Article

Journal of Educational Technology

Gamification and Systems

2017, Vol. 45(4) 499–519
! The Author(s) 2016
Game-Based Learning Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/0047239516665105
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Dimitrios N. Karagiorgas1 and
Shari Niemann2

Abstract
In the last 10 years, gaming has evolved to the point that it is now being used as a
learning medium to educate students in many different disciplines. The educational
community has begun to explore the effectiveness of gaming as a learning tool and as
a result two different ways of utilizing games for education have been created:
Gamification and serious games. While both methods are used to educate, serious
games are meant to provide training and practice without entertaining. Whereas,
gamification uses game-like features such as points and similar to serious games are
not meant to entertain. This review will provide an overview of gamification and
serious games as well as the learning possibilities of noneducational games such as
massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Finally, massively multiplayer online
role-playing games will be discussed in detail as to whether they can meet the general
behavioral requirements of effective learning.

Keywords
MMORPG gamification, gamifying, cultural heritage and gamification, culture and
gaming, role-playing games and language

Video games have become a very serious business as a form of entertainment. It is

no wonder that so many people play games on a regular basis. As a matter of fact,
17% of the world’s population is involved in playing games (Kim, 2015b). In
addition to playing games for entertainment, says Kim (2015b), a new use for
games has emerged within the last 10 years and it is called gamification.

1
Athens, Greece
2
Snellville, GA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Dimitrios N. Karagiorgas
Email: dimitris.jim@gmail.com
500 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

Gamification is a way to use game elements to learn but without the entertainment
value (de Byl, 2013). Gamification strives to take the best parts of video games
such as awards, badges, and so forth and apply them to pedagogy.
In addition to gamification, serious games have also been created to educate
but in a different way. According de Byl (2013), serious games are used to
practice, train, and provide solutions. Many different versions of serious
games do exist, and some are meant to make boring, everyday tasks a bit
more interesting. For example, SwarmTM allows people to share their location
with people on their social network as well as being rewarded with coins on a
leaderboard for checking in at different places (Aguilar, 2014; Crook, 2015).
There is a new type of game that has entered the gamification arena called
massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG). While gamifica-
tion is not based on entertainment, MMORPGs are very much entertainment
based and are being evaluated to determine their effectiveness in learning lan-
guages (Ryu, 2013). MMORPGs such as EverquestTM, World of WarcraftTM,
and various other games, says Ryu, engage players in the sense that learners who
played the game with native speakers understood more vocabulary items and
communicated in a manner that was both collaborative and social in nature.
In 2015, the overall revenue from the video game industry—including hardware,
software, gaming consoles, mobile, and PC games—is approximately $115 billion
(Kim, 2015b). To generate such an exuberant amount, there has to be a corres-
ponding amount of participation and interest from the players themselves.
According to Kim (2015b), there are more than 1.2 billion players which is about
17% of the world’s population, and in the United States, there are 183 million of
which 5 million play more than 40 hours per week. There is no doubt that games are
serious business and require a tremendous amount of work in order for them to be
so popular. According to Kim and Lee (2015), the biggest games require the com-
bined effort of hundreds of artists in order to fully materialize all the intricacies that
appeal to the senses. An example is a first person shooter called “Half LifeTM,” and
its sequel “Half Life 2TM” which have won scores of Game of the Year awards for
their physics engine, animation techniques, storytelling, and more (Wyman, 2011).
Games, however, are not limited to being created by mega companies any-
more, but instead there is an entire community dedicated to modding. Modding
is a way to modify a video game by giving users, or modders, access to a game in
order to create new content that can have new artwork, levels, and so forth but
restrict access to the actual source code of the game engine which is available
only to the licensees (“Spare the Mod,” 2012; Wallace, 2014). Modding has
given users great new opportunities to enter the gaming industry as a profession.
For example, game design students and serious modders are encouraged to
create mods, or modifications, prior to applying to a gaming company in
order to showcase what they can do (Hong, 2013). With all this involvement,
participation, and professional opportunities, it is no wonder that video games
enjoy so much popularity and success while being very engaging.
Karagiorgas and Niemann 501

The question is, though, why are video games so engaging? There can be
many reasons but perhaps a particular theory can help to explain it:
Perceptual Control Theory. It states that people’s behavior is purposeful and
that they compare their existing experiences to their desired experiences and take
the appropriate actions in order to gain the experience they prefer (Powers,
2016a). In other words, people, or in this case gamers, modify their behavior
so what they are experiencing (finishing game levels, achieving higher scores,
etc.) is more in line with what they intend and make certain they maintain the
desired experience despite any changes (new levels, new villains, etc.) that may
occur (Powers, 2016b).
In recent years, a new way of utilizing games in education has appeared and it
is called gamification. The term was created by Nick Pelling back in 2002, but it
was not until 2010 that gamification itself became well known and embraced
(Kim, 2015b).
According to de Byl (2013), a search on Google Trends, a Google search tool
that allows users to see what keywords, phrases, and so forth have been searched
on Google, indicates the beginning and popularity of the term gamification and
how it has increased since the latter part of 2010 (see Figure 1). In addition to
gamification’s becoming such a popular search term, respected education reports
such as the New Media Consortium Horizon Report also started to discuss gami-
fication. In 2012, the New Media Consortium Horizon Report reported that
learning based on games would become popular, and in 2013, it officially
added the term gamification and has since labeled it as a technology that is
emerging (Kim, 2015b; Skiba, 2013). But, what exactly is gamification?
Gamification is the process by which services are enhanced utilizing motiv-
ational affordances in order to arouse gameful experiences and advance out-
comes in behavior (Hamari, Koivisto, & Sarsa, 2014). Another way to look at
gamification is that it employees the same aspects of video games but in appli-
cations that are nongame in nature (Su & Cheng, 2015).
There are two categories of games that are used to educate and train: gami-
fication and serious games. Gamification uses game-like features including

Figure 1. The rise of gamification as a term on Google Trends.

502 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

points and various levels in a way that is not meant to entertain, whereas serious
games provide solutions to problems, have as their main purpose not to enter-
tain, but instead to provide training, practice, and interactions that are engaging
while utilizing real world objects (de Byl, 2013). Overall, gamification’s main
goal is to foster more engagement in people by helping to create more robust
experiences in everyday life events utilizing game mechanics while serious games
are designed to train and are used for stimulation and to educate in virtual
environments with previously defined learning objectives (Kim & Lee, 2015;
Ypsilanti et al., 2014).
Up to this point, the discussion has focused on what video games, gamifica-
tion, and serious games are as well as how each is utilized in order to achieve a
purpose. For example, video games are primarily used for entertainment and
gamification is used for educating. Serious games, on the other hand, are used
for the purpose of training and practicing while interacting with real world
objects. The discussion will now focus on examples and use of gamification
and serious games.

Video Game Characteristics

According to Kim (2015b), there are four characteristics of a video game: (a) a
system that provides feedback, (b) the goal, (c) the rules, and (d) voluntary
participation, and these characteristics are present in gamification, though, not
as profoundly. Gamification is a great way to take mundane activities, such as
shopping at the super market, and make them more interesting. SwarmTM is a
gamification mobile application (app), and a FoursquareTM offshoot, that
launched in 2014 that allows its users to create social networks in order to
track down their friends as well as do check-ins and share their location
(Popper & Hamburger, 2014). Additionally, when users check in to a place
often enough, they can earn stickers (see Figure 2) to apply to check-ins to
express how they are feeling, earn coins that are displayed on a leaderboard
(see Figure 3), and they can even become Mayors (Crook, 2015).
Another task that has been gamified to make it more interesting is called
Chore Wars (see Figure 4). Chore WarsTM allows members of a particular
household, or even a workplace, to compete doing everyday tasks such as clean-
ing the house, shopping for groceries or office supplies, and so on and earn
points, increase in level, and earn game gold which can then be exchanged for
actual rewards based on how the game is set up (Kim, 2015a).

Gamification in Education and Business

Education is an area where gamification has become very popular. As a matter
of fact, an entire public school in New York City has gamified its system. Quest
to LearnTM (Q2L) gamified its curriculum when they opened their doors in 2009
Karagiorgas and Niemann 503

Figure 2. Users can attach a sticker to a check-in to convey their feelings.

because they believed that various disciplines such as language arts, math, sci-
ence, and so on could be taught as a type of game (Kim, 2015b; Patton, 2013).
Q2L has incorporated levels, quests, missions, and incentives into the overall
learning process and has created worlds where learner–players assume behaviors
and identities such as explorers, historians, and writers who seek to solve difficult
problems and seek knowledge while receiving feedback and considering others’
point of view (Kim, 2015b). Additionally, Patton (2013) says that Q2L’s gami-
fication-based pedagogy has allowed students to theorize, and validate ideas in
an effort to discover fundamental truths about life, relationships, and to explore
the complexity that exists in their own everyday lives.
Gamification has not only has helped schools make their classes more inter-
esting and has turned chores into fun and bearable activities but also businesses
504 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

Figure 3. The leaderboard displays the amount of coins earned for check-ins.

have adopted it for their own use as well. Since 2010, more than 350 businesses
started gamification projects, and between 2012 and 2013 major consulting
companies such as Deloitte and Capgemini started to target Fortune 500 com-
panies for gamification (Kim, 2015b). For example, Nike created a running app
that not only tracked where people were jogging along with their times and the
times and locations of their friends but also turned it into a game of virtual tag
Karagiorgas and Niemann 505

Figure 4. Chore WarsTM main page.

resulting in people increasing their training and their engagement with the com-
pany’s brand (de Byl, 2013). Live Ops is another example of a business that
incorporated gamification. The call center gamified their professional develop-
ment and was able to increase customer satisfaction by 9% while trimming 2
hours off each employee’s weekly training (de Byl, 2013). Even an upscale
women’s shoes brand, Jimmy Choo, used gamification to promote its brand
by offering a prize of six pairs of sneakers. In 2010, they ran a 1-day gamified
promotion that had 20,000 participants engage in a game called CatchAChooTM
where the object of the game was to discover some hidden locations in London
resulting in the brand’s biggest ever promotional event (Kim, 2015b). Whether it
is promoting, marketing, or motivating, various businesses from sports apparel
to call centers and beyond have utilized gamification to achieve favorable results
for employees and customers alike.

Serious Games
While gamification can be an effective way to educate, promote, and so forth by
using various aspects of video games, it does not provide the solutions that
serious games do. Serious games are utilized in many different fields such as
the following: defense, healthcare, research, production, and more (de Byl,
2013). According to Lin, Park, Liebert, and Lau (2015), a grant from
Stanford University’s Continuing Medical Education Center enabled a serious
game to be developed in order to help surgeons. Lin et al. go on to say that the
Surgical Improvement of Clinical Knowledge OpsTM (SICKO) engages,
506 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

motivates, and trains learners by using a robust media interface (see Figure 5)
along with points and rewards, and penalizes wrong actions (see Figure 6).
Overall, Lin et al. noted that as a platform for training and surgical assessment,
SICKOTM should be considered as having the potential to be used in training
and assessing general surgery residents.

Cultural Heritage and Serious Games

Cultural heritage is another domain where serious games can help to raise aware-
ness. A game called Icura allows a user to explore a realistic 3D environment with
mild traditional music playing in the background where a player can learn about

Figure 5. SICKOTM faux patient interface.

Figure 6. 1000 point penalty.

Karagiorgas and Niemann 507

the Japanese culture and etiquette and it even supports planning a trip (Mortara
et al., 2014). In addition to Icura, Mortara et al. go on to say that there are many
more games such as Roma Nova, Discover Babylon, and so on whose purpose is
to help the player understand what ancient Mesopotamia contributed to today’s
modern culture. There are even virtual museum applications that allow players to
explore various sites. For example, Mortara et al. point out that serious games
such as Yong’s China Quest Adventure and The Great Bible Race allow users to
learn about the traditions of the Chinese and the religious origins of Western
civilization, respectively. Finally, Mortara et al. state that serious games involving
cultural heritage offer multimedia content that provides more detailed informa-
tion and that games found in museums are able to engage large audiences without
any restraints concerning time and space.
Bellotti, Berta, De Gloria, D’ursi, and Fiore (2012) mention another game
useful for gaining knowledge in cultural heritage: The TiETM (Travel in Europe)
game. According to Bellotti et al., the game allows a user to visit various cities all
across Europe while completing a mission in each one and each mission has a
certain number of questions that each user must answer. The game is rich in
points of interest and includes palaces and churches in urban environments that
Bellotti et al. say are accurately rebuilt, and require the user to search for pre-
determined places, in the form of a clickable icon that triggers a task, that are
part of each mission. Bellotti et al. go on to say that what makes the game
interesting is that the points of interest change and difficulty increases, so the
user is left to explore even more of the particular location looking for icons to
click on and answer questions on artistic heritage, art, culture, and more. An
additional benefit of changing points of view and offering different levels of
difficulty, Bellotti et al. say, is that it increases user playability and fosters
exploration. According to Bellotti et al., the mission is completed once a city
has been fully explored and the user takes a final test that is related to the
mission with a city prize such as a picture, symbol, and so on that is given as
an award.

Language Learning and MMORPGs

As the trend toward gamification and serious gaming continues, researchers
have turned their attention toward the entertainment gaming community.
Over the last two decades, game development has shifted toward a new genre
of interactive, immersive gaming environments (Dickey, 2007). MMORPG
allows players to immerse themselves in a 3D virtual world. This world may
consist of virtual towns, forests, mountains, rivers, and oceans. Players will
encounter enemies, animals, and monsters, as well as other player and nonplayer
characters, and interaction with these creatures provides rich context for social
interaction. In this world, they can experience highly realistic experiences of real
world problems and activities (Wagner & Ip, 2009).
508 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

Although not classified as serious games, MMORPGs offer unique opportu-

nities for learning. Because of the opportunities for social interaction, players
must learn to communicate with others. They work cooperatively to solve prob-
lems and complete quests. Players construct new knowledge by interacting with
in-game objects, tools, and instructions. As learners combine new knowledge
with previous game experiences, a type of scaffolding occurs in which students
can solve newer and harder problems in the game (Dickey, 2007).
MMORPG game architectures share several common features which may
present educational opportunities. Many MMORPGs have a unique geographic
world including topographical features, cities, countries, and sometimes planets.
Navigating in the world will require map reading and communication skills and
most MMORPGs will also have a transportation system which players can learn
to operate. Each MMORPG may have its own economic system with banking,
trade, and commerce features where players can earn money through trade or
win reward money by completing quests or defeating enemies. The quest system
offers players missions made up of realistic scenarios which may contain riddles
to be solved, objects to be found and obtained, and enemies to be conquered.
These quests may offer rewards of equipment, money, or player experience
points. Often, team collaboration and complex thinking strategies must be
employed in order to complete a quest. Other intrinsic game features include
synchronous chatting, writing, conversational speaking, quest logs, and game
lore. These features offer a rich tapestry of communicative activities afforded by
different types of activities, landscapes, and places.
Players begin by creating a game avatar, commonly called a character.
Customization of character features, such as gender, clothing, body features,
in-game religious or clan affiliations, race, skills, and abilities allow players to
self-identify with the character they have created. As each player assumes the
identity of his character, he or she will have a unique game experience based on
the geographic location, player interactions, and game quests in which they
participate.
As players advance in levels, they will qualify for tasks which they cannot
complete without the help of others, so this creates a natural need for collabor-
ation, cooperation, and team building. As learners work together to complete
ever more complex tasks, they will engage in strategy planning, implementation,
observation and assessment, and conclusion drawing phases before proceeding
(Wagner & Ip, 2009). The games offer opportunity to fail and retry quests as
many times as necessary until the proper strategy is discovered making failure
not as overwhelming.

Motivation and MMORPGs

One of the biggest appeals of MMORPGs for learning is their immense popu-
larity. Some researchers have suggested that serious educational games are
Karagiorgas and Niemann 509

losing their appeal among learners who favor the role-playing aspects of
MMORPGs. Harnessing this enthusiasm could be a key to increasing motiv-
ation and engagement of learners. Suh, Kim, and Kim (2010) noted that motiv-
ation was a key factor impacting a student’s learning.
The self-determination theory states that motivation is generated through
autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The immersive
quality and rich content of MMORPGs make them a natural motivator for
learners. The aspects of MMORPG play coincide neatly with the three factors
of the self-determination theory. First, learners create a character which can
freely explore the virtual world allowing them the autonomy to control their
character’s destiny, and they will make decisions regarding location, quests,
social interaction, and even the appearance of their character. As they explore
and conquer in the virtual world, they gain new competencies and grow in
confidence. Finally, as they collaborate to complete quests, they create new
relationships (Eseryel, Ifenthaler, Ge, & Miller, 2014).
Unlike serious games or gamified learning activities, the players of
MMORPGs are playing simply for their own pleasure. This type of motivation
was defined by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and it states that people become so
deeply engaged in a particular activity that everything else does not matter
because of how much they are enjoying the experience itself and will remain
engaged in order to continue doing the activity.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) referred to this as the Flow Theory of Motivation. The
Flow Theory suggests that a person’s motivation is strongly impacted by two
variables: perceived skill and perceived motivation. People experience feelings
of boredom if their perceived skill is greater than the challenge; they feel anxiety
if the perceived challenge is greater than their skill level; and they are often apath-
etic when both the perceived challenge and their perceived skills are low.
Motivation occurs when both the perceived challenge and skill are high. For an
overview of the components and characteristics of the Flow Theory, see Table 1.
Because MMORPGs incorporate clear goals, immediate feedback, and the
merging of action and awareness, they are a natural fit with the Flow Theory.
Players are able to feel a sense of control, because they are able to choose
challenges which fit their skill level. This, in turn, improves their skill, allowing
them to engage in even more difficult challenges. These factors make
MMORPGs an ideal tool for use in education because they make use of intrinsic
motivators. Intrinsic motivation is the internal desire of an individual to achieve
a goal (Bainbridge, 2015). It is further defined by Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw
(1992) as engaging in an activity for its own enjoyment, without any external
reinforcement. Dickey (2007) studied the impact of MMORPG play on five
contributing factors of intrinsic motivation: choice, control, collaboration, chal-
lenge, and achievement. Character design and development, small quest selec-
tion and completion, advancing skills, collaborative quests, and progress
improvement coincided with each of the five factors revealing the high intrinsic
510 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

Table 1. The Nine Components of the Flow Theory.

Component Characteristics

1. Challenge–skill balance Skills must match the task at hand.

2. Merging of action and awareness Behavior becomes automatic and unplanned to the
point the person is almost unaware of anything
other than the task being performed.
3. Clarity of goals Strong perception of what needs to be accomplished.
4. Unambiguous feedback The activity must provide feedback that is instant and
clear.
5. Concentration on the task at Pronounced focus on the task without any
hand distractions.
6. Paradox of control A feeling of being in control but when people
attempt to maintain control they lose the sense of
flow.
7. Loss of self-consciousness Self-concern disappears while being absorbed by the
activity.
8. Transformation of time The person is not aware of time.
9. Autotelic experience The experience is very enjoyable and becomes
intrinsically motivating to the point that the
person strives to return to this particular state.
Note. Adapted from “Flow at Work: An Experience Sampling Approach,” by C. J. Fullagar and E. K.
Kelloway, 2009, Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 82(3), 596. Copyright 2009 by the
Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology.

motivating power of these games. Other studies found that players exhibited
motivation to learn another player’s language in order to communicate more
effectively for in-game collaboration and social interaction (“Spare the Mod,”
2012; Thorne, Fischer, & Lu, 2012; Wu, Richards, & Saw, 2014; Yee, 2006).
In a specific study to discover which motivating factors were perceived to be
the best facilitators for language learning, Wu et al. (2014) found that related-
ness was the highest factor among both male and female participants. The top
three relatedness components were socializing, relationships, and teamwork. The
secondary motivator was competence. The females cited competition as their
highest motivator, while the males cited mechanics and customization. These
factors are built in to MMORPGs, making them a highly motivating learning
environment for gamers.

MMORPG-Based Learning
Although traditional language learning consists of rote learning of grammar
and vocabulary, emergent theories differ from this method. The theory
Karagiorgas and Niemann 511

of Distributed Cognition/Language emphasizes the need for an immersive learn-

ing experience with multisensory experiences in cultural and social context
(Zheng, Bischoff, & Gilliland, 2015). Waters (2007) also argues that immersion
is the best way to learn a language. He states that the games (MMORPGs)
require learners to do things such as travel, communicate with others, read
directions and that these interactions force them to learn. Thorne (2008) recog-
nized several key factors of MMORPGs which made them suitable vehicles for
language learning: unscripted communication, reciprocal interactions, opportu-
nities for self-correction, and development of relationships resulting in motiv-
ation to communicate in the other’s language.
Similarly, ecological theory theorizes that language learning is not made only
from discrete rules regarding grammar and vocabulary but rather from real-time
behavior and events. Thibault (2011) theorized that learners use the language in
a dynamic way instead of learning it by rote. This ecological perspective finds
that the design of MMORPGs can provide activities and opportunities for real-
time communications that could not be easily replicated in a classroom
environment.

Factors Affecting Game-Based Learning

Although MMORPGs provide many positive aspects for language learning,
studies have shown that external factors can have an impact on the effectiveness
of game-based learning. The following factors have been found to impact the
quality of learning within MMORPGs.

Gender
Although past studies have indicated that males may be more interested in
gaming and technology than females, Hou’s (2012) study revealed surprisingly
few behavior differences between genders during gameplay. However, female
players tend to prefer games with stories. Therefore, MMORPGs with narrative
storylines may increase player motivation, especially among females. Other stu-
dies revealed that both male and female players exhibited increased motivation
for playing, similar playing time, and positive attitudes toward game play (Hou,
2013; Peterson, 2011). The most significant component for both genders was
relationship. Socializing is an important part of game play in MMORPGs which
motivated both male and female players to seek out language interaction with
other players. Females were more likely to spend time configuring their items,
trading, and discussing their items, leading researchers to conclude that females
were more motivated by their character’s outward appearance (Hou, 2012).
Males engaged in more self-repetitious fighting behavior and were also more
likely to stay focused and engaged during battles (Hou, 2013). Although these
differences were acknowledged, studies did not show significant differences
512 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

in learning outcomes between genders, making MMORPGs an equally success-

ful learning environment for both (Hou, 2012, 2013; Peterson, 2011; Wu et al.,
2014).

Proficiency
Proficiency was a factor that had serious impact on learning. In a study focusing
on nonexperienced MMORPG players, the learners experienced significant frus-
tration with the learning curve of the game, especially as it related to language
learning. Because of their lack of knowledge regarding game mechanics and their
lack of English proficiency, learners felt that it was very difficult to learn to play
the game. This frustration was not shared by more experienced players (Wu
et al., 2014). Novice learners in a Peterson (2011) study who experienced tech-
nical difficulties during game play were similarly prevented from participating in
beneficial interactions.
Although factors such as motivation, playing time, and positive attitudes
toward game play were similar across genders, players without prior gaming
experience displayed significantly less motivation and engagement (Hou, 2013;
Peterson, 2011).

Culture
Many of the studies of second-language learning have been conducted with
participants from an Asian cultural background. Studies have been conducted
in Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea regarding the effectiveness of MMORPGs
in learning English as a second language. As Japanese learners attempted to
communicate in English, they expressed pleasure at knowing they were anonym-
ous to other players. This allowed them to communicate freely without embar-
rassment when making mistakes. Although some failed communications
attempts occurred, learners were not permanently discouraged from attempts
at social interaction (Peterson, 2011). Waters’ (2007) article shares an insight
into Chinese students’ lives when he relays how Chinese parents dislike video
games yet were happy to allow their students to participate in an English prac-
tice class which used MMORPG as a practice tool. It is likely that the anonym-
ity afforded by MMORPGs is highly appealing to students in the Asian culture
which places high value on success and hard work and finds shame in mistakes.
It is not known whether these concerns would occur in other cultures until
further study can be done for comparison.

Mentor Relationships
Because relationships are a strong motivator in MMORPG-based learning, it is
not surprising that Zheng et al. (2015) had highly successful results when pairing
Karagiorgas and Niemann 513

a Japanese second-language learner with an English-speaking mentor. In this

study, the pair played the game together and communicated through in-game
chat allowing the Japanese player to learn from his English mentor through
modeling behaviors as well as questioning or confirming. He showed evidence
of learning in the areas of spelling and casual conversation during his gaming
experience. However, in other studies, players without a mentor also achieved
positive results in spelling and vocabulary showing that new relationships forged
in the game can be just as effective as prior relationships in increasing motivation
and learning (Suh et al., 2010).

Results of Language Learning With MMORPGs

MMORPGs offer the potential for unique learning opportunities because they
are rich in linguistic text and because communication with other players is
central to gameplay experience. Quest and game logs (see Figure 7) provide
opportunity to practice reading and comprehension skills. These features
make MMORPGs an appealing medium for language learning. Several stu-
dies have specifically focused on the effectiveness of MMORPGs in successful
second-language acquisition. A study of the MMORPG Talking Island
(http://www.lineage2.com/en/game/patch-notes/goddess-of-destruction/new-
areas/talking-island.php), a game specifically designed in Taiwan to teach
second language, revealed that approximately 30% of the players’ game

Figure 7. Everquest quest log.

514 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

activities consisted of mastery-learning games, such as flashcards. This study

showed that as players progressed in proficiency, their amount of social inter-
action and discussion increase. This indicates the ability for MMORPGs to
provide a type of scaffolding which is conducive to mastery of higher level
language problems. Although no significant gender differences were noted,
results revealed that female players were highly motivated to engage in
peer discussion after trading items (Hou, 2012), suggesting that
MMORPGs may be equally motivating for both genders if the right motiv-
ator is found.
A Japanese player of the World of WarcraftTM (http://eu.battle.net/wow/en/)
MMORPG engaged in English vocabulary learning by communicating via the
built in chat channel. They also improved their spelling by seeing words modeled
correctly by player and nonplayer characters (Zheng et al., 2015). Another study
of World of WarcraftTM investigated the game’s ability to allow learners to
argue effectively (Alagoz, 2013). Using the in game chat system (see Figure 8),
students who played Allods Online (https://allods.my.com/en) were able to
engage in several areas of casual language interaction, such as formal greetings,
leave-taking, small talk, and humor (Peterson, 2011). Korean school children
played an MMORPG to practice speaking, listening, writing, and reading with
their focus being on pronunciation, verb tense, and sentence structure (Suh et al.,
2010).

Figure 8. Everquest chat log.

Karagiorgas and Niemann 515

Several Japanese learners played WonderlandTM (http://wl.igg.com/guide/

guide.php?acid¼190) in a study of English language learning. Several strategies
of social interaction were identified, such as appropriate use of greetings, infor-
mal language, leave-takings, use of humor, small talk, and friend making. Both
male and female learners demonstrated positive instances of each of these traits.
Study of the transcripts found that participants employed these strategies and
others to communicate successfully in the game. Player interactions included
social conversations, requests for help with mechanical gaming functions, that
is, how to navigate character requests for assistance in finding in game locations
or characters and polite greetings. Learners also demonstrated appropriate
social context cues by employing the use of emoticons or feelings–words to
convey emotion (Peterson, 2011).
The MMORPG Everquest 2TM (https://www.everquest2.com/register) was
studied by Rankin, Gold, and Gooch (2006) for its effectiveness in second-lan-
guage learning. Results of participation showed that intermediate students
increased their English vocabulary by 40% by interacting with non-player char-
acters during gameplay. These same players who practiced conversational
English with other players saw a 100% increase in game chat messages using
the in game chat system (see Figure 8). The nonplayer characters, in particular,
can assist second-language learners in understanding the grammatical syntax of
English, simply by modeling language correctly.

Conclusion
Gaming is fast becoming the most popular form of entertainment in America and
it is no wonder that in the United States alone there are 183 million players of
which 5 million play more than 40 hours per week (Kim, 2015b). As the current
trend toward gamification continues, even nonentertainment industries will
employ gaming as a way to advertise and engage customers. As studies show,
games are a powerful tool to engage and motivate learners. Even nonserious
games, or perhaps especially non serious games, have been proven to contain
built in collaborative features that facilitate a constructivist learning model.
The educational community will want to continue to explore the use of
MMORPGs to promote problem solving skills and higher level thinking.
Even without educational content, the social interaction tools and scaffolding
processes ingrained in these games are a useful model for virtual learning worlds.
The aspects of MMORPGs which have proven successful in language learning
can be fine-tuned. This genre opens the door for other areas of learning, such as
geography, economics, math, architecture, and many more. Students’ love of
gaming provides a natural motivator which can be cultivated to encourage a love
of learning. With careful planning, educators can make use of the realistic virtual
worlds of MMORPGs to help their students solve real world problems and
develop strong thinking skills.
516 Journal of Educational Technology Systems 45(4)

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

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Author Biographies
Dimitrios N. Karagiorgas holds a Master of Education with a specialization in
Educational Technology and Online Instruction. Not only has he been teaching
multimedia and ESL for over 15 years in various states in the USA. and overseas
in Athens, Greece, but also has launched a multimedia startup that is still in
business. When he is not teaching and designing, he enjoys wreaking havoc in
first person shooter games and riding his mountain bike.

Shari Niemann is a software developer of 20 years. She develops web application

using such tools such as Microsoft .NET, C#, Javascript, AngularJS, Bootstrap,
WordPress and Magento. In addition, Shari holds her Master of Education
degree with a cognate in Technical Education. She enjoys exploring ways in
which technology can enrich education and enjoys teaching computer skills.