosin, gum elemi, shellac,
stearic acid, citric acid, butanetetracarboxylic acid
and octenyl succinic anhydride were from
Aldrich, Milwaukee, WI. Epoxidized soybean oil
(Paraplex G-62) was from C.P. Hall, Bedford
Park, IL.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Foam tray preparation
Starch, aspen fiber and magnesium stearate
were first mixed using a Kitchen Aid mixer with a
wire wisk attachment. Magnesium stearate acts as
a mold release agent, preventing sticking of starch
 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
to the mold. For batters containing no PVOH,
guar gum (1% by weight of starch) was also
added to prevent settling of the starch. PVOH
solution (10% by weight, heated to 90 °C for 1 h)
and/or water and other liquid reagents were then
added so as to give the desired level of PVOH
and a total solid content of 33%. Other com-
pounds (see Section 2.1) were added to the batter
at 1 –2% levels based on starch weights. Acetic
acid was added to batters containing the Curez or
Melrex resins to decrease the pH to nearly 5.
Mixing was continued for 20– 30 min. Starch
foam trays were prepared using a laboratory
model-baking machine (model LB TRO) supplied
by Franz Haas Machinery of America, Rich-
mond, VA. This equipment consists of two heated
steel molds, the top of which can be hydraulically
lowered to mate with the bottom half for a set
amount of time. Dimensions of the mold were
217 mm long, 134 mm wide, 19 mm deep and 3
mm (plate separation). Baking temperatures were
set at 200– 205 °C. Actual temperatures at the
mold surface were about 10 °C lower as mea-
sured using a Temp-Sure Digital Pyrometer TS-
200 (D-M-E Co., Madison Heights, MI). Baking
times were the minimum required to avoid a soft
or bubbled tray and varied from about 80– 140 s.
2.2.2. Testing of trays
Trays were equilibrated at 5, 20, 50, 85 and
95% relative humidity (r.h.) at 23 °C for 7 days
prior to mechanical testing. An Electro-tech Sys-
tems environmental chamber (Model 518, Glen-
side, PA) was used for 5% r.h. The 20 and 95%
r.h. environments were achieved by placing satu-
rated solutions of sodium acetate and disodium
hydrogen phosphate, respectively, in large glove
boxes. For 85% r.h., a Hotpack (Philadelphia,
PA) constant humidity oven was used. Equilibra-
tion at 50% r.h. and testing was carried out in a
special room maintained at that humidity. Hu-
midities were checked in each environment using
a Vaisala humidity meter (HMI 31, Finland),
which was calibrated with saturated LiCl and
NaCl. Trays conditioned at humidities other than
50% were placed in Ziplock™ polyethylene bags
and then were removed one by one for testing.
Mechanical testing was performed using an In-
71
stron model 4201 Universal Testing Machine
(Canton, MA) equipped with a cylindrical probe
(35 mm diameter) and a cylindrical base (80 mm
inside diameter). The probe was lowered onto the
tray until a load of 0.5 N was reached and then
lowered at 30 mm/min. Parameters calculated
were the maximum force (Fm) and deformation
to Fm (Lm). Five trays were normally tested.
Tests of statistical significance between values of
tray weight, Fm, Lm and water absorbance were
done using t-tests on SIGMA-STAT (SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, IL).
Water resistance tests were performed by first
weighing a tray equilibrated to 50% r.h., adding
100 ml of distilled water at 23 °C, waiting 25
min, pouring off the water and reweighing the
tray. Two replicate tests were normally per-
formed.
2.2.3. Scanning electron microscopy
Tray samples were mounted on aluminum
stubs with graphite filled tape and vacuum coated
with gold/palladium. Specimens were then exam-
ined with a JSM 6400V scanning electron micro-
scope (JEOL Ltd, Tokyo, Japan).
3. Results and discussion
The effects of chemical modification on process
parameters and foam plate properties are shown
in Tables 1 and 2. Plates made with unmodified
cornstarch have a smooth surface, but will occa-
sionally have cracks. No cracks were seen in
plates made with hydroxyethyl (HE) starch. Also,
batter volume and baking times required for the
latter were less than unmodified cornstarch. Hy-
droxyethylation causes the starch to gelatinize
more quickly (at a lower temperature), and thus
the starch paste can then expand into a foam and
dry more rapidly.
There were no cracks in the modified starch
foams probably because chemically modified
starch granules will usually dissolve more com-
pletely in water and thus form a stronger and
more continuous film. Strength (Fm) values for
the HE starch foam plates, as shown in Table 2,
were lower than the unmodified starch plates due
72 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79

to the lower weight of the former. On a unit
weight basis, however, the HE starch plates were
slightly stronger. The Lm or flexibility of HE
starch plates was higher at 50% humidity, likely
due to their lower density. The trend of increasing
flexibility with lower density has been observed
previously where the density of starch plates de-
creased with decreasing amylose content (Shogren
et al., 1998b) or starch batter solids level (Lawton
et al., 1999).
Scanning electron micrographs of cross-sections
of foam plates made from native and hydrox-
yethyl starches are presented in Fig. 1. The
modified starch foams have a more expanded,
lower density structure than the unmodified ones
particularly at the top and bottom of the plate
due to the more rapid gelatinization of the
modified starches. The cell walls of the modified
starch foams were thinner, and hence could prob-
ably flex more easily thus giving a larger Lm.
Foam plates made from high (50%) amylose
cornstarch were irregular in shape (see Fig. 1) and
very heavy because these starches have a high
melting temperature, and thus do not give a very
elastic paste, which can hold a steam bubble
during expansion. Plates made from acetylated
high amylose starch had regular shapes and
smooth surfaces, baked in much shorter times and
had lighter weights than plates made from un-
modified high amylose starch. Batter solids levels
needed to be at least 36% to make a well-formed
tray. Attempts were made to make foam plates
using hydroxypropyl high (70%) amylose starch
(HP Hylon VII from National Starch), but the
plates were not well formed. Visually, the paste
viscosity and elasticity of this starch were too low

Table 1
Baking parameters and tray properties for modified cornstarches

Starch Solids (%) Batter volume (ml) Baking time (s) Tray weight (g)a Appearance

Corn 33 55 115 15 a Smooth surface, some cracks

HE cornb 33 35 80 10.7 b Smooth surface
High Am. cornc 33 80 180 27 c Irregular surface
High Am. corn 36 60 95 20 d Smooth surface
acetate

a
Measured after equilibration at 50% r.h.; values within columns followed by a different letter are statistically different (95%
confidence).
b
Hydroxyethyl cornstarch.
c
High (50%) amylose cornstarch.

Table 2
Mechanical properties of modified cornstarch foam plates

Starch Fm (N)a at r.h. (%) Lm (mm)b at r.h. (%)

20 50 80 20 50 80

Corn 42 aA 72 aB 24 aC 2.4 aA 4.0 aB 5.0 aB

HE cornc 34 bA 59 aB 16 bC 2.7 bA 6.9 bB 3.4 bC
High Am. cornd 160 b 5.4 c
High Am. corn acetate 62 cA 123 bB 45 cC 2.7 bA 5.9 bcB 4.6 aB

a
Force at break measured at indicated relative humidities (r.h.); values within columns followed by a different lower case letter
are statistically different (95% confidence); values within rows followed by a different upper case letter are statistically different (95%
confidence).
b
Elongation at break measured at indicated relative humidities (r.h.).
c
Hydroxyethyl cornstarch.
d
High (50%) amylose cornstarch.
 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79 73

Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of cross-sections of baked starch foam plates containing normal cornstarch (A), hydroxyethyl
normal cornstarch (B), high (50%) amylose cornstarch (C), and acetylated high (50%) amylose cornstarch (D).

to form an expanded foam using the baking
process.
The effects of addition of fiber, PVOH and
different hydrophobic agents on the properties of
cornstarch foam plates are shown in Tables 3 and
4. Addition of 5–10% aspen fiber clearly gives
higher strength foams, particularly at low and high
humidities (Table 4). As shown in Fig. 2, the fibers
adhere well to the starch matrix, and thus act as a
reinforcement. This is critical at low humidities
when starch becomes very brittle and fibers can
‘bridge’ between cracks in the starch. At high
humidities, the amorphous starch foam started to
become soft, and hence a fibrous network provides
additional strength. Baking times increased slightly
with increasing fiber content probably because this
loose fibrous network increased viscosity and resis-
tance to expansion. Addition of PVOH to corn-
starch foams gave some improvement in strength.
Further addition of fiber to starch/PVOH foams
yielded a plate with high and fairly constant
strength versus humidity without an increase in tray
weight. Flexibility of cornstarch foam plates was
increased slightly by adding PVOH and changed
little by fiber addition. Improvement in the mechan-
ical properties of gelatinized starch on fiber addi-
tion has been noted by others in extruded films as
well as baked foams (Andersen and Hodson, 1998a;
Bergthaller et al., 1999; Dufresne and Cavaille,
1999; Curvelo et al., 2001; Averous et al., 2001).
74 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79

In the effort to improve water resistance, many
different hydrophobic materials and cross-linking
agents were added to the batter formulations
shown in Table 3 at levels of approximately 1–
2%. Addition of paraffin waxes, vegetable oils,
epoxidized oils, PEG stearates, silicon oils, rosin,
gum elemi, shellac, stearic acid, citric acid, bu-
tanetetracarboxylic acid, octenyl succinic anhy-
dride, ethandial resin, glyoxal resin and melamine
resin gave no improvement in water resistance.
Only monostearyl citrate (MSC) gave significant
improvement in water resistance over the control.
For example, water absorption decreased from 11
to 4.7 g after addition of 2% MSC to a corn-
starch/20% PVOH/10% fiber foam plate formula-
tion (Table 3). Foam plates containing MSC
tended to have a shiny surface, suggesting that it
migrated to the surface and formed a water repel-
lent layer there. Some reaction with starch may
also be possible via dehydration of adjacent car-
boxyl groups to the anhydride followed by ester-
ification by starch hydroxyls. MSC also acted as a
very effective mold release agent, leaving mold
surfaces as clean or cleaner than magnesium

Table 3
Effects of additives on baking parameters, weights and water absorption of normal cornstarch foam plates

PVOH (%) Fiber (%) Additive (%) Solids (%) Batter volume Baking time (s) Tray weight Weight gain
(ml) (g)a after water
addition (g)a

0 0 MgStb, 2 33 55 115 14.0 a 12.7 a

0 5 MgSt, 2 33 55 120 15.5 b –
0 10 MgSt, 2 33 60 130 17.8 c 11.3 b
20 0 MgSt, 2 33 55 115 13.7 a 10.4c
20d 10 MgSt, 2 32 60 120 13.4 a 11.0c
20d 10 MSCe, 2 32 60 120 15.0 b 4.75c

a
Measured at 50% r.h.; values within columns followed by a different lower case letter are statistically different (95% confidence).
b
Magnesium stearate.
c
Single measurement.
d
Airvol 350.
e
Monostearyl citrate.

Table 4
Effects of additives on mechanical properties of normal cornstarch foam plates

PVOH (%) Fiber (%) Additive (%) Fm (N)a at r.h. (%) Lm (mm)b at r.h. (%)

20 50 80 20 50 80

0 0 MgStc, 2 42 aA 72 aB 24 aC 2.4 aA 4.0 aB 5.0 aB

0 5 MgSt, 2 63 bA 74 aB 62 bA 2.8 bA 4.8 abB 6.0 aB
0 10 MgSt, 2 73 bcA 85 bA 70 bA 2.8 abA 3.9 abAB 5.5 aB
20d 0 MgSt, 2 65 bcA 106 bB 40 cC 2.6 abA 5.2 bB 7.0 bC
20 10 MgSt, 2 91 cA 90 bA 106 dA 2.9 abA 4.0 abA 8.6 cB
20 10 MSCe, 2 80 cA 102 bAB 135 eB 2.5 aA 3.8 abB 7.8 bC

a
Force at break measured at indicated relative humidities (r.h.); values within columns followed by a different lower case letter
are statistically different (95% confidence); values within rows followed by a different upper case letter are statistically different (95%
confidence).
b
Elongation at break measured at indicated relative humidities (r.h.).
c
Magnesium stearate.
d
Airvol 350.
e
Monostearyl citrate.
 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrograph of a cross-section of baked starch foam plate containing normal cornstarch with 10% wood
fiber and 2% monostearyl citrate.
stearate. Addition of the aldehyde based resins,
commonly used as water-resistance additives in the
paper industry, caused severe browning and loss of
strength. The oils and waxes caused an ‘overlubri-
cation’ to produce an irregular, malformed tray.
Addition of Ca and Zr salts was previously found
to improve starch foam water resistance (via starch
cross-linking) but plate weight and baking time
also increased significantly (Shogren et al., 1998a).
The effects of addition of PVOH and fiber to
formulations containing waxy (amylopectin)
starches are listed in Tables 5 and 6. As docu-
mented previously (Shogren et al., 1998b), trays
made with waxy starches bake quickly and are
lighter in weight due to their very rapid gelatiniza-
tion. They are, however, not very strong or flexible
(relatively low values for Fm and Lm). After
addition of PVOH, however, plates made from
waxy starches (especially potato) become very
flexible and have acceptable strength even at low
humidities. For example, Lm for waxy potato/
PVOH trays is 7.3 mm at 20% humidity versus
only 3.3 mm for waxy potato starch alone (Table
75
6). Additions of fiber and MSC help to increase
strengths at higher humidities and water resis-
tance, respectively. Fibers are apparently well dis-
persed in the starch/PVOH matrix, as shown in the
scanning electron micrograph in Fig. 3A. Adher-
ence of fibers to the starch/PVOH matrix appears
strong (Fig. 3B).
The reason why Lm increases so much more on
addition of PVOH for waxy starch than normal
cornstarch is unknown, but may reflect differing
compatibilities of the polymers involved. Previous
work has shown that amylopectin is less compat-
ible with poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) than
amylose (Simmons and Thomas, 1995, 1998). Re-
moval of starch from starch/PVOH 80/20 foam
plates by microbial enzymes leaves a continuous,
hollow framework of PVOH (Shogren et al.,
1998a). Thus, the higher flexibility of waxy starch/
PVOH foams may result from a morphology in
which the stronger PVOH occupies the continuous
phase and swollen starch granules serve as a filler.
The thin cell walls in these foams are probably also
an important factor.
 76

Table 5
Effects of additives and starch type on baking parameters, weights and water absorption of starch foam plates

Starch PVOH (%) Fiber (%) Additive (%) Solids (%) Batter volume Baking time (s) Tray weight (g)a Weight gain after water
(ml) addition (g)a

Waxy m.b 0 0 MgStc, 2 33 27 75 7.4 a –

Waxy m. 20d 0 MgSt, 2 33 27 80 8.5 b 7.2 a
Waxy p.e 0 0 MgSt, 2 33 25 80 8.4 b 17 b
Waxy p. 20 0 MgSt, 2 33 30 85 7.8 a 9.4 c
Waxy p. 20 10 MSCf, 2 31 37 95 9.3 c 5.6 d

a
Measured at 50% r.h.; values within columns followed by a different lower case letter are statistically different (95% confidence).
b
Waxy maize starch.
c
Magnesium stearate.
d
Airvol 350.
e
Waxy potato starch.
f
Monostearyl citrate.
R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
Table 6
Effects of additives and starch type on mechanical properties of starch foam plates

Starch PVOH (%) Fiber (%) Additive (%) Fm (N)a at relative humidity (%) Lm (mm)b at relative humidity (%)

5 20 50 80 95 5 20 50 80 95

Waxy m.c 0 0 MgStd, 2 14 aA 26 aB 10 aC 2.4 aA 5.2 aB 5.5 aB

Waxy m. 20e 0 MgSt, 2 35 bA 66 bB 17 bC 4.0 bA 6.7 bB 5.3 aC
Waxy p.f 0 0 MgSt, 2 13 aA 22 cB 42 cC 15 bA 3 aD 2.0 aA 3.3 bB 7.1 bC 5.6 aD \20
Waxy p. 20 0 MgSt, 2 30 aA 54 dB 54 dB 27 cC 6 bD 5.4 bA 7.3 cB 10 cB 11 bB \20
Waxy p. 20 10 MSCg, 2 81 eA 81 bA 58 dB 5.9 cA 6.2 abA 8.7 bB

a
Force at break measured at indicated relative humidities; values within columns followed by a different lower case letter are statistically different (95% confidence);
values within rows followed by a different upper case letter are statistically different (95% confidence).
b
Elongation at break measured at indicated relative humidities.
c
Waxy maize starch.
d
Magnesium stearate.
e
Airvol 350.
f
Waxy potato starch.
g
Monostearyl citrate.
R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
77
78 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
This flexibility is critical for applications such
as a flexible hinge region of a clamshell container
that must flex without breaking. As a test of the
suitability of the above formulations for use as
sandwich containers, a hamburger and bun was
placed between two foam plates consisting of
waxy potato starch/PVOH/fiber/MSC 70/20/10/2
and microwaved for 30 s. The internal tempera-
ture of the hamburger reached 75 °C. After 10
min, the bottom plate was slightly soft under the
hamburger, but as a whole, the container was still
rigid and did not deform significantly. The
weights of the plates increased from 19.4 to 22.2 g
after the hamburger was removed.
Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of baked starch foam
plates containing waxy potato starch with 20% PVOH, 10%
wood fiber and 2% monostearyl citrate: surface (A), and
cross-section (B).
In conclusion, the flexibility of starch foam
plates can be improved and baking times de-
creased by incorporating chemically or genetically
modified starches into the foam formulations.
Strength, especially at low and high humidities
can be improved by addition of fibers and water
resistance is improved by adding monostearyl cit-
rate. Although the plates we prepared are not
adequate for applications such as hot drink con-
tainers, the range of uses are extended to applica-
tions where moist food contact occurs for short
periods. The eventual goal is to have as short
baking times as possible and no secondary coating
steps to reduce process costs.
Acknowledgements
The technical assistance of Elizabeth Kriete-
meyer for the baking work and Dr Arthur
Thompson for the scanning electron micrographs
are gratefully acknowledged. This work was con-
ducted under Cooperative Research and Develop-
ment Agreement (CRADA) No. 58-3K95-M-228
with Franz Haas Machinery of America.
References
Andersen, P., Hodson, S., 1998a. Methods for Manufactur-
ing Articles Having a Starch-Bound Cellular Matrix. US
Patent No. 5,709,827.
Andersen, P., Hodson, S., 1998b. Systems for Molding Arti-
cles Which Include a Hinged Starch-bound Cellular Ma-
trix. US Patent No. 5,705,203.
Andersen, P., Kumar, A., Hodson, S., 1999. Inorganically
filled starch based fiber reinforced composite foam mate-
rials for food packaging. Mater. Res. Innovations 3, 2 –
8.
Averous, L., Fringant, C., Moro, L., 2001. Plasticized
starch– cellulose interactions in polysaccharide com-
posites. Polymer 42, 6565 – 6572.
Bastioli, C., 1998. Biodegradable materials — present situa-
tion and future perspectives. Macromol. Symp. 135,
193 – 204.
Bergthaller, W., Funke, U., Lindhauer, M., Radosta, S.,
Meister, F., Taeger, E., 1999. Processing and characteri-
zation of biodegradable products based on starch and
cellulose fibers. In: Imam, S., Greene, R., Zaidi, B.
(Eds.), Biopolymers: Utilizing Nature’s Advanced Materi-
als. In: ACS Symposium Series, vol. 723. American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 14 – 38.
 R.L. Shogren et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 16 (2002) 69–79
Chang, B.-H., 1997. Degradable polymers for disposable ap-
plications. Polymer News 22, 307 –314.
Curvelo, A., DeCarvalho, A., Agnelli, J., 2001. Thermoplastic
starch– cellulose fiber composites: preliminary results. Car-
bohydr. Polym. 45, 183 –188.
Dufresne, A., Cavaille, J., 1999. Nanocomposite materials of
thermoplastic polymers reinforced by polysaccharide. In:
Imam, S., Greene, R., Zaidi, B. (Eds.), Biopolymers: Uti-
lizing Nature’s Advanced Materials. In: ACS Symposium
Series, vol. 723. American Chemical Society, Washington,
DC, pp. 39– 54.
Lawton, J., Shogren, R., Tiefenbacher, K., 1999. Effect of
batter solids and starch type on the structure of baked
starch foams. Cereal Chem. 76, 682 –687.
Mayer, J., Kaplan, D., 1994. Biodegradable materials: balanc-
ing degradability and performance. Trends Polym. Sci. 2,
227– 235.
Narayan, R., 1994. Polymeric materials from agricultural feed-
stocks. In: Fishman, M., Friedman, R., Huang, S. (Eds.),
Polymers from Agricultural Coproducts. In: ACS Sympo-
sium Series, vol. 575. American Chemical Society, Wash-
ington, DC, pp. 2– 28.
Petersen, K., Nielsen, P., Bertelsen, G., Lawther, M., Olsen,
M., Nilsson, N., Mortensen, G., 1999. Potential of
79
biobased materials for food packaging. Trends Food Sci.
Technol. 10, 52 – 68.
Shogren, R., Lawton, J., 1998. Enhanced Water Resistance of
Starch-based Materials. US Patent No. 5,756,194.
Shogren, R., Lawton, J., Tiefenbacher, K., Chen, L., 1998a.
Starch– poly(vinyl alcohol) foamed articles prepared by a
baking process. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 68, 2129 – 2140.
Shogren, R., Lawton, J., Doane, W., Tiefenbacher, K., 1998b.
Structure and morphology of baked starch foams. Polymer
39, 6649 – 6655.
Shogren, R., Lawton, J., Tiefenbacher, K., 2000. Method for
Producing Disposable Thin-walled Molded Articles. US
Patent No. 6,146,573.
Simmons, S., Thomas, E., 1995. Structural characteristics of
biodegradable thermoplastic starch/poly(ethylene-vinyl al-
cohol) blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 58, 2259 – 2285.
Simmons, S., Thomas, E., 1998. The use of transmission
electron microscopy to study the blend morphology of
starch/poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) thermoplastics.
Polymer 39, 5587 – 5599.
Tiefenbacher, K., 1993. Starch-based foamed materials —use
and degradation properties. J. Macromol. Sci., Pure Appl.
Chem. A30, 727 – 731.