Ethylene

• Unlike the previous hormones, this is a gaseous hormone. It is very simple: C2H4. By definition,
we said that hormones are synthesized in one place and transported to another place.
However, this hormone acts on the cells where it is produced. It is transported by simple
diffusion (no need for the mechanism of transport). Almost all plant cells can produce it.
Usually, you find the concentration is highest in senescing tissues of leaves and fruits...
It is sometimes called the fruit ripening hormone.
The concentration of the hormone could be around 1 nl/g of fresh weigh//hr. à it acts at a
very low concentration.

• Synthesis:
- The precursor for this hormone is the amino acid methionine (sulfur containing amino
acid).
- The first step involves the reaction between ATP and methionine à S-Adenosyl
methionine is produced (first intermediate). The adenosine part = adenine and ribose is
added to the Sulfur group. S-Adenosyl Methionine = SAM. What is left is Pi and PPi.
The enzyme that is needed is called S-Adenosyl Methionine Synthetase (SAM
synthetase).

- In the next step, an enzyme called ACC synthase will form the compound 1-
Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) (this is the immediate precursor of ethylene).
The remaining part will be 5-Methylthioadenosine which will undergo several reactions
in a cyclic form called Yang cycle to be used in the regeneration of methionine. We’re not
responsible for Yang cycle.

- ACC synthase is inhibited by AOA: aminooxyacetic acid and by AVG: aminoethoxy-vinyl-

glycine. These two will in turn inhibit the synthesis of ethylene, since ACC is the immediate
precursor.
These inhibitors inhibit the enzymes that require PLP (pyridoxalphosphate) as a cofactor
(derived from vitamin B complex).
The synthesis of ACC synthase is activated by the level of IAA. IAA promotes leaf
abscission à IAA will help the gene needed for the synthesis of ACC synthase to be
synthesized. So the effect at the end is production of ethylene which will activate cellulase
and lead to leaf abscission.
Other factors are wounding, flooding...These factors promote ethylene production by
affecting the production of ACC synthase.
 - Carbons 3 and 4 of ACC will give rise to ethylene. One carbon is lost as CO2, the other is
lost as HCN or formic acid or other compounds. ACC oxidase oxidizes ACC to give rise to
ethylene. There are some factors that inhibit ACC oxidase. Sometimes, ACC can be
conjugated to malonate forming N-Malonyl ACC, therefore controlling the production of
the hormone.

• Inhibitors of ethylene:
There are many inhibitors for ethylene, some inhibit it by binding to the receptors, ex: 1-
Methylcyclopropene (mainly), trans-Cyclooctene, and cis-Cyclooctene.

• Physiological Effects of ethylene:

1) Fruit Ripening:
- If fruits are to ripen, they are accompanied with an increase in rate of respiration, because
ripening is an active process that requires energy.
So if you take a fruit after harvest, before the ripening takes place, there is an increase in
the rate of respiration.
This increase in the rate of respiration is called climacteric respiration or climacteric rise,
during which there is an increase in the level of ethylene (100 times more) before the
ripening. After harvesting the fruits, the levels of ACC, ACC oxidase, and ethylene will be
increased.
So ripening occurs due to newly formed enzymes (not enzymes that were present and
now activated)
Any factor that inhibits respiration will inhibit ripening.

- If you take unripe fruits, or if you slow the production for ethylene conditions, fruits will
not ripen. And vice versa. This led to the conclusion that ethylene is an important
hormone in the ripening process in most plants. Most of the fruits show climacteric rise,
ex: apple, avocado, banana, figs… (apples and banana produce a lot of ethylene).
Some nonclimacteric fruits are grape, pineapple…

- This ripening process is an active process that includes several biochemical changes:
~ Hydrolysis of stored materials: hence sugars are produced and the fruit becomes
sweeter.
~ Softening of the fruit: pectins in the cell wall will be hydrolyzed à The tissue of the
fruit becomes softer.
~ Changes in pigmentation as the chlorophyll is destroyed (green àred or yellow).
~ Increase in respiration rate
~ Change in flavor compounds.
To do these biochemical changes, we need enzymes, and this is why ripening is
accompanied by the production of new enzymes that were not present earlier: de novo.
So this is an active process. One of the enzymes produced is polygalactouronase that acts
on pectins. Another is cellulase. These are produced due to the action of ethylene.

- How can you prove that these enzymes are synthesized newly?
If we want to synthesize new enzymes, we need mRNA à proteins.
So we use inhibitors of protein synthesis or RNA synthesis at early climacteric stage.
Inhibitor of protein synthesis: cyclohexamide, puromicine.
Inhibitor of RNA synthesis: azaguanine (guanine analog).
2) Leaf Abscission:
 Auxin stimulates the production of ethylene at the abscission zone. The level of this
hormone, like many other hormones, is largely affected by the developmental stage of
the plant. Leaf abscission occurs towards the end of the life of the plant, or early in the
life cycle, and so on.
IAA will promote the synthesis of ACC synthase à ethylene production à activation of
cellulase à leaf abscission (2 cells are cemented together by cellulose / main component
of cell wall).

3) Epinasty:
Epinasty is the downward movement of the leaf. IAA stimulates the production of
ethylene, and ethylene is the hormone responsible directly for this effect.

4) Healing wounds:
Ethylene will heal the wounds of the plant because it controls the synthesis of certain
enzymes like PAL (Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase).
PAL leads to the production of phenolic compounds which are involved in wound healing.

5) Flowering:
Though usually ethylene plays inhibitory roles, it might stimulate flowering, example: in
pineapples and mangos.
But in general, it is known to inhibit flowering.

6) Changing the sex of the flower

• Inhibition of Ethylene:
- CO2 is a potent inhibitor of ethylene. It is a competitive inhibitor (antagonist) for ethylene.
5-10% of CO2 can inhibit ethylene effects.
To prevent ripening of fruits, you can store fruits in air-tight room which has very high
concentration of CO2 (5-10%) and a very low concentration of O2 (1-3%) and no ethylene.
Then you can monitor the production of ethylene by fruits themselves.
- Silver ions are very potent inhibitors of ethylene. They are applied as silver nitrate AgNO3.
- Ethylene itself can be oxidized with many products: among the products are ethylene
glycol, ethylene oxide, as well as CO2 when it is completely oxidized.

• Commercial application of ethylene:

 Ethylene has too many commercial applications: usually you add a compound called
ethephon or etherel that can be translocated in the plant and act as a source for the
production of ethylene.
When ethylene is produced, it is translocated in the plant to promote flowering or fruit
ripening.
The structure of ethereal (also called chloroethylphosphoric acid) is Cl-CH2-CH2-PO3H2. This
will release ethylene when dissolved in alkaline solution.

• Why do you pick the banana (other fruits) green?

For a banana to grow, more food is translocated to it. So when left on its tree, they will keep
growing. As it ripens, the banana peel will crack because of the expansion.
On the other hand, ripening the fruits in a factory won’t affect their outer surface.

• Mode of action of ethylene:

There are receptors that are usually found in the membranes like the GA and ER. These
receptors contain a cover to which the hormone will bind and result in its effects.

Brassinosteroids

• As the name implies, these are steroids (oligosaccharides) in their nature.

• They were discovered in the pollen grains of a plant called Brassica napus (the rape plant).
This plant is a very common plant, and its oil is very important oil (Canola oil) which contains
lots of unsaturated fat. The rape plant seeds are the major source of the oil. It is a very nice
plant. When you grow the seeds, it will rape all the fields around it.

• This hormone usually promotes growth, synergetic effect to most other hormones. It plays a
role in elongation, and can overcome dwarfism like GA.

• Growth regulators are not restricted to these 6 major classes, but u have other compounds
that can act like hormones.