OPTIMISING OF MOULDING PARAMETERS FOR GREEN SAND COMPACTION BY

COMPUTER SIMULATION AND A NEW COMPACTION MEASURING DEVICE

J. Bast and A. Kadauw

Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg Sa., Germany
A. Malaschkin
Georg Fischer AG Leipzig, Germany

Copyright 2009 American Foundry Society

Abstract

The quality of castings produced by green sand moulds
depends strongly on the compaction of the moulding sand.
The moulding process parameters of green sand directly
affect casting quality, energy consumption and cycle time.
Unnecessary holding periods during particular compaction
process steps increase the cycle time and also cause
higher energy consumption. The determination of optimal
compaction parameters is often carried out by trial-and-
error which is expensive and time consuming. To improve
this situation, the process of compaction is calculated using
a mathematical model and the finite element method (FEM).
For the validation of the calculated and experimental data
the computer tomography method was used. The effect
of different moulding parameters was examined using a
new sensor. During mould compaction the sand density
in different regions of the mould was recorded over time.
These results allow foundry personnel to monitor, adjust
and optimise the moulding process.
Keywords: green sand moulding, compaction, sensor,
numerical modelling, computer tomography.

Introduction
The quality of castings produced with clay-bonded sand
depends strongly on the compaction of the moulding sand.1,2,3
When the production of a new casting begins, foundry
personnel must make many decisions. Unfortunately,
despite a wealth of experience, the moulding technology is
often developed by the trial-and-error method. It requires a
lot of time and generates high costs. Moulding technology
problems that can be encountered are:
s ,IFTING OF DIFlCULT MOULD PARTS
s $ISTANCE BETWEEN THE PATTERNS AND BETWEEN THE
PATTERN AND THE mASK WALL
s 3ELECTION OF THE OPTIMAL MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES
s #HOOSING THE CORRECT mASK HEIGHT AND
s 3UFlCIENT MASS OF THE MOULDING SAND FOR THE
application.
The main question is: “Will the moulds or parts of moulds
be able to resist the different loads occurring during the
following operations: lifting the cods (upper half of sand
mound), rollover and transport of the mould, core setting,
ASSEMBLY OF MOULD MOULD lLLING AND SHRINKAGE DURING
SOLIDIlCATION AND COOLING OF THE CASTINGv )N ORDER TO PRODUCE
quality castings, the mould must meet all these technological
requirements.
Similar to the theory behind steel construction there are safety
criteria that must consider stresses and materials in mould
design. A mould is similar to other design components in that
it is necessary to follow certain design and safety criteria.
(1) (2)
-ECHANICAL %NGINEERING 3TEEL #ONSTRUCTION

Furthermore, modern moulding machines permit compaction where: σact = actual stress, σper = permissible stress, Sd =
of the moulding sand by different processes of compaction: design value of action, Rd = design value of resistance.
squeezing, air-flow-squeezing, impact, pre-impact or impact
in combination with squeezing. Again there are many In order to link the above mentioned parameters, it is
choices to make: NECESSARY TO DElNE THE MOULD AS A BUILDING BLOCK OF THE
CASTING AND TO PROVE THE USABILITY OF THE MOULD BY FULlLLING
s #ORRECT CHOICE OF PROCESSES OR PROCESS THE RELATIONSHIP ABOVE IE RATIO OF %QUATION  AND  IS
COMBINATIONS less than 1.
s %FFECTIVE COMPACTION TIME Figure 1 shows the connection between the resistance
s $IFFERENT PROCESS SEQUENCES of the mould independent of the mould density and

International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09 55

properties of moulding sand. If both of these parameters
are included in the moulding and pouring conditions as
well as the position of the patterns on the pattern plates,
it is possible to determine the forces which occur during
the usage of the mould. Taking into account the pattern
geometry we can estimate the strength for each part of the
mould. The comparison between strength and resistance
of the mould provides information on the usability of
the mould. In this way it is possible to assess the mould
quality before pouring.
Mathematical Modelling and Simulation
The optimisation and improvement of the compaction
process during moulding production requires knowledge
of the developing adhesive forces by contacts between
moulding sand, moulding box wall, and pattern wall
as well as developing cohesion force by the binder.
These forces affect the movement of the moulding sand
in the moulding box, particularly in the zones close to
THE PATTERN AND IN AREAS OF THE PATTERN THAT ARE DIFlCULT
TO lLL PATTERN BAGS  4HE COMPUTER SIMULATION OF THE
compaction process allows the influence of these forces
to be taken into consideration.2
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usability of a mould.
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ε ij = ε ij elas + ε ij plas (3)
Moulding sand shows a distinct non-linear behaviour
under stress. This non-linear stress-strain behaviour
can be modelled at various levels of sophistication,
where the number of model parameters increases
with increasing complexity. The well-known Mohr-
#OULOMB MODEL - # MODEL IN %QUATION  AND THE
$RUCKER 0RAGER MODEL CAN BE CONSIDERED AS A FIRST
ORDER APPROXIMATION OF THE REAL SOIL BEHAVIOUR IE
clay-bonded moulding sand. This elastoplastic model
requires five basic input parameters: Young’s modulus
% 0OISSONS RATIO υ, cohesion c, friction angle ij, and
dilatancy angle ψ.
c +σm tan ij – τ =0 
With shear stress τ, and mean stress σm
Moulds usually have a complicated geometry, generating
different degrees of compaction and hence different
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
density values. To determine the density of such areas,
the mould usually has to be destroyed, which influences
the values of the measured density. One way to obtain
precise data about the density distribution within a mould
is the use of industrial computer tomography (ICT). For
the determination of the relationship between the ICT
density and the real mould density several samples made
of quartz sand, bentonite, and water with a known density
(EIGHT   MM $IAMETER   MM WERE PRODUCED WITH
A  -0A PRESS STAMP FROM ABOVE 4HESE SAMPLES HAVE
small height to minimize external friction and to obtain an
even density distribution within the sample. The sample
disks were then analyzed through ICT to determine the
ICT density. The relationship between the ICT density
(ρct) and the real mould sand density (ρr) was determined
ACCORDING TO %QUATION  
ρr = 0.0002ρct - 0.1091 (5)
The reproducibility of ICT measurements was tested for
lVE SAMPLES WITH THE SAME AVERAGE DENSITY  GMM¨
at different levels within the sample. Results indicate that
this method produces a standard deviation smaller than
0.003 making it useful for this investigation.
A comparison of measured values from experiments
with the results from simulations requires knowledge of
the density distribution in the intact moulding because
destruction of the mould influences the values of the
measured density. This can be achieved using ICT to
obtain density data of real mould sand that has been
compacted.
Table 1. Real Density at Various Measuring Points
Figure 2. A mould box with pattern is shown.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
To compare the experimental results and to validate
simulation data a moulding box (100 mm x 70 mm x 80
mm) was manufactured with a pattern (Fig. 2) to produce
moulds.10 The density distribution changes due to different
pattern geometries within the mould, which also results in
a shift of the mould sand. To observe the shift of the mould
sand during the compaction a metallic powder (Co-powder
   GMM¨ WAS INCLUDED AS LAYERS IN THE MOULDING $UE
to the density difference between the metallic powder and
the mould sand the shift of the mould sand in the different
zones can be clearly distinguished (Fig. 3). The influences
of the outside friction between the moulding box wall and
the mould sand can also be observed by the small shift of the
layers at the edge of the moulding.
In the upper section a higher component density of the mould
SAND IS DETECTED WHICH INDICATES A HIGHER DENSITY &IG 
Table 1). This occurs because the flowing of the mould sand
is obstructed by the pattern, leading to an increase in density.
Within the lower part of the mould a lesser density is present.
Since the moulding box is not symmetrical, flowing of the
mould sand in the wider sections of the mould box is more
prominent than in narrow sections, leading to a different
DENSITY PROlLE IN THE LOWER SECTION OF THE MOULD
&%- SIMULATIONS OF THE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION WITH THE
pattern shown above were run to allow comparison of
theoretical assumptions of mould density and stress with
real measurements (Fig. 5). The boundary conditions of
simulation for this example are: moulding box (100 mm x 70
MM X  MM PRESSURE  -0A FROM ABOVE COHESION 
.MM£ INTERNAL FRICTION ANGLE  DILATANCY ANGLE  
Figure 3. An ICT cross-section of the mould box centre
shows vertical shift of the metallic powder layer.
57
 (a)

(b)
Figure 4. The ICT cross-section is shown in view (a) and after image processing of the
density distribution within the mould in view (b).

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Simulation of the stress distribution and density distribution for mould sand. View a) shows the density
distribution and view b) shows the vertical shift of the moulding particles.

58 International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09

New Measuring Devices
Figure 6 shows the newly developed sensors. The working
principle behind the sensor-process is described in a patent.11
4HE SENSOR 30 0 CAN BE USED ONLY IN THE PROCESSES OF
squeezing or blow-squeezing. The sensor is relatively small
AND CAN BE USED IN $ISAMATIC MACHINES 4HIS VERY COMPACT
sensor is shown in Fig. 6a, is 22 mm in diameter and 23
MM IN HEIGHT 3ENSOR ,0 ) HAS A MORE UNIVERSAL DESIGN
and can be also utilized with impact moulding and airflow-
squeezing in addition to squeezing and blow-squeezing. The
transducer can compensate for the action of the air pressure
ON THE SENSOR DURING AIRmOW OR IMPACT MOULDING 3ENSOR ,0
) HOWEVER IS SOMEWHAT LARGER THAN 30 0 )T IS  MM IN
diameter and 27 mm in height and is shown in Fig. 6b.
Figure 7 shows the installation of the sensor into the pattern
plate and the monitoring devices, special transducers were
developed for this purpose. They are integrated into the
pattern plate so that only the spherical sensor protrudes from
the surface of the plate. The force resulting from the moving
moulding sand during mould compaction is recorded using
the data acquisition system. The original sensor signal is
a) Sensor SP-P
Figure 6. Two newly developed measuring devices for
use in molding machines.
Figure 7. Scheme of the sensor installation into the pattern plate is shown.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
equivalent to the displacement of the spherical sensor during
compaction. Standard green sand specimens were taken from
production sand with a compactability of 38.8 % and used
for the measurements. The specimens were produced from
equal volumes of loose moulding sand. The compaction
PRESSURE WAS INCREASED FROM  TO  -0A IN INCREMENTS
OF  -0A ! LINEAR RELATIONSHIP EXISTS BETWEEN THE SENSOR
reading and the density of the specimen (Fig. 8).
Calibration
If different mould properties are to be measured with the new
method, the interactions between these properties and the
signal must be known. Thus, the sensor must be calibrated
to allow for these interactions. In order to calibrate the
sensor, test specimens of the particular moulding material
have to be produced. The sensor reading and the mould
properties are measured on these specimens. The scheme
of the calibration procedure is displayed in Fig. 9. The
collected data are processed using computer software. The
results are related to the particular moulding material and
a database is built. The transfer of data is made possible by
cable or a telemetric system.
b) Sensor LP-I
59
 Figure 8. Plot of sensor reading vs. mould density was created from the test data.

Figure 9. The scheme of the calibration sequence is illustrated.

60 International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09

The sensors can be used for different purposes in the foundry:
s /PTIMISATION OF THE MOULDING MACHINES FOR
obtaining a constant quality product,
s #ONTINUOUS MONITORING OF THE MOULD QUALITY FOR THE
CERTIlCATION
s )NVESTIGATION OF THE LIFTING PROCESS BETWEEN THE
pattern plate and flask,
s #ONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT OF THE MOULDING PROCESS
and quality assurance.
The validity of the calibration results obtained from the
standard specimen for real moulds was tested several times
during actual mould production by different moulding
processes. It was proven that the results from the specimen
could be applied to actual moulding processes. Figure 10
displays the measurements from one of these experiments.
0RODUCTION GREEN SAND WAS USED IN THE TESTING 3ENSORS
were calibrated accordingly before obtaining test data.
The sensors were installed on the pattern plate in various
LOCATIONS WITH VARYING DEGREES OF MOULDING DIFlCULTY 4HE
RATIO BETWEEN DEPTH AND WIDTH AT THE lRST LOCATION WAS 
VERY DIFlCULT WHILE THE RATIO AT THE SECOND LOCATION WAS
 MODERATELY DIFlCULT 
Measurements were taken at compactability values of 50%
and 30%. The compactability values were entered manually
into the data acquisition package. Moulds were produced using
the squeezing method. In order to double check the values
obtained by the sensors, the mould strength was also measured
manually at the same locations using a mould sand tester. The
data measured using both techniques were in good agreement.
Thus, the conclusion can be drawn, that the calibration
values obtained with a standard specimen can be utilized in a
Figure 10. The measurement of mould strength directly at the mould is
noted for different regions.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
production environment. Similar experiments were repeated
with equally good results for other mould making technologies.
Optimisation
Air-Flow-Squeezing Moulding Machine
For a moulding machine using a sequence of airflow and
squeezing the compaction parameters were optimised.
Mould compaction using airflow occurred with a storage
chamber pressure of 6 bar and the valve was opened for
0.6 seconds. Subsequently the mould was compacted by
SQUEEZING AT A PRESSURE OF  -0A
Figure 11 shows a measurement (red curve) of the
moulding sand’s density at one point on the pattern plate
using the default setting on the moulding machine. The
MEASUREMENT WAS TAKEN AT A LOCATION THAT IS RATHER DIFlCULT
to mould. The ratio between depth and width at this location
was approximately 2.5:1. This measurement reveals an
interesting phenomenon: Most of the compaction results
from the squeezing and not from the airflow. The short period
of compaction during airflow means that the moulding sand
was immediately compacted to a high degree. This resulted in
equilibrium between the forces acting on the sand grains and
the resistance of the moulding material against compaction
even before the pressure in the expansion chamber reached
its maximum. The airflow after closing the valve did not
cause any measurable compaction so the compaction by
squeezing dominates. Furthermore, it is reported, that the
squeezing started after 10 s (red curve). For increasing the
productivity the compaction started 1.5 s earlier (blue curve).
It is also possible to decrease the time after the compaction
by squeezing, so that the production time of a mould can be
decreased to 9 s, the quality of moulds remains unaffected.
61
 Figure 11. Optimisation of air-Àow and squeezing time during the
compaction is shown (time savings: 15 s per mould).

Figure 12. This illustration shows the experimental setup of the impact moulding machine.

Impact-Moulding-Machine The compaction of the moulding sand was carried out

The sensors were also used for the optimisation of impact
moulding technology. Figure 12 shows the scheme of
the experimental setup. Two symmetrically positioned
sensors, 1 and 2 on the symmetrical pattern plate, recorded
the forces resulting from the motion of the sand during
compaction. Measurements began with attaching the
compaction unit to the moulding envelope and lasted for 10
seconds resulting in a record of the whole cycle including
compaction and withdrawal. In addition to measuring the
density change, the air pressures in the storage chamber
and in the expansion chamber were also recorded.
by a sequence of pre-impact and a main air impact.
Figure 13 demonstrates the compaction of the moulding
sand and the gradients of air pressure in the expansion
chamber.
It is obvious, that the pre-impact gradient is not enough
for an effective compaction of moulding sand. The
intensive compaction is carried out only by the effect
of the main impact. For this reason, the technology of
compaction was changed. The pre-impact was switched
off and the compaction was achieved only by the main
IMPACT &IG  

62 International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09

 Figure 13. The measurement records at the compaction of moulding sand
by a sequence of air pre-impact and main impact are shown.

Figure 14. The measurement record of the compaction of moulding sand by main
impact only is detailed above.

After opening the valve, the pressure in the expansion
chamber increases rapidly, the pressure in the storage
chamber is reduced slightly until the pressures are equalised.
The moulding material is accelerated towards the pattern
plate and is subsequently compacted at the pattern surface.
)T CAN BE SEEN THAT THE ACTUAL COMPACTION IS lNISHED RAPIDLY
The oscillations of the pressure in the expansion chamber
and the density plots subside immediately after the impact.
These oscillations do not cause a change in the density
of the moulding material. It can be seen that they occur
simultaneously at both sensor locations. The mould quality
was not changed

International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09 63

Summary
With the previously described measuring devices foundry
PERSONNEL FOR THE lRST TIME HAD THE OPPORTUNITY TO MONITOR
the compaction of green sand during mouldmaking. This
makes it possible to precisely set the parameters of the
moulding machine for a particular casting. Optimising the
settings of the moulding equipment helps to lower energy
and material consumption, increase productivity and, as a
result, will lower production costs.
Acknowledgement
4HE AUTHORS THANK THE $EUTSCHE &ORSCHUNGSGEMEINSCHAFT
$&' AND !RBEITSGEMEINSCHAFT INDUSTRIELLER
Forschungsvereinigungen AiF, Otto von Guericke for
lNANCIAL SUPPORT
REFERENCES
 &LEMMING % 4ILCH 7 Formstoffe und
Formverfahren P  $EUTSCHER 6ERLAG FàR
'RUNDSTOFlNDUSTRIE  
2. Bast, J., Malaschkin, A., Kadauw, A., Gießerei 2005,
8, p. 23–27 (2005).
3. Tilch, W., Gießerei-Praxis 2004,     
64
4. Kadauw, A., Bast, J., Aydogmus, T., Statusbericht
des Instituts für Geotechnik der TU Bergakademie
FreibergS±  
 :HOU & .O  274( !ACHEN  P   
 %ULQNJUHYH53OD[LV%³3OD[LVFDWDORJXHYHUVLRQ
3DUW0DWHULDO0RGHOV0DQXDO´
1HWKHUODQGV  
 0DNLQR+0DHGD<1RPXUD+³&,$7)7HFKQLFDO
)RUXP'VVHOGRUI´S±  
 #UNDALL 0 ! h0ROCEEDINGS OF THE 3YMPOSIUM OF THE
)NTERNATIONAL 3OCIETY OF 2OCK -ECHANICS v &RANCE
 0APER ))   
9. Yifei, Z., Junjiao, W., Transactions of the American
Foundry Society 2003, 3, 1-4 (2003).
 +ADAUW ! "AST * &IEDLER $ "ETCHVAIA )
Saewert, H.C., “Computer Simulation of Squeeze
-OULDING AND 6ALIDATION OF 2ESULTS USING )NDUSTRIAL
#OMPUTER 4OMOGRAPHY  )#4 v Archives of
Metallurgy and Materials )33.   6OL 
 0OLEN  
 $)3! )NDUSTRIE !' "AST * AND -ALASCHKIN !NDREJ
“Sensor zur Messung der von der Sandbewegung
HERVORGERUFENEN +RAFT WÊHREND DER 6ERDICHTUNG
tongebundener Formstoffe bei der Herstellung von
Gießformen,v %UROPÊISCHES 0ATENTAMT 
!KTENZEICHEN   %0  
.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
Technical Review & Discussion
Optimising of Moulding Parameters for Green
Sand Compaction by Computer Simulation and a
New Compaction Measuring Device
J. Bast, A. Kadauw Technical University
Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg Sa., Germany; A.
Malaschkin, G. AG Leipzig, Germany
Reviewer: “Much of the data, related to the sand’s flow
characteristics and compaction, was previously shown in
A VIDEO PRODUCED BY THE (ILL  'RIFlTH #OMPANY 3AND
Movement and Compaction in Green Sand Molding)
APPROXIMATELY  YEARS AGO 4HE lNDINGS OF THE AUTHOR
SUBSTANTIATE THE PREVIOUS lNDINGS BUT THEY ARE NOT NEW TO
THE FOUNDRY INDUSTRYv
Authors: Here we do not want to show the same process
shown in a video recording around 30 years ago. In our
article we want to highlight the moulding particles within
the mould (center or anywhere within the mould) and
determine the density distribution without the interference
International Journal of Metalcasting/Spring 09
of the glass wall flask on the movement of moulding
particles and without destroying the mould. A new method
was used to investigate these processes - ICT with a high
capacity (440 kW); this method did not exist 30 years ago.
We used this method to compare numerical simulation
results with experimental values (density distribution
and movement of moulding particles within the mould).
In addition, the computer simulations of such processes
(moulding compaction) are also new and did not occur in
the European literatures until about 15 years ago..
Reviewer: In the evaluation of the mold density (reporting
the data in Table 1), it appears that the author has placed
 SENSORS ON THE WALL OF A mASK )F IT REQUIRED  SENSORS
on one wall of the flask, would that indicate that it would
REQUIRE  ADDITIONAL SENSORS ON THE OPPOSITE mASK WALL AND
AN UNDISCLOSED NUMBER ON THE OTHER TWO WALLS )T WOULD
appear that the ideal area to place the sensors would be on
the pattern’s surface, then the density.
Authors: The measurements within the form were made
using ICT, not by using sensors.
65