The demonstration component of the JOULE-THERMIE Programme Cn co District Cooling Handbook 2" edition 1999The JOULE-THERMIE programme was launched in 1995 as the European’s first integrated" programme, bringing together the re- sources of the European Commission Directorates-General XI! (Science, Research and Development) and XVll (Energy). This pro- gramme is funded by the European Union's Fourth Framework Pro- ‘gramme for Research and Technological Development, one of the most extensive research funding initiatives available to European compa- nies and research organisations. “The JOULE-THERMIE programme runs untl 1998 and has a total budget of 1,030 MECU of which 566 MECU are allocated to the THERMIE demonstration component of the programme for the support of projects land associated measures. THERMIE is focused on the cost-effective, cenvironmentally-frendly and targeted dermonstration and promotion of clean and efficient energy technologies. These consist of renewable energy technologies; rational use of energy in industry; buildings and transport; a clean and more efficient use of solid fuels and hydrocar- bons. Essentially, THERMIE supports actions which are aimed at prov- ing both the technological and economical viability and validity of en- ergy technologies by highlighting the benefits and by assuring a wider replication and market penetration both in EU and global markets, Colour Coding ‘To enable readers to quickly identify those Maxibrochures relating to specific parts of the THERMIE Programme each Maxibrochure is co our coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of the front cover, MMMM RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY - RUE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES - RES WME “SOLID FUELS - SF MME HYDROCARBONS - HC (MME (GENERAL - GEN Reproduction of the Contents is subject to acknowledgement of the European Commission Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf: a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with re- spect to the information contained in this publication; b) assumes any liabiity with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from this infor- mation. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission,Je cefreth Bruce XWSTE acionn Dase=O8 District Cooling Handbook a survey of techniques, equipment and choice of system European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling Authors: Adrien Vadrot, Jacques Delbés <—____ Chilled water production Thermal energy << storage Chilled water ———_ stibation Customer “ connections (© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling eTIn the year 2000 more than 50% of humanity will live in urban centres (60% in 2020), which highly justifies and asks for specific focus on the resulting increase in environmental prob- lems in the cities. Cities generate the major part of economic activities and consequently consume the greatest part of the world’s resources, thereby being responsible for considerable pollution and causing major concern for the future of our global environment. Energy and environmental planning in the cities is, therefore, of great importance when long- term sustainable solutions have to be found. As a result hereof district energy (heating and cooling) is often a natural choice. The demand for improved comfort, such as air-conditioning, is already growing at a fast rate, and the growth will continue concurrently with the growth in population density and installa- tion/use of technical equipment like computers, Besides, building structures are improv they are better tightened and insulated and usually provided with double or triple glass. District cooling represents the perhaps most efficient way of energy management, thereby meeting these challenges. This applies to economical aspects as well as the rational distribu- tion, water consumption and its contribution to an improved urban environment. For these reasons ELYO, one of the world’s leading operators of commercial district cooling schemes, agreed to participate in a co-operation on improvement and updating of the District Cooling Handbook, published by the European Marketing Group District Heating and Cool- ing. This 1999 version will contribute to promotional actions for district cooling. ‘An up-to-date review of this subject is hereby placed at your disposal; it informs you of the latest evolutions and helps managers in charge of these critical questions to determine their policies and make decisions. Pon. Kurt FELDTFOS Michel CARRESE Secretary-General of the Director of ELYO's Division European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling, District Heating and Cooling Cogeneration © Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and CoolingThe District Cooling Handbook, 2* edition, 1999 Authors and editors: Jacques Delbés and Adrien Vadrot*) ELYO 235 Avenue Georges Clémenceau, BP 4601 92746 Nanterre Cedex, France Phone +33 01 41 20 1000 Fax +33 01 41 20 1010 1" edition published October 1997, 2% edition published June 1999 Cover: Annet Lund Kommunikation ApS Photo: Benny Génsbol/Biofoto Published by ‘European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling**) in co-operation with ELYO, Euroheat (Euroheat and Power, unichal), and PPG - Preinsulated Pipe Group With support from the European Commission - EU Thermie Programme/DG 17 Copyright © J rights reserved. No production, copy or transmission without prior written permission from ELYO. ParlsiFrance or European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling, c/o Energy Center Denmark, te. +45 43.50 70 80, fax +45 43 50 70 88, e-mail: nda@dti dk +) Adrien Vadrot isa graduate engineer of the Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (LN.S.A.) of Lyon, with a major in Energy and Environment. After 16 months in the South Pacifc Islands tn the distribution of electrie- ip, he is now a Project Engineer in ELYO’s Management for District Heating and Cooling, and Cogeneration. ‘Jacques Delbes is a graduate Engineer of the Ecole Centrale de Lyon, and has a Master Degree in Mechanical Engineering. All his professional career has been in the field of H.V-A.C., in France, and overseas, in design ‘construction, operation and maintenance of systems. He is now Technical Director of ELYO's Management for District Heating and Cooling, and Cogeneration. ELYO is an Industrial Services Group, based in Paris, France. ELYO is the world-wide leader in the operation of commercial District Cooling Systems. The group operates and controls district heating systems, waste trea ‘nent plants, heat generation, technical facilis, climate control engineering and has long term concessions (0 manage, mainiain, upgrade and develop eleciricity grids, and is involved in renewable energies. ~ The 1996 sales were 1,835 million USS and 12,996 persons were employed world-wide. **) The European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling was established on she initiative of and with support from the European Commission under the Thermie Programme in 1996. Is aim is to co-ordinate iniia- ince, develop strategies and initiate specific activities for the spread of information concerning district heating, and cooling, including environmental advantages of cogeneration. The group functions as a catalyst for the ini tiation of a broad range of promotional activites, like exploring current trends in the sector, supporting tech~ nological and market developments, developing strategies, and raising awareness of the economic, environ mental and technological benefits of district heating and cooling, «order to reach the best approach in promotional activities, the Marketing Group communicates with key rép- josematives from European district heating and cooling associations, representatives from district heating and cooling manufacturers and other organisations. ‘Gn the basis ofthis knowledge and experience the group identifies specific actions, which wil promote extended tae of district heating and cooling. The activities caver the European Union. Possibilities of transferring experi- eco other countries are also explored. In particular the Central and Eastern European countries and the ‘New independent States are focused upon Lise ofthe Handbook s made othe user's own responsibly. Neier the authors and editors nar the publishers nor am of he contra. oo anc ov teu employes ive any warranty expressed or pled or aston ary legal ably or responsiblity forthe a= rs completeness or uscumess of ay nfermation product aplication, or proces disclosed within te Handbook. Nor ae he I Sree coneequcnaal damage whatsoever (ncuding, without limitation, damages for loss of busines rafts, business imerrupion. loss ar dnccr formation ov ober pecuniary lis) arsng rom the se of or inability use the Handbook © Copyrigh ELVO and European Marketing Group Disriet Heating and Cooling amaStructure of the report 1. INTRODUCTION 9 1.1 FOREWORD 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK, 10 Part 1: Chilled water production. 2 1. Chilling technologies 2 1.1 Compression water chillers 2 1.1.1 Principle and COP 2 1.12 Compression technologies B 1.13 Energy to drive the compression chillers 15 1.14 Reffigerant fluids and their environmental impact T15 : 1.2. Absorption chillers "7 12.1 Description 18, 1.22 Operation and maintenance 21 . 1.23 Investment and operating cost 21 a 1.3 Comparison between compression and absorption chillers 2 13.1 Primary energy — 2 t 1.3.2 Technical characteristics of the chillers ° 1.4 Deep water source cooling 23 6 141 System configuration 2 142 Advantages of water cooling 24 th 1.43 Chilled water production using deep water sources __ 25 7 1.5 Other techniques. 26 ie 1.8.1 Free cooling 26 he 15.2 Adsorption chillers 2 a 153 Gas expansion 27 154 Tee-slurry 27 ea 2. Production design and integration of DCS. 28 4 2.1. Central chilled water production 28 te re 22. Multiple chilled water production plants 28 bcd 23 Series and parallel production, 29 2.4 Integration of absorption chillers in cogeneration production 30 24.1 Cogeneration technologies 31 2.42 Improvement of cogeneration energy efficiency 31 . 2.8. Integration of cold substations in district heating systems, 32 i 2.6 Heat pumps 2 26.1 Technologies — 32 262 Benefits, 33 263 Current market 3 {© Copyright EL YO and European Mating Groop District Heating and Coning 3Part 2: Thermal energy storage 34 1. Principle and technologies. 34 1.1 Advantages and shortcomings of thermal energy storage 34 11.1 Cold storage __ 4 1112. Heat storage associated to cooling production _ 35 1.13 Combined heat and cold storage __ 35 1.14 Some shortcomings of heat and cold storage 35 1.2 Thermal storage capacities 36 1.2.1 Hot water storage capacity 36 122 Chilled water storage capacity 36 123 Combination of distributed chilled water thermal energy storage and fire protection 37 1.3 Thermal energy storage technolo ” 13.1 Thermally stratified systems__ __ 37 132 Other chilled water thermal energy storage designs 38 133 Phase change systems 2 2 Storage applications 43 2.1 Cold storage design and sizing B 2.1.1 Distributed/centralised thermal energy storage 3 2.1.2 Full storage’patial storage 3 2.1.3 Economical aspects 45 2.2 Construction methods 46 22.1 General 46 22.2 Chilled water storage 46 Part 3: Chilled water distribution 47 47 1. Network design. 1.1 Closed and open chil LT Closed nevwork 1.1.2 Open network 1.2 Branched and linked chi 1.2.1 Branched network __ 1.2.2 Looped network 1.3 Combined district heating and cooling networks 49 1.3.1 Switchover system ___ a 1.3.2 Three-pipe-system ee 1.3.3 Four-pipe-system __ IRENE RE IEME I NEIS Se NNNITENDEIE 50) 2. Distribution piping CSO Eo scacto ee ee erent eee eee nee eee ee) 2L.L Above-ground systems, eee eee ne ES REE 2.1.2 Walk-through tunnels eee 2.1.3. Shallow concrete tunnels SA 2.14 Buried systems __ 52 83 22. Service pipe materials 22.1 Steel pipe 22.2 Ductile iron pipe 2.23 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe Oo ———— 224 High density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe — 225 Fibreglass ss 4 S Copyright ELVO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling2.3. Insulation. 55 23.1 Uninsilated and insulated networks 35 232 _ Insulation or no insulation? Choice criteria. = 56 233. Insulation materials 56 2.4. Installation and maintenance 60 24.1 Installation _—__ 60 242 Water condensation and corrosion 60 2.43 Inspection = 6 3. Water and advanced fluids, 61 3.1, Water 61 3.11 Corrosion 6 3.12 Scaling 8 3.13 Magneti¢ treatment a 3.2. Advanced fluids. a 32.1 Drag-reducing additives 68 32.2 Phase change materials = 6 3.3. Low-temperature brines 64 4. Pumping scheme. 4 4.1. Pump location 65 4.1.1 Centralised pumping : 65 4.1.2 Standard primary-secondary pumping system 66 4.13 Standard primary-secondary-tertary pumping sysiem — oo 66 4.14 Distributed pumping _67 4.2 Constant and variable flow 68 42.1 Constant flow 68 . 422 Variable flow Cy ' Part 4: Consumer connections and installations 70 1 7 1. Interfaces between the DCS and its customers___— CO 3 1.1 Direct connection between DCS and clients 70 : 1.2 Indirect connection between DCS and clients n : 1.2.1 Typical substation with heat exchanger 1 9 1.2.2 Climespace’s substation =a 3 13 Change-over n ° 1.4 Metering B 14.1 Metering in general _ B 0 1.42 Measuring principles 4 i 143 Flowmeters e — 7s A 144 Temperature sensors 7 cl 14.5 Integrating uni 7% By 146 Data communication _ aa 1.4.7 Verification and operating control ~ 148 Future development - 80 33 149 Climespace's metering method, Paris 80 7 2. Optimization of customer installations 54 2.1. Customer connections 81 a 2.1.1 Actions to improve customers’ operating conditions 81 35 2.1.2 Connection on the return pipe _ 81 © Copyright ELYO and European Marking Group Dist Heating and Cooling 32.2 Optimization of customer installations 81 2.2.1 Serial connection of customer loads, 81 222 Integrated roof cooling _ 82 2.3. Local chilled water production from a district heating system 82 23.1 Absorption systems __ 82 23.2 Liquid desiccant and evaporative cooling _83 23.3 ThermoNet system by ABB _ 83 Computer models 84 Part 1. Newsystem 84 2. System extension 85 ‘21.1 Ifthe goal is increased reliability 85 212 Ifthe issue is whether or not to serve new constructions _—_ — 385 213 Ifthe goal is to increase market share __ 86 3. System operation. 86 4, FRIGOLO software 86 5. Interpretation 87 Part 6: District cooling survey. 88 1. Worldwide district cooling survey 88 1.1. District cooling in Europe 88 LLL Northern Europe. 88 112 France_ __ 101 1.1.3. Germany _ ~ 104 1.14 Liechtenstein and Austria__ E06) L1S United Kingdom, __ 107 1.1.6 Souther Europe _ 107 LL? Eastern Europe 10 110 1.2. District cooling in the USA 110 1.2.1 Air-conditioning demand _ 12.2 Evolution of district cooling, Mm 12.3 Number of district energy and district cooling utilities —_ 12 12.4 Institutional central plants ~ 14 12'S Major district cooling systems us 12.6 Forecast __ 126 1.3. District cooling in Japan 126 13.1 Geographic description 126 13.2 Evolution of district cooling system number _ 127 133 Chilled water production ~ 128 13.4 Government subsidies and other measures, 130 13.5 Forecast —_ 130 13.6 Large-scale 130 13.7 Future projects __ _137 13.8 Other energy companies in Japan__ 138 1.4. District cooling in other countries 139 14.1 Canada 139 142 140 143 41 144 43 14.5 Saudi Arabi 43 6 © Copvrigh ELVO and European Marketing Group Dist Heating and CoolingCase studies, 143 2.1. Chicago — the Windy City 143 21.1 Trigen-Peoples_ 145 2.12 MeCormick Place 145 2.1.3 Choice of production technique. 146 2.14 Marketing _ _ 149 2.1.5 General considerations 153 2.2. Paris - La Ville Lumiére 155 2.2.1 LaDéfense a 222 Climespace 160 223 Distribution andmarket_—— CdD 2.3. Stockholm — Venice of the North 163 2.3.1 Birka Energi 163 23.2 Other district cooling solutions in the vicinity of Stockholm, im 2.3.3. General considerations, ae 173 2.4 Tokyo — Capital of the East. 173 i 2.4.1. District heating and cooling in Tokyo 173 ; 2.42 Shinjuku 174 ' 24.3 Shinjuku District Heating and Cooling Centre 174 ’ Table of Utilities. 177 Northern European countries. 178 3 France 179 Germany. 180 8 Liechtenstein and Austria 180 United-Kingdom, 180 8 ‘Southern European countries_ 18 8 Eastern European countries. 182 4 United States_ 183 4 Japan 186 %6 Other countries. 190 ” 7 10 List of contacts. 191 10 References. 201 10 n 2 14 15 126 (26 126 27 128 130 130 130 137 138 139 139 140 “at 143 143 1 Copyright ELYO and European Making Groop Dir Hing ard Coin 7INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 FOREWORD Since the early 1960s district cooling has become more commonly used for air-conditioning purposes in densely built-up downtown areas, especially in offices, commercial buildings, hospitals, college campuses, airports, etc. and — to a minor extent ~ in residential buildings. ‘As electricity is still the most frequently used energy source for air-conditioning the result is a ‘great demand for electricity during the summer months, thereby creating a natural need to ook for alternative fuels, increased energy efficiency and demand site management of cooling projects. Together with a number of other customer benefits this creates opportunities for the development of district cooling. During the past two decades district cooling has become more economical, environmentally sound and energy efficient, and it meets the growing demand for air-conditioning. District cooling has developed differently from continent to continent, from country to coun- try and even from project to project. The reasons are different conditions and circumstances like for instance © different energy policies, including legal requirements and regulations, and whether a country has a tradition of developing district energy as a public utility service or through private initiative energy prices and economical preconditions for the investments climate ‘A downward trend in the demand for heating has been identified in Europe over the past dec- ade partly because of improved building structures and material and increasing insulation, heat recovery and metering. During the same period, the demand for better indoor climate and comfort has increased greatly, thus creating new business opportunities for energy service companies and utilities. In North America many major utility companies have appeared on the district cooling arena within the last 5 to 10 years, and the number of district cooling schemes is rising rapidly; ex- isting schemes are extended as opportunities seem much more favourable than first predicted. In the Far East, especially in Japan, district energy systems — including district cooling sys- tems — were first installed at the beginning of the 1970s. They were based on central energy planning and regulation, and they were influenced by the uncertain development in energy supply, prices and environmental matters like the oil crises of the 1970s. Focus was then on security of supply, energy efficiency and energy savings, whereas today environmental as- ects and urban improvements play a more central and important role. © Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group Disriet Heating and Cooling 9 eetINTRODUCTION District cooling is an innovative concept that represents new business opportunities for utili- ties and energy supply companies. It diversifies the strategy in consistence with the utilities’ fundamental business of supplying energy services to their customers. District cooling sup- ports the strategic interest by positioning the company favourably when facing increased Competition in a deregulated, liberalised enerey market. Besides, it fits well into the general trend of building owners outsourcing operations, which are not core business, and it allows them to avoid major investments in equipment and the costs of operating the system after- wards. Some of the qualities, which are most appreciated by building owners, are: + The reliable supply of chilled water, delivered 24 hours a day all year, as the district cooling system ensures flawless distribution due to its capacity to supply the customer in several ways The control of charges, as the tariff proposed to the customers is often formulated as a tar- iff for a service - with indexations and temporal evolutions, controlled and predictable. «The flexibility of use is a strong argument. The substation may have its capacity easily in- creased or decreased, giving the customer the possibility to subscribe for a capacity re~ flecting his precise needs. = Many technical options of production in a fast moving technical context. Questions like ozone layer or greenhouse effect in the cooling towers, regulations related to water treat ‘ment in order to avoid bacteria in the system will be dealt with by the operator, who as- sumes the task of resolving such matters. = All the usual constraints related to cooling production are, of course, avoided by the con- nection of a building to a district cooling system — constraints like the noise of the rotating machines, the management of the refrigerant fluids, the fumes over the cooling towers, with their negative visual impact on the aesthetics of the building. If a developer of a given district is tempted by the idea of installing distriet energy services such as district cooling in his project for promotional purposes, it is important to integrate the system as early as possible, thereby making it a natural part of the buildings’ infrastructure. The service can then be installed parallel with the construction of the buildings. District cooling is a proven and reliable, environmentally sound and sustainable technology, which guarantees rational utilisation of energy, and although it is a long-term investment there are many obvious advantages to society. These advantages help obtain political and public support, and because of this public support financial support and subsidies are often easier to justify to secure a long-term sustainable development in energy supply. 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK This handbook is intended to give an up to date, overview of District Cooling, in order to help the reader analyse all its different aspects, and find good reasons to be convinced that it repre- sents an efficient solution to many energy management and air pollution problems. 10 Copyrigh ELVO and European Marketing Group District Heating and CoolingINTRODUCTION This is done through a survey of existing systems and of studies, projects, experiments and tests to identify the various technical solutions already in use, or projected for the near future, together with an analysis of their advantages and disadvantages, as reflected by the experience of their operation. The structure of the report shows how this document is organised with first a technical de- scription of the main parts of a typical District Cooling System, then a survey of existing sys- tems in the world, showing the main trends supporting the development of this concept. t Current abbreviations used in the report n CHP Combined Heat and Power CHW TES Chilled Water Thermal Energy Storage cop Coefficient of Performance n DEC Desiccation and Evaporative Cooling e pcs District Cooling System DHS District Heating System ke DHCS _ District Heating and Cooling System at aT ‘Temperature difference (e.g. between supply and return) 6 HVAC Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning Megawatt cooling Megawatt electric Thermal Energy Storage ces the ure Dey, here iblic x10 help epre- {© Copsigh EL and European Marketing Group Disc Heating and Cooling 1 SS eee aSCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION PART I: CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION 1, CHILLING TECHNOLOGIES 1.1 COMPRESSION WATER CHILLERS 1.1.1 Principle and COP ‘The most common way to produce cold in an industrial process is the well-known cycle in which one fluid is compressed, condensed and evaporated in a closed system. Chiller effi- ciency is analysed through a ratio called the coefficient of performance (COP). This ratio rep- resents the thermal energy output versus the energy input. Compression chiller technology and energetic balance are illustrated in Figure 1. More infor- mation may be found in Ref. 5. 12 ‘© Copyrigh ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling1 CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION Leaving condenser water (30-40°C) Q Expansion valve —_ oO — w Wet refigerant re vapour Dry saturated refrigerant » Thal enya W ec we Q,: Thermal energy in evaporator inmcimcoswe = Q. Figure 1: Schematic description of a compression cooling cycle ‘The compression cycle can be summarised as follows © The refrigerant at low pressure and in dry saturated condition is compressed to a higher pressure, ‘* Due to the increased pressure, the refrigerant vapour is condensed and releases heat to the surroundings (condenser water or outside air) at a constant condensing temperature (30- 40°C) + The refrigerant condensate is expanded through a valve to a lower pressure. © At the lower pressure the wet refrigerant vapour picks up heat from the surroundings (evaporator water) at a low temperature (0.5-10°C), thereby evaporating and returning to dry saturated condition at constant temperature The cooling coefficient of performance is given by the formula (Ref. 6): COP oa = 2 with Q.=W+Q. For compression chillers, theoretical COP calculations may be obtained with the relation: pa Te Te : Evaporator temperature (K) fo COP ext = re Fe) Te: Condenser temperature (K) Practically the cooling COPs in operating systems are roughly half the theoretical values; they nfor- are in the range 0 to 5 for compression chillers. COPs vary with the load of the chillers. They drop if the load is too small. Precise COP calculations for a system have to be made to opti- mise the installation (Ref. 7). 1.1.2 Compression technologies The compression is the most technological part of the system. Different compression solu- tions are available depending on the use of the chiller, see Figure 7 for a comparison of chiller technologies ‘© Copyright ELYO and European Masketing Group Distt Heating and Cooling 3B eeeCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION 1.1.2.1 Reciprocating compressor Chillers with a reciprocating compressor are generally used in relatively small capacities (un- der 1.5 MW,) and have a lower COP than other types, which reduces their use in district cooling. This technology is well known and easy to operate. One should notice that reciprocating compressors exist up to 30 MW, for very low tempera- tures or cryogenic refrigeration. They are very efficient, but very high in capital and mainte- nance costs (Ref. 8). 1.1.2.2 Screw compressor Screw compressors are becoming more common and are available in sizes more suitable for district cooling applications (up to 7 MW.). The interest in screw compressors is growing, particularly for use with ammonia reftigerant. Screw compressors have a high efficiency and are well suited for the high-pressure ratios of ammonia, although noise is a potential problem compared to centrifugal compressors. They are also very efficient compared to centrifugal chillers when using low temperature condenser water (Ref. 8). 1.1.2.3 Centrifugal compressor Centrifugal compressors are the most commonly used compressors for district cooling. Their available range goes up to 25 MW and they have a good ability to adapt to changing loads until a minimum of 40%. Down to this minimum load surging is allowable owing to high load fluctuations in district cooling applications. Reliability, operating cost per MW and small di- mensions are also actual advantages. Price differences between screw and centrifugal com- pressors have to be evaluated on a project specific basis. When the condenser temperature has been fixed, great pressure differentials have to be avoided (Ref. 9). Figure 2: Centrifugal chilers in Bercy's central plant, in Climespace DCS, in Paris 14 (© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling(ON CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION 1.1.3 Energy to drive the compression chillers a Due to the low operation and capital costs, electric drives have been a frequent choice for driving compression chillers. y However, a variety of drives can be used for centrifugal chillers. Steam turbine drives are used a in a number of DCSs in the USA. Some industrial processes and waste incineration plants produce heat or.steam as by-products, which may be free of cost. In that case steam turbines are able to work without additional energy costs. With increases in electricity prices during summer, and the availability of relatively cheap natural gas, direct combustion engines and gas turbines are also being applied. > for ring, Steam turbine drives and combustion engine drives are sometimes promoted as providing re- eal dundancy in case of power failure. While the combustion engine has a higher efficiency than the steam turbine, the steam turbine drive offers better redundancy because it is possible to olem “ugal feed the chiller from more than one boiler and therefore from multiple fuel sources. Maintenance costs can be very different from one drive to another, especially for gas engines or turbines. Their ads . . ; A F ial 1.1.4 Refrigerant fluids and their environmental impact Udi- : . . ue Fluids in compression chillers are continuously compressed, condensed and evaporated. Re- ae frigerant fluids must have appropriate physical, thermal and chemical properties to follow this cycle. A description of these properties is depicted in Ref. 11. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) have very good properties for this cycle, especially a great stability. Almost all refrigerant machines were driven with CFCs during the last 50 years. CFCs have been accused of contributing to ozone depletion and greenhouse effect. Legislation has been established to control production and use, Due to these constraints, new refrigerant fluids have been developed and are now in use. In the past, refrigerant fluid leakage could raise up to 35% of the total consumption of refrig- erant every year. Now, this rate seems to be reduced to 10% due to stricter controls (Ref. 13). 1.1.4.1 Refrigerant fluids and their Ozone Depletion Potential The ozone layer protects the earth against the main parts of ultra-violet solar radiation. Ozone depletion has been noticed since 1974, The increase in ultra-violet radiation exposure may have consequences for the health of humans, animals and plants. The main troubles for hu- mans are skin cancer, severe eye diseases and reduction of defence capacities (Ref. 14, Ref. 15). CFCs are accused of greatly contributing to this depletion. Because of this problem, a protocol to restrict utilistion was signed in Montreal in 1987. The aim was to reduce the CFC production (R 11,R 12, R113, R114, R 115) by 50% before the year 2000. Special licences on production and utilisation of these gases were given to devel- oping countries. ‘© Copyright ELLY and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling 15 eeeCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION ‘Amendments have since been signed in London (1990) and Copenhagen (1992) with more re- strictive laws for the production and utilisation of CFCs (Ref. 14, Ref. 16). The BU and other countries have, on their own initiative, established laws for the HCFCs, which are used to re- place CFCs. Details about this legislation in different countries may be found in the Ref. 17. ‘A value to compare the effect on ozone layer has been estimated for each fluid. The compari- son is made from the R 11 with one as a reference, Figure 3. This is named the ozone deple- tion potential (ODP). Only fluids with ODP equal to 0 will be maintained in the future (Ref. 12). Refrigerant fuld [ODP referred tO R11] Relrigerant fluid ] ODP referred to R 11 ar T ra Dons 00m R12 9-1 ‘16-0024 RD Tos 0.06 2 RI a, 2 Raz 7 7-0 Riis 08-05, 05-006 Rat 05-08 7 Ris 03-05 o RABE 78-132 156-078 Nii 7. 017-028, 70. ° 0, 2 Figure 3: Ozone Depletion Potential of diferent refrigerant fluids, Ref. 11 1.1.4.2. Refrigerant fluids and their Global Warming Poten The greenhouse effect is a prerequisite of our life on earth. Some gases in the atmosphere stop the long wave radiation coming from the earth, and then the atmosphere temperature is in- creased. Augmentation of these gas quantities may increase this effect, thereby increasing the earth temperature (Ref. 18). The main gases which contributes to the effect are water vapour, CO,, CH,, NO,, ... and CFCs, As for the Ozone Depletion Potential, one potential has been estimated for each ga: Global Warning Potential (GWP). Figure 4 gives the GWP referred to R 11, but the long term action, referred to CO, is more significant. The values change in the course of time because their lifespans are different. Potentint | Potential refered oT for CO, Potential refered to CO; Tear | refered we |"Oyears [oer [Ove | Rea ‘uid Ru ‘uid Rr T BH | 3500 | 1500 Ria | 003-010 | 1500 Bo Ts] RI | 28-3] 7100 [73004500 Ras | 051-045 _| 700 75007 560, Raz | 032-037 | s100 | 1300_[ 510 Risse | 024-029~[ 3200 1300 0 Ris] 13-3 [4500 | —a00 | 2100 rab | O08 -0.097 | 7500 a0 30 Rie] 37-41] —s000 | 6500] —s800_—[ Raa] 034-039 [3700 Ta00 340, Rus] 74-76] 3500] 6500] 7400 J Raa] 072-076 | 4500 3300 1000, RASBT 8 TOOT] _R Ista | 006 OST | —_ 510 140 a7 i, o v T 0 R300 BOM | aH | THOT, 10 o ° 7 2 R302 ae) | -4a0C)_| AOAC CO, T T T Propane a 7 wiay[ooIT-0020| 310 s 3 (y= enimaied valor Figure 4: Global Warning Potential of diferent refrigerant fluids, Ref. 14 16 ‘© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Coolingon CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION re: To precisely evaluate greenhouse effect contribution, it should be noticed that not only the her GWP of a refrigerant fluid has to be considered, but also the COP of the machine, Ref, 19. re 1.1.4.3 New refrigerant fluids sari Consequences of these restrictions pushed to develop new refrigerant fluids. All chillers oper- ig with CFCs and also HCFCs will have to be replaced. For example, 60,000 chilling cen- Ref. tral plants should have been replaced during last decade in the USA, Ref. 20. Research with refrigerant fluids is still carried on to replace CFCs, New refrigerants, such as HCFCs (R22, R123) or HFCs (R134a), have been developed, and will continue to be seen, but at the moment they do not offer the same performance as CFCs or ammonia (R717). HCFCs are a solution for a while but their use is also limited (to 2030 in Europe). The ammonia alternative does not affect the stratospheric ozone. Its refrigerant characteristics are also interesting, but it is problematic in case of a leakage, because of its toxic effect. Stricter security against leakage is compulsory. Water may also be used in large central plants, Experiments with centrifugal chillers are cur- rently being conducted. Their COP is between 8 and 12. In this case, water network may be directly connected to the chiller compressing cycle (Ref. 21) 2 ABSORPTION CHILLERS 'e stop Another industrial technology for chilled water production is the absorption process. This is in- technology is used in Europe, but is more common in the USA and Japan, where much has ng the been done to improve its performance. Absorption chillers use heat as primary energy to pro- duce cold, instead of mechanical rotation work for compression chillers. They can use the heat of steam, hot water or direct gas combustion, depending on technologies. o and sh gas: There are various possibilities of use. They can be integrated in a steam, hot water or gas dis- ig term trict network. This is the main district cooling policy in Germany and in Japan (see Part 6). recause They can also be used in industrial processes. Their application is optimal when low grade heat is available, under conditions where a steam turbine cannot be driven. For example, two steam absorption chillers with lithium bromide are used in Paris-Orly Airport DCS, driven by steam from the thermoelectric plant (Ref. 10). (© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group Disiet Heating and Cooling 17 etlCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION Figure 5: Absorption chiller in Climaespaco's trigeneration system, in Lisbon 1.2.1 Description 1.2.1.1 Principle and COP ‘The refrigerant is not compressed mechanically, but is absorbed by an absorbent fluid under low evaporation pressure. Two fluids are needed in this cyclic process: «The refrigerant, which should evaporate and condense, which is generally water * The absorbent, which should absorb refrigerant vapour, is usually lithium bromide or sometimes ammonia. Ammonia may produce negative temperatures (down to -60°C), but it has toxic effects in case of leakage. Lithium bromide can produce chilled water down to 5°C, which is in accordance with DCS needs. This salt does not have any impact on the environment. Figure 6 shows the principle of absorption chillers with steam or hot water. 18 Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and CoolingN CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION Q row aman cae J 15 Heat: stam, hot water Sohstion heat Wate exchanger Dilated sokton Refrigerant pump == — 0. of Gr Themal cane peor Qh Thermal meng poraar Gis Teal neg Barber _Q Terma energy mecndoer] Figure 6: Schematic description of one-stage absorption cycle using water as refrigerant and Ithium bromide as ‘absorbent Spurr, in Ref. 5, summarises the absorption cycle as follows: © Generator: Steam or hot water is used to boil a solution of reftigerant/absorbent. Refriger- ant vapour is released and the absorbent solution is concentrated ‘© Condenser: The refrigerant vapour released in the concentrator is drawn into the con- under denser. Cooling water cools and condenses the refrigerant. This use of water will be named «re-coolingy water in this report, as in some communications, to avoid misunderstanding. ‘© Evaporator: Liquid refrigerant flows through an orifice into the evaporator. The lower de or pressure in the evaporator provokes flashing, The flashing cools the remaining liquid re- >), but frigerant at the pressure prevailing in the evaporator (for a water/lithium bromide chiller) wn to Heat is transferred from the chilled water to the refrigerant, thereby cooling the chilled on the water and vapourising the refrigerant. ‘* Absorber; Refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is drawn to the absorber section by the low pressure resulting from absorption of the refrigerant into the absorbent, Cooling water removes the heat released when the refrigerant vapours return to the liquid state in the ab- sorption process. The diluted solution is circulated back to the generator. © Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger transfers heat from the relatively warm concentrated solution which comes from the generator to the absorber, and the diluted solution being returned to the generator and reduces the amount of heat that has to be rejected from the absorber. ‘© Pumps: One pump is used to transfer the diluted solution of absorbent from the absorber to the generator through the heat exchanger. Another one is used to circulate liquid refriger- ant in the evaporator. “© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group Distiet Heating and Cooling 19 eelCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION For the absorption chillers, the cooling coefficient of performance is given by the formula (Ref. 6): Q : COP m= 6. with Qr-+Qe=Qe+Qe For absorption chillers, theoretical cooling COP calculations may be mde with the relation: - Te _(Tg-Te) Te : Evaporator temperature (K) COPm= Gay Te Te : Condenser temperature (K) Tg : Generator temperature (K) ‘As for the compression chillers, practically the COPs in operating systems are roughly half the theoretical values. They are in the range from 0 to 1.2. 1.2.1.2 One and two-stage absorption chillers ‘The chiller described above is one-stage technology. Some of the steam or hot water absorp- thon chillers have two-stage cycles, in which heat derived from refrigerant vapour in the first generator is used to boil out additional refrigerant in a second generator. So the efficiency is sencased, less heat is needed and thus less heat must be rejected. The two-stage absorption chiller requires about 45% less energy input than a one-stage absorption chiller; ie. two-stage chillers have a maximum COP of 1.2 instead of 0.7 for one-stage units. COne-stage chillers can be used from 65°C to 140°C in the generator, and two-stage chillers swith a temperature up to 170°C. This temperature difference will determine their conditions of, use. “Absorption chillers re available in a wide range of cooling power. Packaged absorption chill- | ts range from relatively small sizes up to 5.8 MW, for one-stage and up to 5.3 MW; for two- stage units. ‘Three-stage absorption chillers are under development with a COP close to 1.5. The main technical problems are the high temperatures and pressures inside the machine- 1.2.1.3 Silent operation Exeept for two hermetically sealed pumps, absorption chillers do not have any moving parts. ‘They run more quietly (there are few vibrations) than compression chillers. This difference could be significant in office buildings or hospitals. 4.2.1.4 Technical constraints ‘The capacity of an absorption chiller will drop concurrently with the decrease in temperature of the driving energy. More heat transfer surface is required for a given amount of cooling, re- sulting in higher investment cost per unit of cooling capaci Goteborg Energi examined the impacts on investment cost of installing chiller capacity to use the normal 75°C summertime hot water ofits DHS, and concluded that it was more economi- cal to increase the summer operating temperature to 100°C (Ref. 5) 20 © Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group Disc Heating and CoolingON CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION ala The other technical shortcoming is the re-cooling of the absorber and condenser of the ab- sorption chiller. If re-cooling is done with a circuit using cooling towers, they must have large surfaces, and could have important plumes of water vapour. Price and environmental effects are increased. ‘A manner to avoid this shortcoming is the use of the rejected heat to produce hot water. Two- stage chillers, and especially direct fired chillers, can produce hot water up to 79.4°C while producing chilled water. half 1.2.2 Operation and maintenance In the USA (Ref. 5) opinions vary regarding the comparison between maintenance costs for absorption and compression chillers. When taking in consideration their related equipment, costs seem almost the same for absorption as for electric centrifugal compression chillers. Ac- os cording to Ref. 22, maintenance is reduced because there are few moving parts, and their op- first crating life is typically 30 years. pion Start up and shut down take long time, which reduces the flexibility of operation in compari- stage son with centrifugal chillers. Easy regulation of absorption chillers has to be noticed: the cooling performance can be easily regulated in the area between 10 and 100% of nominal load. The cooling performance can thus be well adjusted to the big differences in the required illers cooling caused by the ambient temperature and by solar insulation, with relatively low related er COP variation, chill- 1.2.3 Investment and operating c rtwo- ‘The main problem for the development of this technical solution is the capital cost of the ab- : sorption chillers compared to compression chillers. The situation in the USA market is shown main = Figure 7. Site-specific factors, such as additional costs to upgrade electrical service to power electric drive chillers, can change the comparative capital costs (Ref. 5). Besides electricity prices are generally high in summer, which encourages the absorption chiller solutions. parts. Capital cost ( $ per kWe) ference 30 7 300 } 20 200 + 150 + serature ling, re- 100 50 + of y to use Etectric Steam stage stage 7 Centrifugal Centrifugal steam steam conomi- ‘Absorption Absorption Figure 7: Comparative capital costs of chill technologies, including installation, auxiares and building (Ref. 5) ‘© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling 21 EN SSSCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION ‘A simple calculation shows that the gas price for a direct fired absorber should be roughly 3 to 2 Fines lower than the electricity price, o compensate the investment overcost. ne should notice that sales of absorption chillers are the far most important part of the Japa- nese ait-conditioning market as well in individuals chillers os in DCS, see Part 6 - 1.3. As Doss are often owned by gas companies, this technique is promoted and economically inter- esting. In Germany, progression of sales of absorption chillers has changed in 1990, because they offer a simple solution to replace CFCs, and they can be associated with existing DHSs. ‘The part of their turnover was 5 to 10% before, ‘but since it is in the range of 40 to 50%. 1.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSION ABSORPTION CHIL LERS 1.3.1 Primary energy ‘A common feature of absorption cycle and compression cycle is the evaporation and conden- sation of a refrigerant liquid, and these processes occur at different PST levels within the ‘unit, The two cycles differ in that the absorption cycle uses @ small liquid pump to produce the pressure differential, and the compression cycle uses # vapour compressor, which consumes relatively large amounts of primary energy. tn the most common case, where the compression chiller is driven by electricity, total elec~ tricity needs are far lower for absorption chillers; the redvetion factor may be up to 10. Building electrical power subscription may be reduced; hence Os reductions are significant. pe nontast to this electricity reduction in favour of absorption chillers, the cooling demand for the process is far bigger. For instance, with a re-cooling capacity of 10 MW available on cooking towers, 8 MW, oq be produced with a compressor chiller ‘but only 5 MW, with a two- stage absorption chiller. This shortcoming is worse with a one-stage unit. Depending on the nature of primary energy, the energetic consumption has to be evaluated for cach heat source and situation. Iti also the case forthe calculation of CO; emissions. [ANI these chillers, compression as well as absorption types need associated auxiliaries, such as fevaporator water pump, condenser water pumps and cooling tower fans or air-cooled con- densers. 2D Conigh EL.VO ad European Marcin Grovp Dist Heating and Coningaa CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION 30 Technical characteristics of the chillers apa- Figure 8 summarises the main technical characteristics of chillers available on the market. fi ie . AS ow i Chiller technology St ‘Compression chillers ‘Absorption chillers rameter Reciprocating | Screw | Centrifugal | One-stage | ‘Two-stage Hot water, | Steam or fre, tem [Primary energy Rotation work | Rotation work | Rotation work |68%C 170°C [Fluids IR 134a, HCFC, Nita] R 134a, HCFC, | R 134e, HCFC, | Hp0 with Libr, | 130 with LiBr, Ni Niig___|_NH3 with #0 _| NH with Hy0 cop a6 406 wptoss | 06 w 075 12 [Range MW Ce 1s 307 | 032 | O1w58 01653 Isurface on ground | 0006 © 0.016 [0.006 to 0.016] 0.006 0 0.016] 001 @ 003 | O01 1 008 2) kW |Weight on ground | 52 1 91 S2wo1 | Sawai | 8502 B50 2 tg/kW 1Q re-cooling/ i212 | lawl | i2wias | 191025 191 © 25 nden- ae Figure 8: Comparison between compression and absorption chillers ce the sumes | elec- 1.4 DEEP WATER SOURCE COOLING to 10. cant. Deep water source cooling (DWSC) refers to the use of a large renewable source of naturally nd for cold water as a means to reduce the temperature as an alternative to using energy intensive ble on equipment. This concept is similar to the use of geothermal energy for the district heating Kos systems. It has been evaluated for decades. To date there are very few operating facilities capitalising on this renewable and abundant resource. ted for Adequate cold water can be found in deep lakes, oceans, aquifers and rivers, which implies that the central plant is located near such a source. such as :d con 1.4.1 System configuration Figure 9 shows a typical system. It is separated into three different segments: cold water pumping, exchanger in a central plant and a classical distribution system. The exchanger part makes jt possible to use treated soft water on the distribution side, to reduce the problems connected with the usage of natural water in an open circuit. ‘© Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling B eelCHILLED WATER PRODUCTION eatenchanger Chiles wate { a \ a aa \ | \ Liew cues | i “or | tt | + | tien water Deep eum (10-18%) ‘hed wae ean (a-1ss), intake 4720 avn NX ‘Deep Water Intake and Retum System Central Heat Exchange and Pumping Facility Chilled Water Distribution and ‘Building System Figure 9: Typical deep water source cooling system ‘A technical speciality of this design, compared with a classical DCS, is the water treatment of the water source, and the choice of materials for pipes, pumps and heat exchangers, to avoid damages in this open system. Classical DCSs have a distribution supply temperature in the range of 4 to 7°C, which re- quires a water source temperature below 5°C. Such cold water is available in a number of deep lakes, along certain stretches of coastal areas and in deep aquifer sources. Studies have shown that cold water between 3 and 6°C may be found at depths around 70 m in lakes and between 500 and 1000 m in oceans (Ref. 23). When the temperature is higher, deep water can be used for condenser re-cooling, as ex- plained in chapter 1.4.3.3. ‘An environmental impact statement is required. One should take care that the available quan- tity of water has to be large enough to minimise pumping impact. It should also include in- vestigation and analysis of the effects of drawing large amounts of cold water from the deep bathypelagic zone and then returning the water to the shallow epipelagic zone at a higher tem- perature. 1.4.2 Advantages of water cooling This technique offers economical and environmental advantages: «The only necessary energy is consumed by the pumps, representing only 10 to 20% of the energy used by a comparable centrifugal chiller plant. « CO, emissions will be greatly reduced, and neither cooling towers nor CFCs are needed. This decreases the use of chemically treated cooling water and avoids plumes of water va- pour. «As shown in Figure 10, deep water source cooling may reduce the installation and opera- tion consumption energy by a factor up to 7. 24 © Copyright ELYO and European Marketing Group Disrit Heating and CoolingION CHILLED WATER PRODUCTION mis iMler Based system | Deep water source cooling based system EW, 7 RW, 18610" 0 Chiller water pumps (assumes a 30 ml ; pump head requirement) KW, FW, 2010 2010 Cake or ocean water pumps (assumes al , 130 m pump head requirement) KW, / KW. - 14:10° [Condenser water pumps kW. KW. 28107 0 [Cooling tower fans KW, TW, 310 0 |Tot k' kW, 243.10" 3410" Figure 10: Relative energy consumption: Deep water source cooling versus chiller based systems rent of avoid 1.4.3 Chilled water production using deep water sources ich we 1.4.3.1 Deep water source cooling and heat pumps aber of The use of heat pumps may help increase the overall efficiency of a combined DCS and DHS, as the surplus heat from the heat pumps can be utilised in an existing DHS. It is the case in 470m Stockholm Energi network. This DCS is based on sea water from the Baltic Sea, Ref. 24. Favourable conditions to allow as ex: ___ the supply of enough cold water to supply most of the necessary 35 MW of cooling have been found 4 km from the city. The complement is supplied by heat pumps (capacity 25 MW), which chill the seawater before the DCS exchanger. The heat pumps were initially used in the Je quan- DHS. The environmentally friendly production and the use of existing heat pumps at the site jude in- __ balanced the considerable investment in the long transit cooling pipe. The inlet is at a depth of the deep 20m for the supply, and the outlet is at the surface for the return. hher tem- 1.4.3.2 Addition of chillers to improve the cooling capacity Deep water source cold may be considered as one source of production inside a multiprodue- tion network, as utilised in Halifax Harbor, Nova Scotia, in Canada. This source is combined with motor driven centrifugal chillers to meet the total annual cooling load of the buildings. ea 1.4.3.3 Use of water to re-cool a production system 1% of the When water is available at a higher temperature than required for direct chilled water produc- ‘e needed. ‘in it can be used for condenser cooling, as an alternative to cooling towers. water var This solution has been chosen in Lisbon’s DCS, where water is pumped from the Tage River and opera- "£001 a closed soft water condenser cooling loop. After the heat exchangers, the water is re- fumed to the Tage through a storm water sewer. This solution requires careful maintenance, filtration and water treatment to avoid algae and mollusc developments or corrosion in inlet vibes and heat exchangers. Connection pipes are concrete, and the exchangers are made of ti- ium, (© Copyright ELVO and European Marketing Group District Heating and Cooling 25 enemas