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    12. ATOMS Ta thy unit, we Shall discuss the modds of atems in some. cletol). The fist entribution in this regard come from Dalton, who proposect that matty is mace of atoms, which art indivisible J.J. Themen preposecl Q shuchre for the ctom, which Js moolifiec! by Rutherford and Loter by Niels Bohr: Thomson Model of Atom- Accorcling to the Thomsen moolel, ev ater consist of a pesihv: ch Sphare of yadius of the oroltr off [612m tn which ertive mars anol positive charge of the outom axe uniform, ctistributed., Insole His sphare, He elechons are embeded Like seads in a wateamelon.or Uke plums in a pudding. The number of electron is such thet their Ter Change 44 esol to the positive charge of the mM. Thus the atom ia electrically neutal, Limitations ef Thomson Atom moole} - (1) Tt Could not explain He il of Spectrol series of hy regen and other atoms, observed experimentally. Gi) Tt Could not explain the ange scattering of %- porkeles® from thin “meted ‘foils, ab Obédered by Rutherford. Rutherford's a-ray Scattering Experiment : The experimental setup used by Rutherford and his Collaborators, Geiger and Marsden is Shown in Fix - COLLIMATOR [_] x‘ ’ OLD FOIL 4, (108m thick) 4—» MOST-a -<----. PASS a ~Je $—» STRAIGHT / aa, SS f208 / SCREEN CAVITY J | S oe ABOUT 1 in 8000-0 - Score 1S REFLECTED BACK ~ CeCroRT S ds a piece, °h vadioactive Source (eB?) Contained In a sradl Cavity. The &X- particles emitted by the Source are Collimated into a narrow beam with the help of @ lead slit ( collimator). The Collimated beam Gs allowed to fall om a thin gold foil of thickness of the order of 21x10m. The a-parteles scattered in Afferent Aivections are observed Hrv Q rotatable cletector Consisting of a zine sulbhi Screen and a microscope - The. A- particles Produce bright flashes on the ZnS scveon. These are cbservecl in tre microscope and Countes! at i angles from the olirection of incidence of the M- The angle © of cheviation of an a- particle from wits original elivecton is Called Jas Scocttering angle e. Observations - : ———————__ FA geoph a plotted between the Scattering angle 8 and the number of o- Particles N, Scattered at 49 for a lange number of a- particles, We find that - Ui) Most of the %- panticles | pars stra throu the gold ei It ae gi 104 alo not suffer ang : caliSion with gold atoms. § w (ii) about 014% of #4 ind a- particles scatter © a0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 by more. than I. SCATTERING ANGLE (6) Gi) About one - particle In every 8000 o particles Aeftects by more than 3c. Explanation - : See SRLEITeETRRa TR meeTTeee EAS particle 4S over Tooo mohe massive than an elechon, and in this experiment, A- particle is travelling at a high speed ; twrepore, very Atrong qpree alone could have oleflected ble ir Lange anges. Twas Led Rutherforo| to postulate that the entire posihve ch of the atom must be Comentrotecl In a Hing centyol Core of the abm- This tiny central Core of each atm weak Called atomic Huclews. An a-particle Ccarcues two units of Posrtive. and has mass of a helium atom, Chaage on Id “nucleus = ze, ohne Z of gold is 79, As gold nucleus AA about So dimes heavier than an &- particle , we assume thot it wold remain stable in the Scattering Procwss. Thuepore, the yecto of ~-partide Gn be Compute: usmg New — of motion amd Coulomb force of repulsion between %- Patt cle and gold nucleus ive. nd, 2e)C2e F 44, See Gore ¥ Ab the Mistance of X- particle from the centre of the nuclews. The mi ituole and olivection of the force on an o- particle changes Continuously as st proaches the nuctems first amd tren moves away from tt. —p 85184, ATOMIC a 1. NUCLEUS '. 4 1 ' ' ' kal : INCIDENT @ PARTICLES ON aN Ww t a J 114 As shown in fig an a- particle (1) tending to Collicte with ae kes > Slow Srl olue +0 ; repulsive force of the nucleus, fin Stops an ba han repelled back. This a- 2 rela outs path, Scodlering rough 180". Tae d-particles 2 and 2! tenoling to hit the nucleus ot its poriphixy, experience sho vepuldive force and 9e¢+ scattersd through lange angles (e> 30)- Tha a&- particles 2 and 2, which pass at a Aatane from the nucleus experience small repulsive forts and get scattered trough small les. The a«-particles which pars at Large clistances fem the nucleus ge almost unceviated. We Can show thot the number of x - Particles Scattered per unit awa NO) ot Scattering angle @ varies inwersely er sint (QZ): NC) & —SntCEy Distance of Closest Approach- tahen O%- Particle ik directecl towards the nudes, te Kinehe enoargy K- particle goes on clcreasing and mM twen electrical p lal energie e& on increasing due 40 Coulomb's repulsive force between nucleus and o- particle. At a canton clstane fe from the nucleus, KE. of &~ particle reduces to cexo. The particle Stops amd ut cannot qo closer 40 Hre nucleus. It is wepelled by the nucleus and throrefore, ot retrace Sts path, tuning theo Ro. This olistontie ¥% la Known the distance of Closest approach - Electrical potential oat olittance Yo cue to nucleus v =lt.ze 4NE, % Potential Energy X- particle at distance Ye fmm the nucleus = © artes x Charge PE. = Ze __x2e AIL EoG Kinetic Eneagy of o- particle of moss m moving wi loci vou mm weet As at the cistanee of Closest appamach - Kic. = PE: amv? = Ze *2¢ _ a> ATE Eo ze x2ze ov = %e 41 eo ¢ mv) Impact Payvameter ( b) - Tt is ines] AS the perpencticular clistance of the inital velocity eo; A- tele from tHe centro} Une of tHe nucleus , when tre particle 4s for away from the nucleus. VELOCITY VECTOR OF ‘PARTICLE __-- ‘CENTRAL LINE NUCLEUS DISTANCE (fm) emp TARGET NUCLEUS. when the impact parameter is Jorge 5 an A-porhcle will oleviats Myrough a much smaller ange: However , When impact parometer is Amall , force jeneed ia | and the &- Particle will Scatter ex! trough a dango angle. Rutheforol colouloted an ically the relation between the impact Parameter 3 Scattering angle 8, which ws given by- = tL Ze* Cot Yr e 2 b= ae Ke [eee dmv] Ruther forels Atom Medel - Ct) Every atom Consist of Q tiny Central Core, Called “the otomic nucleus In which the entire poarhive. charge. and almost entire mars of the atom ane Concentrate). @) The size of the nucleus it of He order of 16%, which is Amall as Compariol fo the size of the atom whith is of the ovelrr of 15!m. (ZB) The atomic nucleus is a number of elechond. As atom tA electric: neutral, the total n ive. ch of elechons Awerounding the nucleus is equed do tote posHve change on the nucleus. (4) These electons revolve around the nucleus in Variors civewler orbits. The Cexctipetod force required) by elechon for revolution Js Provided by the electrostecdc force ef attraction between elechons and the nuclexs. Energy of the electron in orbit - Let Fe * Centripetat fore required) to Keep a revolving electon in orbit fe = electostactic force of attraction behwen the sewolving eechon and the nucleus then for a alynamically stoble orbit in @ hg chogen atom (zeal) - Fe we Fe 2 mv2> ._e-e > ee ¥ AILEY mV" RREY KE. of the electron in the orbit = demv> Hence KE = _e* BNE Y Potential energy of electron in orbit - U = ee) _ -e2r 4NGoy 4Teor Total enxrgy of elechon in hwohagen atom — Es Ke tu ge =e 1 +e Bley 4ILEoe or Een e> BMeor Hence the dtotal energy 0 electron in orbit of hydro atom is negotave.. Hence , the electon js bound do te nudeus be. the electon +s not free to leave the orbit around the nucleus. Limitation ef Rutherford Atom Model- iD Accoreling Ho the Classicod EM Heory, the revolving electrons must yadiokr e: in the. form of EM Waves. As vewolving elechon, 9 Loses Continuously 9 it must o spivod inwards anc finally fall into the nucleus, but as” matter is Atable, we cannot expect the otems +0 Collapse- Gi) As te evolving elechons spivol inwards, Heir an velocihes “and hence their frequenciea of yenolution would change Continuously - Therefore , fresiunty of EM Waves emitted must change Continuously. Therefore , edoms showld emt continuous Spectrum but we observe erly a dine spechum. ae Bohy Model of Hyclvogen Atom- There axe three baaje postulates of +Hhia modsf— Qi) Ev atom Consist of 4 cenhal core Colkecl nucleus, in which entire positive ci and almost entive mars of the atom are concentrated. A surteble number _ revolve. around the nucleus jy) clive orbits. The cenhipetal fore required for revolution is provided by the elechrostatic forte of attraction between the Llechon and the nucleus. Centripetal fore = Elechostatic force of attraction mv> as de ere), 4Tlep Yr a rae mv> . Kzer k= Yaneo — eee eC zoel (2) A ceoroling do Bohr, electom can oF in certain ‘clacrets non radiating ovbits 5 Stotion orbits which ttal an momertun of eee via Sela as @n Sri baraert of Wom, Whare h da plank's Constant. Thus the @ momentum of 4 orbiting electron 44 Quantis ote b d Here YL Ud Calleol principle Puantum number. * The electron , vdohile venolving. In such orbits, Shall not ose energy Ce. ats energy wowlel Stoug Conatant. (3) The emission / cbsorbtion of energy occurs Whan an satis jumps from one of , wiped non - ractiading ei AD” another. The di ow in the total energy of electon in the two orbits Js absorbed vohen" the elechon jumps from an inner to an outer ovbit and emitted! vohin elechon jumps fore outer 4o the immer orbit. he =o & WhrL y Is the frequency of ractiation emitted on Jumping from outer, to" inners orbit of ener E, ond €&, respectively. Radius of Gehr's stationary Orbits— We Know that for Atodion any orbits - mvy = nh > Vv = _nh_ 20 21tI mr By putting the value of v in pav.* = ze" = m nen a 2 0 ee eee 7 BRE re nth for hydrosen atom 470 mke> eh oe It shows tro - ran™ Hence the raclius of stedion orbits ane in the vatio 17: 2:8: and so om ie. 1:y4:9!... Cleary tHe Stotionary orbits axe not equally spaced. Velocity of electron in Bohy's Stationary Ovbit - As we Know thot - mv? = Kkze? Yr re ov y = KKzer — (1) myv> and also y =_nh ——— €%) amv by equation U1) and (2) we get— Kze> =. nh or OV = 2 Keer mv> 2mTmMV ni fos hychogen atom, z =1 v = 2m ke> nh As Vxq> hence the orbital velocity of electron in outer orbits Jd smaller as comparsol to its value in the inner orbits. Frequency of electron in Bohr's Stationary Orbit - Tt 48 the number of, revolutions Completeol per. Secord by the ekcton In a stationary orbit, around the. nucleus. It is represented by v. As Vz YH = r(o2nv) pe = 2Mkte2 = _Kze> 2nr rth: 27tr nhyr >| v=kKe zel nhy For hydrogen The frequency of electron in subsequent stationary orbits is smaller ah Vv «se . Total Energy of electron in Gohr's Stationary Orbit Kinetic. energy of election reveling in @ stationoy orbit is - 7 u Ki E, of electron = tmv>= keer [* amy ke” | Potential energy of ekeehon = Potential x Change pe. of electrord = Kze x(-e) = —Kze> ¥ Yr Tote energy of electron in tHe orbit - B = Ke. + Pe. B= iLkze _ Reet = — Reet =e * 2¥ ; S 2 by putting vy Ss rend we get — E = —_2mk*22e+ re by Substititing the Standard values, we get- = -—196 co Hence. the tata) energy of elechon in a stati overt us ive, vahith means that the electron oe the nucleus and js not free 40 heave it- K whun n=L then this Atote of lowest energy of the atom id Cotten groundl stoke. Tre eng of this state 8 E) = -13-6ey. F Thosepre, the minimum enngy required do free the electron from the und stoke of hydyo adm id Ibe. Twis id Colled ou energy foe outom. * As n increases, the value of negasive energy clecreases Le. energy is progressiv Jongex wm the outer orbits. _ 3 “y Origin of Spectral Lines — At room , most of the dro! atoms are in ground Le aerer Q 0 “and a a enrgy cerses Auch at eléchoh Collisions or heat, the atom may require sufficient do yaise the edechon to heghur e state Le dfrom n=l do n=2, 3,4,.--. The atom ama said tv be in an excited Stoke - £2 = —» PHOTON > ‘Ay From ture excited statis, the elechon Can fall hack 40 a State of Lower energy and! emitting a photon of particular ensrgy = Aifference In enrgies of the fe totes ). : tH 7 enngics ob Let E, and E, are the total energy of Ae d voz Reo, nz | } Fine) the watin of enngies of photons producd ee due +0 transition of am electon of huplrogen octom from its (9) Setend permities| ensrgy Lwvel 40 the first duvel (bd the helgest Peemittes| energy duvel to Hae fut peamiited evel. Sel. (a En of Photon released = E,- FE; a oe f = -3-4 - (-13-6) =lo.2rev (b) The heighest permittee energy Lwel to the first peemit. Loves = Ea- E, = © - (-13-6) = 13-6ev Roko oh enuagies ef Phot = Joe 2 B 13-6 4 el What is the ratio of radius of the ovbits case Corresponoling to fast excited sta and Grund Sate ; State in a hayalrogen atem 7 Sol fer first excited stile n tie Bad) Stot, occuns for 1 won a 1 yr ay Hence % sfmP = (2) a Mr, 1 “iw = ete @ TRe reclius of innermost electhon oxrbit of 4 CBE hydrogen atom ds S:3x10" m, What id He mdius of orbit in the Second excited stk ? Sek The radius of atom whoce principle quantum number Jd 1, ud given Yawn Hore X% is vadlius of mnermost’ (n=!) orbit . fer second excited state n=2 Y= (3eK53x1 = 4.77 x1o lm, Bohr's Explanation of spectral series of Hydvogen Atom - bohen an atomic oy vopour at Low Pressure. 4s excited wi ba mg. an electric. Cuidernt tho at, the / vapour emits yadiations of certain Specific wav ° - This Kind of spechum us coll “Line emission spectrum" and ut consists of 4 few Laight Aints on a clark background. Detector photographic plate) pop Hydrogen gas discharge tube High voltage EarESE I I 410nm 434nm 468nm 656nm when the white Li 44 parsed through the Same [Vapour we obsenve a ‘bri kack$ound Cross: by a dark Lines signifying the missing oo. or “the wavelengths that are absorbeol by gs: They form & “Lime absorption spechum! It was founcl that missing wav ae the Same a4 “the wavelength patsent inthe emission spectrum of the gas / vapour. Bohr ve. Wis theory 0 yo ahm about spectro] aie which hod t experimentally by. Varei ows Adentists. Bohr offered a trroretcal explmation f thse spectra} series as follows : 1. Lyman Series — Bohr postulotis that Lyman series ids obtained cohen an electon jumps to the first orbit Cn, =1) from Orne outer orbit (naz 23,4...) bJave numbers of Spectral Linn ob Ayan. Series were Calculoted| ~ ar - Thre vahus of aF ie in the “ultra violet region” of the spectrum. 2. Balmer Series - Accercling 4o Rohr, Balmer series 42 obtained when an electron jumps to the secerof orbit (n,=2) from amy outer. orbit (m2 = 3,4,5,---- ) Wave number of these spectyol Lines were Caleuletedl ni e i. voe Rl oe (nas aas---) Tha Set of spectral lines Lie in the visible part of the spectrum. 3. Paschen Series — Accosding 40 Bohr, Paschan eres Ud obtednzel when om electron jumps to the Sed Orbit Cni= 3) from any outer orbit (n= 4,5)6,---)- Bohr celculated the wave number of speétra] Aims of Paschen series from the reletion: > -r[& -#] (nas sie...) The value Of TF Lie in the infrared region of the spectrum. 4. Brackett Series- According to Bohr, Brackett Serier is obtained when an electron jumps to the 4th omit (= 4) from ony. outer orbit (= £)6,7.--) Wave number] W = a] de ~#| (ue 167,--) Brackebft Series Was discoversel In the infrered region of the Spechum, S. Pfund Series - Accoroling. Ao Bohr Pfunol series: is obtained When an elechon jumps to the Sm orbit (n,-=s) from any outer. orbit (n, = 6,7,8,---D Wave number ve =e[ te fa #] Ngt 67 Bye Pfund Sertes wos clisceverd in the Infrared region of the spectrum, Eneray Level Diagram — A Magram which represents the doted enurgies of electron in Afferent Stationary orbits of om odom is Collect the energy Let cliagpram of thet ecm. Tn this cliagram, total energies of elechon in variows Atocionary orbits axe vepresented by the horizontal Lines drawn according 0 Some Surtable energy Scale Toted enngy of electron I nth orbit of hyolrogen odor ia - Er -JB6 oy = putting MS 1, BS. ate Wve the energies of electrons in various Atockionaeg. Grbits as’ 2 -IB6 LL _ Ee, = =e + mBeevy 5 E, Hse - _guyey 22 =< ID = 1 Ex = ne z-bSlev 5) Ey = 36 = -O8sey Ee = WBE s-osu ev E, = 86 = -oa7Tev s? 62 Cleordy ob n increase&® Ex, becames Luss negative until Sot n=0 , Enzo. Tre energy devel Hiagear Us shown fn ee fer hyd atom.” The height enorgy. fee Trapt’ N= % and haa oad E> 0, This is the energy of the atom, chon the elechon js vemoyed (y= 0) from the nucleus and the eecton is at rvesl- 3 39939 i owanan & dong Brackett series Paschen series Balmer series - 10-0 — 11-0 -— -12-0-— -13-01— i - nea -14-0 Lyman series * As n Increase energies of the excited state Come Closer to : YQ) calculate tne wavelength of He Line (nz 3) cE im Balm series of hydro, otom, given Rydberg Constant R= 1.037 xJot m+ Sel. For Balmer Acties, wavelen 4s given by 4 2 refe- _ iN + for Hx Line N2=3, SO that = 1097 Xto7 ft — 4 1087 X10 [x a = ols2y x10” A s—4+___ = ese a° OIS2U XI0 S Photns , with @ Continuous yange of frequencies Pees ake made 40 pars thro 4 Sample of hugelongan » The fansitions — Shown h&s , indicate three of the spectral absorption Lines in the Continuous spectrum. nee nes ney -2 = n=3 zr n=2 (ev) “+ —-6 se Ir = a n=L (A) Telentfy the tral sextea the ro Pieris lille ig to which each, of these ee Lints Corresponds. (b) Which of these Lines Corresponds +o the absozption of vadiation ef maximum wavelength P Sol. Sol. Ca) Let spectrum represent Lyman series because. im this Spectrum, elechon jumps FEM Nal so n-2. Ind spectrum *epresert Bolmar Series because in this spechum , electron jumps fam n=2 40 n=3. Tvd Spectum veparcsents faschen Servs aS the elechon jumps Perm n= 2 Ao n=4 in this Spectrum. (b) Spectred Line mt ( Paschen Series) Corvey to the absorption of radiation of maximum wavelength. G) © Te crengy dwells of an atom are Shown ae MN Fig: bobich of Hrem will result Tn the 2. emission of a Photon of wavelength, 275 nm? Ue) bohich tramition Cercesponds to emission of tadiotion ef maximum wavelength 7 A Ow £. 2 -rey -45ey —loey Sol (a) When A= 2TISNM = aTsxXITIM then es hv che = Ge xia2%x 3x08 A 2785 x15 e€ect as ev Transition B& will reault in the emission of Photon of Az 27S nm, (b) Maximum wovelen hos minimum Transition A provides energy of 2ev, cohich AS minimum. De Broglie's Expknation of Behr's second “postulate of Quantization TRe Second postulate of Behr model sags that momertum of elechon orbiting around the nucleus 4s quartizedt le. mvy = nh. fohre = 1,2,3...4 3 Loui ke Broglie expainec! tis purele- According Ao cle Brgke, the elecnn nits crews orbit, a4 proposec! by” Bohy, must be Seen as 4 particle wave. We Know thet vwohen a sting fixed ot tut ends 4s plucked, a bage number, of wavelen ave excited. But only those ‘waves which have nodes ot the two ends from the Stonding Waves and Swrevive. It means thot in a string, standing waves form when foetal distance trovelliol by a wave dlown . ga) the Atring and back is an integer must ple. of the maven : ¢ ved wth othr wavelengths interfere with them Selves upen reflection and iy am plitucles Vanish quickly: Hence, according to ole. Broghie , a stots orbrt is that which“ contains art integral number of dle Broglie waves associateol with the revolving. Clecton, For an electron seyolving in nt cirewlar orbit of Yacdius Y, For the permissible oxbit, anv znd According + Broghi = ovding to ole roghte A my lohere V ik speeol of ckechm revolving in ri orbit anv = nh = = nh nm iv > mvy = nh 250 Hence om: momentum of elechon revolving in nth ovbit “must be an | multiple. of hyert » which Js the Quarcum Condition proposeel by Behx in setwnd postulate. Limitation of Behr's Theory - (L.) This theory is applicable Jo Simplest atom Aike droga zel. The ie rie in Case of odors of otner elements for shel Zrk, (2) The theory ow not explain why orbits of elechons ane taken as circular, while ellipteal orbits are also possible - .) Bohr's theo cloes not

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