Chapter 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS ‘Thermodynamics and Energy 1-1€ Classical thermodynamics is based on experimental observations whereas statistical thermodynamics is based on the average behavior of large groups of particles. 1-2C On a downhill road the potential energy of the bicyclist is being converted to kinetic energy, thus the bicyclist picks up speed. There is no creation of energy, and thus no violation of the conservation of energy principle. 1-3C There is no truth to his claim, It violates the second law of thermodynamics. 1-4C Water has zero calories, just like a diet drink, and there is no calorie intake associated with drinking ‘water. No one will gain weight by drinking water. Therefore, the claim is false. Mass, Force, and Acceleration 1-5C. Pound-mass is the mass unit in English system whereas pound-force is the force unit. One pound- force is the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 Ibm by 1 fis’. 1-6C There is no acceleration, thus the net force is zero in both cases. 1-7 A plastic tank is filled with water. The weight of the combined system is to be determined. Assumptions The density of water is constant throughout Properties The density of water is given to be p = 1000 kg/m’. Mea KO Analysis ‘The mass of the water in the tank and the total mass are = p¥ = (1000 kg/m*)(0.2 m*) = 200 kg 203 kg Dy + My = 200+: ‘Thus, IN W = mg = (203 kg)(9.807 m/s?) ———, Tkg-m/s 1-8 The interior dimensions of a room are given. ‘The mass and weight of the air in the room are to be determined. Assumptions The density of air is constant throughout the room. Properties ‘The density of air is given to be p= 1.6 kg/m’. Analysis The mass of the air in the room is m= p¥ =(1.16kg/m')(6x6%8 m*) = 334.1 kg Thus, W = mg = (634.1 kgy(9.807 m/2| —N___) - 3277 Tkg:m/s*1-9 The variation of gravitational acceleration above the sea level is given as a function of altitude. The height at which the weight of a body will decrease by 1% is to be determined. Analysis. ‘The weight of a body at the elevation z can be expressed as W = mg = m(9807 332 x10-*2) In our case, W =099W, = 099mg, = 0.99(m)(9.807) Substituting, 0.999.807) = (9.807-3.32x10~z) —> 9,539 m 1-10E. An astronaut took his scales with him to space. It is to be determined how much he will weigh on the spring and beam scales in space. Analysis (a) A spring scale measures weight, which is the local gravitational force applied on a body: Lbf W = mg =(150 Ibm)(5.48 ft/s?) ————__ meek x lean ft/s* ) ass (b) A beam scale compares masses and thus is not affected by the variations in gravitational acceleration. The beam scale will read what it reads on earth, W =150 Ibe 1-11. The acceleration of an aircraft is given in g's. The net upward force acting, on a man in the airerait is to be determined, Analysis From the Newton's second law, the force applied is IN F=ma= m(6g) = (90 kg)(6 x 9.8 m/s” } ———_ I kg-m/s1-12 A rock is thrown upward with a specified force. The acceleration of the rock is to be determined. Analysis The weight of the rock is IN __\_ago5n kg-m/s? W=mg=(5 r@o70m/e( NS Then the net force that acts on the rock is Bei = Fy ~ Fipyy = 130 -48.95 = 101.05 N net = Fay From the Newton's second law, the acceleration of the rock becomes F_1OLOSN( 1 kg-m/s? m— Skg IN J-mam/s 1-13 Gravitational acceleration g and thus the weight of bodies decreases with increasing elevation. The percent reduction in the weight of an airplane cruising at 13,000 m is to be determined. Properties The gravitational acceleration g is given to be 9.807 m/s* at sea level and 9.4175 m/s* at an altitude of 13,000 m Analysis Weigh is proportional to the gravitational acceleration g, and thus the percent reduction in weight is equivalent to the percent reduction in the gravitational acceleration, which is determined from %Reduction in weight = %Reduction in g = 28100 = es 100= 4.0% & Therefore, the airplane and the people in it will weight 4.0% less at 13,000 m altitude, Note: There is a typo in the problem statement. The gravity at 13,000 m altitude is 9.767, not 9.4175 mis*, Will be corrected in the next edition.Systems, Forms of Energy, State, Properties 1-14C As an open system since mass is crossing the boundaries of the system. 1-15C Asa closed system since no mass is crossing the boundaries of the system. 1-16C In electric heaters, electrical energy is converted to sensible internal energy. 1-17€ The forms of energy involved are electrical energy and sensible internal energy. Electrical energy is converted to sensible internal energy, which is transferred to the water. 1-18C The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame. The microscopic forms of energy, on the other hand, are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and are independent of outside reference frames. 1-19 The sum of all forms of the energy a system possesses is called total energy. In the absence of magnetic, electrical and surface tension effects, the total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies. 1-20C The intemal energy of a system is made up of sensible, latent, chemical and nuclear energies. The sensible internal energy is due to translational, rotational, and vibrational effects. 1-21C Thermal energy is the sensible and latent forms of internal energy, and it is referred to as heat in daily life. 1-22C Intensive properties do not depend on the size (extent) of the system but extensive properties do. 1-23C For a system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, the temperature has to be the same throughout but the pressure does not. However, there should be no unbalanced pressure forces present. The increasing pressure with depth in a fluid, for example, should be balanced by increasing weight. 1-24C A process during which a system remains almost in equilibrium at all times is called a quasi- equilibrium process. Many engineering processes can be approximated as being quasi-equilibrium. ‘The work output of a device is maximum and the work input to a device is minimum when quasi-equilibrium processes are used instead of nonquasi-equilibrium processes. 1-25C A process during which the temperature remains constant is called isothermal; a process during which the pressure remains constant is called isobaric; and a process during which the volume remains constant is called isochoric, 1-26C. The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties. 1-27C Yes, because temperature and pressure are two independent properties and the air in an isolated room is a simple compressible system.1-28 A 1000-MW power plant is powered by nuclear fuel, The amount of nuclear fuel consumed per year is to be determined Assumptions 1 The power plant operates continuously. 2 The conversion efficiency of the power plant remains constant, 3 The nuclear fuel is uranium. Properties The complete fission of 1 kg of uranium-235 releases 6.73x10"” ki/kg of heat (given in the text). Analysis Noting that the conversion efficiency is 30%, the amount of chemical energy consumed by the power plant is Energy consumption rate = Power productiowE ficiency = (1000 MWy0.3 = 3333 MW =3.333x10° ki/s Annual energy consumption = ( Energy consumtion rate)(I year) = (8.333 «10° kl/s\(365%24 x 3600 s/year) =1,051x10"* ki/year Noting that the complete fission of uranium-235 releases 6.7310" ky/kg of heat, the amount of uranium that needs to be supplied to the power plant per year is Annual energy consumption Heating value of fuel 6.7310) = 1562 kgiyear 1,051x10" kI/year ° kiike, Annual fuel consumption ‘Therefore, this power plant will consume about one and a half tons of nuclear fuel per year. 1-29 A 1000-MW power plant is powered by burning coal. The amount of coal consumed per year is to be determined Assumptions 1 The power plant operates continuously. 2 The conversion efficiency of the power plant remains constant Properties The heating value of the coal is 28,000 ki/ke. (given). Analysis Noting that the conversion efficiency is 30%, the amount of chemical energy consumed by the power plant is Energy consumption rate = Power production/E ficiency = (1000 MWy/0.3 = 3333 MW =3.333x10° kis Annual energy consumption = (Energy consumtion rate)(1 year) 3.333%10° kM/'s)(365x 243600 s/year) 51x10" ki/year ‘Noting that the heating value of the coal is 28,000 kivkg, the amount of coal that needs to be supplied to the power plant per year is Annual energy consumption _ 1.05110" kJ/year Heating valueof fuel ——=—-28,000ki/ke. =3.754x10" ke/year = 3,754,000 tons/year Annual fuel consumption = Therefore, this power plant will consume almost 4 millions tons of coal per year.1-30 A power plant that bums natural gas produces 0.59 kg, of carbon dioxide CO, per kWh. The amount of CO, production that is due to the refrigerators in a city is to be determined. Assumptions ‘The city uses electricity produced by a natural gas power plant. Properties (1.59 kg, of CO, is produced per kWh of electricity generated (given). Analysis Noting that there are 200,000 households in the city and each household consumes 700 kWh of clectricity for refrigeration, the total amount of CO, produced is determined to be Amount of CO} produced = (Amount of electricity consumed)(Amount of CO. per kWh) = (200,000 household)(700 kWh/household)(0.59 kg/kWh) =826x10" CO, kg/year = 82,600 CO, ton/year Therefore, the refrigerators in this city are responsible for the production of 82,600 tons of CO;, 1-31 A power plant that bums coal, produces 1.1 kg of carbon dioxide CO, per kWh. The amount of CO, production that is due to the refrigerators in a city is to be determined Assumptions: The city uses electricity produced by a coal power plant, Properties 1.1 kg of CO; is produced per kWh of electricity generated (given). Analysis Noting that there are 200,000 households in the city and each household consumes 700 kWh of electricity for refrigeration, the total amount of CO, produced is determined to be ‘Amount of CO» produced = (Amount of electricity consumed)(Amount of CO per kWh) (200,000 household)(700 k Wh/household)(1.1kg/kWh) 154x107 CO, kg/year = 154,000 CO, ton/year ‘Therefore, the refrigerators in this city are responsible for the production of 154,000 tons of CO,.1-32E A household uses fuel oil for heating and electricity for other energy needs. Now the household reduces its energy use by 20%. The reduction in the CO, production this household is responsible for is to be determined, Properties The amount of CO, produced is 1.54 Tom per kWh and 26.4 Ibm per gallon of fuel oil (given). Analysis Noting, that this household consumes 8000 kWh of electricity and 1500 gallons of fuel oil per year, the amount of CO, production this household is responsible for is Amount of CO, produced = (Amount of electricity consumed)(Amount of CO, per kWh) +(Amount of fuel oil consumed)(Amount of CO, per gallon) = (8000 kWh/yr)(1.54 Ibmv/kWh) + (1500 gal/yr)(264 Tbm/gal) 1,920 CO, kglyear Then reducing the electricity and fuel oil usage by 20% will reduce the annual amount of CO, production by this household by 20)(Current amount of CO production) = (0.20)(51,920 CO, kg/yenr) 0,384 CO, kg/year Reduction in CO, produced ‘Therefore, any measure that saves energy also reduces the amount of pollution emitted to the environment. 1-33 A household has 2 cars, a natural gas furnace for heating, and uses electricity for other energy needs. The annual amount of NO, emission to the atmosphere this household is responsible for is to be determined. Properties The amount of NO, produced is 7.1 g per kWh, 4.3 g per therm of natural gas, and 11 kg per car (given). Analysis Noting, that this household has 2 cars, consumes 1200 therms of natural gas, and 9,000 kWh of electricity per year, the amount of NO, production this household is responsible for is Amount of NO, produced = (No. of cars)(Amount of NO, produced per car) + (Amount of electricity consumed)(Amount of NO, per kWh) + (Amount of gas consumed)(Amount of NO, per gallon) = (2cars)(1 1 kg/ear) + (9000 kWh/yr)(0.007 1 kg/kWh) + (1200 therms/yr)(0.0043 kg/therm) =91.06 NO, kg/year Discussion Any measure that saves energy will also reduce the amount of pollution emitted to the atmospherePressure 1-34C. The pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure is called the gage pressure, and the pressure relative to an absolute vacuum is called absolute pressure. 1-35C. The atmospheric air pressure which is the external pressure exerted on the skin decreases with increasing elevation. Therefore, the pressure is lower at higher elevations. As a result, the difference between the blood pressure in the veins and the air pressure outside increases. This pressure imbalance ‘may cause some thin-walled veins such as the ones in the nose to burst, causing bleeding. ‘The shoriness of breath is caused by the lower air density at higher elevations, and thus lower amount of oxygen per unit volume. 1-36 ‘The vacuum pressure reading of a tank is given. The absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined. Properties The density of mercury is given to be p ~ 13,590 kg/m’, Analysis The atmospheric (or barometric) pressure can be expressed as a ‘30kPa ‘ab Pam = PBA = (13,590 kg /:m*)(9.807 m /s?)(0.775 m) a Ikg-m/s =103.3kPa ‘Then the absolute pressure in the tank becomes Pyrg = Pam ~ Prac = 103.3-30 = 733 kPa ahs = Fam ~ Pra 1-37E A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 50 psi, The absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined. © Properties The density of mercury is given to be p = 848.4 Tbm/f?. Pap | S0psia Analysis The atmospheric (or barometric) pressure can be expressed as Fam = PBR Tbe La? = (84 3 2 s ——_—— (848.4 Ibm /£3)(32. rene 8 te s | | = 14.29 psia Then the absolute pressure in the tank is Pray = Page * aage + Pam = 50-+14.29 = 64.29 psi1-38 A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 500 kPa. The absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined Analysis The absolute pressure in the tank is determined from Pag = Paags + Pom = 500+94 = 594 KPa 1-39 A mountain hiker records the barometric reading before and after a hiking trip. The vertical distance climbed is to be determined. Assumptions: The variation of air density and the gravitational acceleration with altitude is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be p = 1,18 kg/m’. 780 Analysis Taking an air column between the top and the bottom of the mountain and writing a force balance per unit base area, we obtain Wap! A= Paton ~ Pry (28! a = Patan = Pap IN lbar 1.20 ke / m3)(9. /s?)(h)) ———— | ——_—___|_ — 0," CLatiks ero Ie lms lz (0:950—0:780) bar Ityields h= 1289 m which is also the distance climbed, 1-40 A barometer is used to measure the height of'a building by recording reading at the bottom and at the top of the building. The height of the building is to be determined Assumptions The variation of air density with altitude is negligible. Pg = 730 ming Properties The density of air is given to be p = 1.18 kg/m’. Analysis Atmospheric pressures at the top and at the bottom of the building are Foon = (PEM op he? = (13,600 kg/ m3)(9.807 m /s?}(0.730 m} a i Tkg-m/s? | 1000 N/m =97.36 kPa Foro = Pru = 755 mmbig PRAYrox0m IN LkPe 13,600 kg / m°)(9.807 m/s? )(0.755 og ait) = 100.70 kPa RNS " ‘Taking an air column between the top and the bottom of the bi base area, we obtain g and writing a force balance per unit Wain! A= Fronom ~ Bap (28h) aie = Pronaa ~ Prop IN 1kPa 3y9, hy) —1N__ J _1kPa_} _ 100.7097: (118 kg/m3X9.807 m/: vol ali GaN :} (100.70 -97.36) kPa Ityields h=288.6 m which is also the height of the building.1-41 A diver is moving at a specified depth from the water surface. The pressure exerted on the surface of the diver by water is to be determined. Assumptions ‘The variation of the density of water with depth is negligible, Properties The specific gravity of sea water is given to be p= 1.03. The density of water is 1000 kg/m? (Table A-3). ‘Analysis ‘The density of the sea water is obtained by multiplying its specifie gravity by the density of water which is taken to be 1000 kg/m’: P= (2 XPrio) = (1.03)(1000 ke! m?) = 1030 kg / ® ‘The pressure exerted on a diver at 30 m below the free surface of the sea is the absolute pressure at that location: P= Pam + PRM 101 kPa) + (1030 ke/m}(9.807 m/s2)(30 my —EAPA_ 1000 N/m? = 404.0 kPa 1-428 A submarine is cruising at a specified depth from the water surface. The pressure exerted on the surface of the submarine by water is to be determined, Assumptions The variation of the density of water with depth is negligible. Properties The specific gravity of sea water is given to be p, = 1.03. The density of water is 62.4 Tbu/ft (Table A-3E). Analysis The density of the sea water is obtained by multiplying its speeifie gravity by the density of water which is taken to be 62.4 Ibm/f” (= (PMPp,0) = (1.03)(62.4 Ibm / #3) = 64.27 Tom ft The pressure exerted on the surface of the submarine cruising 300 ft below the free surface of the sea is the absolute pressure at that location: P= Pa + PBA Libe Lf? =(147 4.27 Tom / #5)(32.174 fR/ 29300 9] —— | (UAT pata) + 64.27 Thin AYS2. LTA RE oa ae =] = 148.6 psia 1-43 A gas contained in a vertical piston-cylinder device is pressurized by a spring and by the weight of the piston. The pressure of the gas is to be determined. Analysis Drawing the free body diagram of the piston and balancing the vertical forees yield = Py AW + Paring ‘Thus, E ering a Qn misi}= bh PS (a) For mercury, 2 _80KPa (1000 ke ms? 6 Gon Pig (13600 kg/ m3(9, 807 m/s?) 1kPa (b) For water, P, ag? - = 1000 kg /m-s? 816m Puo& (000ka/m\(9.807 m/s) TKPa 4S The gas pressure in a tank is measured by an oil manometer. For a given oil-level difference between the two columns, the absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined. Properties The density of oil is given to be p = 850 kg/m’, Analysis The absolute pressure in the tank is determined from P= Pg + PBK = (98 kPa) + (850 kg /m*)(9.807m /s*}(0.4Sm)} ai 1000 N/m = 101.75 kPa 1-46 The air pressure in a duct is measured by a mercury manometer. For a given mercury-level difference between the two columns, tie absolute pressure in the duct is to be determined. Properties The density of mercury is given to be p = 13,600 kg/m’. Analysis (a) The pressure in the duct is above atmospheric pressure AIR. since the fluid column on the duct side is at a lower level (b) The absolute pressure in the duct is determined from pe P= Py + ph rea +(13,600 kg / m?)(9.807 m/s?)(0.015m —!N___LkPa__ a Tkg-m/s }\ 1000 N/m | = 102.0 kPaTemperature 1-47C The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading, even if they are not in contact. 1-48C They are Celsius(°C) and Kelvin (K) in the SI, and Fahrenheit (°F) and Rankine (R) in the English system, 1-49C Probably, but not necessarily. ‘The operation of these two thermometers is based on the thermal expansion of a fluid. If the thermal expansion coefficients of both fluids vary linearly with temperature, then both fluids will expand at the same rate with temperature, and both thermometers will always give identical readings. Otherwise, the two readings may deviate. 1-50 A temperature is given in °C. It is to be expressed in K, Analysis The Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale by TKK) = 1(°C) +273 Thus, TK) =37°C +273 = 310K 1-51E_A temperature is given in °C. It is to be expressed in °F, K, and R. Analysis Using the conversion relations between the various temperature scales, TK) = TEC) +273 = 18°C +273 = 291 K TCE) = 187°C) + 32 = (1.818) + 32 = 64.4°F T{R) = TPF) + 460 = 64.4 + 460 = 524.4R 1-52 A temperature change is given in °C. It is to be expressed in K. Analysis This problem deals with temperature changes, which are identical in Kelvin and Celsius scales. Thus, ATK) = AT(PC) = 30K1-53E A temperature change is given in °F. Itis to be expressed in °C, K, and R. Analysis This problem deals with temperature changes, which are identical in Rankine and Fahrenheit scales, Thus, ATR) = ATCF) =27 R ‘The temperature changes in Celsius and Kelvin scales are also identical, and are related to the changes in Fahrenheit and Rankine scales by AT(K) = ATIRY1.8 =27/1.8 = 15K and ATCC) = AT(K) = 15°C 1-54 Two systems having different temperatures and energy contents are brought in contact. The direction of heat transfer is to be determined. Analysis Heat transfer occurs from warmer to cooler objects. Therefore, heat will be transferred from system B to system A until both systems reach the same temperature Biological Systems 1-5SC Metabolism refers to the chemical activity in the cells associated with the burning of foods. The basal metabolic rate is the metabolism rate of a resting person, which is 84 W for an average man. 1-56C The energy released during metabolism in humans is used to maintain the body temperature at 37°C. 1-57C The food we eat is not entirely metabolized in the human body. The fraction of metabolizable energy contents are 95,5% for carbohydrates, 77.5% for proteins, and 97.7% for fats. Therefore, the metabolizable energy content of a food is not the same as the energy released when it is burned in a bomb. calorimeter. 1-88C Yes, Each body rejects the heat generated during metabolism, and thus serves as a heat source. For an average adult male it ranges from 84 W at rest to over 1000 W during heavy physical activity. Classrooms are designed for a large number of occupants, and thus the total heat dissipated by the ‘occupants must be considered in the design of heating and cooling systems of classrooms, 1-59C 1 kg of natural fat contains almost 8 times the metabolizable energy of | kg of natural carbohydrates. ‘Therefore, a person who fills his stomach with carbohydrates will satisfy his hunger without consuming too many calories. 1-60 Six people are fast dancing in a room, and there is a resistance heater in another identical room. The room that will heat up faster is to be determined, Assumptions 1 The rooms are identical in every other aspect, 2 Half of the heat dissipated by people are in sensible form. 3 The people are of average size. Properties An average fast dancing person dissipates 600 Cal/h of energy (sensible and latent) (Table 1-4), Analysis. Three couples will dissipate E= (6 persons)(600 Cal/h.person)(4.1868 kI/Cal) =15,072 ki/h = 4190 W of energy. (About half of this is sensible heat). Therefore, the room with the people dancing will warm up much faster than the room with a 2-kW resistance heater.1-61 Two men are identical except one jogs for 30 min while the other watches TV. The weight difference between these two people in one month is to be determined. Assumptions The two people have identical metabolism rates, and are identical in every other aspect. Properties An average 68-kg person consumes 540 Cal/h while jogging, and 72. Cal/h while watching TV (Table 1-4). Analysis: Au 80-kg, person who jogs 0.5 h a day will have jogged a total of 15 ha month, and will consume 4.1868 kI 80 ke, consumed = [(S40—72) Cal /h](15 h)} = 34,578 k) AB consumed =U 1) Cal /h]C| ( TCal ee} more calories than the person watching TV. The metabolizable energy content of | kg of fat is 33,100 kJ ‘Therefore, the weight difference between these two people in 1-month will be AE, seas 34,578 kI Energy content of fat 33,100 KI /kg Ant gg = 045 kg 1-62. A classroom has 30 students, each dissipating 100 W of sensible heat, It is to be determined if it is necessary to tur the heater on in the room to avoid cooling of the room. Properties Each person is said to be losing sensible heat to the room air at a rate of 100 W. Analysis We take the room is losing heat to the outdoors at a rate of Qrose = (20,000 KI ra(sa8) =5.56kW 8 The rate of sensible heat gain from the students is eon: = (100 W / student)(30 students) = 3000 W = 3 kW which is less than the rate of heat loss from the room. Therefore, it is necessary to turn the heater on to prevent the room temperature from dropping. 1-63 A bicycling woman is to meet her entire energy needs by eating 30-2 candy bars. The number of candy bars she needs to eat to bicycle for I-h is to be determined. Assumptions The woman meets her entire calorie needs from candy bars while bicycling, Properties An average 68-kg person consumes 639 Cal/h while bicycling, and the energy content of a 20-g candy bar is 105 Cal (Tables 1-3 and 1-4). Analysis Noting that @ 20-g candy bar contains 105 Calories of metabolizable energy, a 30-g candy bar will contain 30g Ezaniy = (105 Cal) = aay = (| (3! of energy. Ifthis woman is to meet her entire energy needs by eating 30-g candy bars, she will need to eat -ts1sca 639 Cal/h 157.5 Cal ay =4 candy bars/h1-64 A 55-kg man eats I-L of ice cream. The length of time this man needs to jog to burn off these calories is to be determined. Assumptions The man meets his entire calorie needs from the ice cream while jogging. Properties An average 68-kg, person consumes 540 Cal/n while jogging, and the energy content of a 100- ml of ice cream is 110 Cal (Tables 1-3 and 1-4). Analysis ‘The rate of energy consumption of a 35-kg person while jogging is 540 Cal/ h)| 228.) 437 cal /h 68 kg Noting that a 100-ml serving of ice cream has 110 Cal of metabolizable energy, a |-liter box of ioe cream will have 1100 Calories, Therefore, it will take é conse = ( r= 1i00Cal_ 9 sy 437 Cal/h of jogging to burn off the calories from the ice cream, 1-65 A man with 20-kg of bady fat goes on a hunger strike. The number of days this man can survive on the body fat alone is to be determined. ‘Assumptions 1 The person is an average male who remains in resting position at all times. 2 The man meets his entire calorie needs from the body fat alone. Properties The metabolizable energy content of fat is 33,100 Cal/kg. An average resting person burns calories at a rate of 72 Cal/h (Table 1-4). Analysis The metabolizable energy content of 20 kg of body fat is Egy = (33,100 kJ / kg)(20 kg) = 662,000 kJ ‘The person will consume 4.1868 kl &, Cal sence = (72.Cal/ h)(24 wf } = 7235 kJ / day ‘Therefore, this person can survive = 862,000 ks 7235 kI/ day on his body fat alone. This result is not surprising since people are known to survive over 100 days without any food intake, = 91.5 days1-66 Two 50-kg women are identical except one eats her baked potato with 4 teaspoons of butter while the other eats hers plain every evening, The weight difference between these two woman in one year is to be determined. Assumptions 1 These two people have identical metabolism rates, and are identical in every other aspect. 2 All the calories from the butter are converted to body fat, Properties The metabolizable energy content of | kg of body fat is 33,100 kJ. The metabolizable energy content of | teaspoon of butter is 35 Calories (Table 1-3). Analysis A person who eats 4 teaspoons of butter a day will consume &, consumed = (35 Cal/ teaspoon)(4 teaspoons/ aay( S582) =51,100 Cal year year Therefore, the woman who eats her potato with butter will gain 51,100 Cal (oes kJ mu = 331007 ke\ 1 Cal of additional body fat that year. } 6.5 kg 1-67 A woman switches from I-L of regular cola a day to diet cola and 2 slices of apple pie. It is to be determined if she is now consuming more or less calories. Properties The metabolizable energy contents are 300 Cal for a slice of apple pie, 87 Cal for a 200-ml regular cola, and 0 for the diet drink (Table 1-3). Analysis The energy contents of 2 slices of apple pie and 1-L of cola are B pie =2 x (300 Cal) = 600 Cal =S «(87 Cal) =435Cal Ecoia ‘Therefore, the woman is now consuming more calories.1-68 A man switches from an apple a day to 200-ml of ice cream and 20-min walk every day. The amount of weight the person will gain or lose with the new diet is to be determined. Assumptions All the extra calories are converted to body fat. Properties The metabolizable energy contents are 70 Cal for aan apple and 220 Cal for a 200-ml serving of ice cream (Table 1-3). An average 68-kg man consumes 432 Cal/h while walking (Table 1-4). The metabolizable energy content of | kg of body fat is 33,100 kJ. Analysis The person who switches from the apple to ice cream increases his calorie intake by E ena =220= 10 = 150 Cal The amount of energy a 60-kg person uses during a 20-min walk is =432.ca/920 min Lb \S8)-27 0 E, 60 min 68 ke ‘consumed ‘Therefore, the man now has a net gain of 150 - 127 = 23 Cal per day, which corresponds to 23x30 = 690 Cal per month, Therefore, the man will gain 690 Cal m= 4.1868 kI ‘tnt 33,100 kI/ kg 1Cal } = 0.087 kg of body fat per month with the new diet. (Without the exercise the man would gain 0.569 kg per month). 1-69 The average body temperature of the human body rises by 2°C during strenuous exercise. The increase in the thermal energy content of the body as a resullt is to be determined. Properties The average specific heat of the human body is given to be 3.6 ki/kg.°C. Analysis The change in the sensible internal energy of the body is AU = mCAT = (80 kg)(3.6 kI/kg?C)(2°C) = 576 kI as a result of body temperature rising 2°C during strenuous exercise.1-70 An average American adult switches from drinking alcoholic beverages to drinking diet soda. The amount of weight the person will lose per year as a result of this switch is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The diet and exercise habits of the person remain the same other than switching from alcoholic beverages to diet drinks. 2 All the excess calories from alcohol is converted to body fat. Properties The metabolizable energy content of body fat is 33,100 Cal/kg (text). Analysis when the person switches to diet drinks, he will consume 210 fewer Calories a day. Then the annual reduction in the calories consumed by the person becomes Reduction in energy intake: Eyeaycay = (210 Cal /day)(365 days /year) = 76,650 Cal /year Therefore, assuming all the calories from the alcohol would be converted to body fat, the person who switches to diet drinks will lose Reduction in energy intake _ Eystuces _ 76,650 Cal/yr Reduétion in weight = °°" S SREY Ea Enegy content of fat Cig 33,100 KI kg Ase, 2) 9.70 kg lyr 1Cal or about 21 pounds of body fat that year. 1-71 A person drinks a 12-07 beer, and then exercises on a treadmill. ‘The time it will take to burn the calories from a 12-oz can of regular and light beer are to be determined, Assumptions The drinks are completely metabolized by the body. Properties The metabolizable energy contents of regular and light beer are 150 and 100 Cal, respectively. Exercising on a treadmill burns calories at an average rate of 700 Cal/h (given). Analysis The exercising time it will take to bum off beer calories is determined directly from 100 Cal Regular beer: Abo = = 0.143 1 = 8.6 mi (a) Regular beer: regular beet 99 Cal/h ‘nit 150 Cal Regular beer: An = = 0.214 h= 12.9 mi (6) Regular beer: nde 00 exe min1-72 A person has an alcoholic drink, and then exercises on a cross-country ski machine. The time it will take to burn the calories is to be determined for the cases of drinking a bloody mary and a martini. Assumptions The drinks are completely metabolized by the body. Properties The metabolizable energy contents of bloody mary and martini are 116 and 156 Cal, respectively. Exercising on a cross-country ski machine burns calories at an average rate of 600 Cal/h (given). Analysis The exercising time it will take to burn off beer calories is determined directly from (a) Bloody mary: Atiiccty itary = A 93 h=11.6 min 156 Cal (6) Martini: AL, ——— pvt martin 00 Cal/h 0.26 h = 15.6 min 1-73 A man and a woman have lunch at Burger King, and then shovel snow. The shoveling time it take to burn off the lunch calories is to be determined for both. Assumptions The food intake during lunch is completely metabolized by the body. Properties The metabolizable energy contents of different foods are as given in the problem statement. Shoveling snow burns calories at arate of 360 Cal/h for the woman and 480 Cal/h for the man (given). Analysis The total calories consumed during lunch and the time it will take to burn them are determined for both the man and woman as follows: Man: Lunch calories = 720+400+225 = 1345 Cal, 1345 Cal Shoveling time: Afy.oyeling, man = poe = 2.80 meme se 480 Cal/h Woman: Lunch calories = 330+400+0 = 730 Cal. -_ 730 Cal Shoveling time: Afjovcing, woman S=2.03h 360 Cal/h1-74 Two friends have identical metabolic rates and lead identical lives, except they have different lunches. ‘The weight difference between these two friends in a year is to be determined, Assumptions 1 The diet and exercise habits of the people remain the same other than the lunch menus. 2 All the excess calories from the lunch are converted to body fat. Properties The metabolizable energy content of body fat is 33,100 Cal/kg (text). The metabolizable energy contents of different foods are given in problem statement. ‘Analysis. ‘The person who has the double whopper sandwich consumes 1600 — 800 = $00 Cal more every day. The difference in calories consumed per year becomes Calorie consumption difference = (800 Cal/day)(365 days'yeat) = 292,000 Cal'year Therefore, assuming all the excess calories to be converted to body fat, the weight difference ‘between the two persons after 1 year will be Weight difference = Calorie intake difference _ Aipuixe _ 292,000 Cal / yr (4.1868 kJ = A oe = APSE A |= 36.9 keg ye Enegy content of fat eq «33,100 /kg (Cal or about 80 pounds of body fat per year 1-75E A person eats dinner at a fast-food restaurant. The time it will take for this person to bum off the dinner calories by climbing stairs is to be determined. ‘Assumptions ‘The food intake from dinner is completely metabolized by the body Properties The metabolizable energy contents are 270 Cal for regular roast beef, 410 Cal for big roast beef, and 150 Cal for the drink, Climbing stairs burns calories at a rate of 400 Cal/h (given). Analysis ‘The total calories consumed during dinner and the time it will take to burn them by climbing stairs are determined to be Dinner calories = 270+410+150 = 830 Cal. 830Cal__ 5 og Stair climbing time: 4¢=—————_= 2, ir climbing time: Gk 4-76 Three people have different lunches. The person who consumed the most calories from lunch is to be determined Properties ‘The metabolizable energy contents of different foods are 530 Cal for the Big Mac, 640 Cal for the whopper, 350 Cal for french fries, and 5 for each olive (given). Analysis The total calories consumed by each person during lunch are: Person 1: Lunch calories = 530 Cal Person Lunch calories = 640 Cal Person 3: Lunch calories = 350+5xS0 = 600 Cal Therefore, the person with the Whopper will consume the most calories.Review Problems 1-77 A helium balloon tied to the ground carries 2 people. The acceleration of the balloon when it is first released is to be determined. Assumptions The weight of the cage and the ropes of the balloon is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be p = 1.16 kg/m’, The density of helium gas is 1/7th of this, Analysis The buoyancy force acting on the balloon is Voattoon = 473 13-= 42(5 m)3/3 = 523.6 m3 Fin = Peir&¥ratioon = (1.16 kg/m)(9.807 m/s?)(523.6 ms The total mass is 1.16 Me = Pre =|S* kg/m? (523.6 m!) = 86.8 ke Monat = Mfe + Mpeapte = 86.842 X70 = 226.8 kg The total weight is 2224.2 IN We= = (226.8 kg)(9.807 m /s?)} ———__ Mt = 226.8 keg)(9.807 m Ze He, Thus the net force acting on the balloon is Fes = Fy —W = 5986.5 — 2224.2 = 3732.3N Then the acceleration becomes Ft _ 3732.2.N(1kg-m/s? Mt 226.82 (IN1-78 A balloon is filled with helium gas. The maximum amount of load the balloon can carry is to be determined. Assumptions ‘The weight of the cage and the ropes of the balloon is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be p= 1.16 kgm’. The density of helium gas is 1/7th ofthis. ‘Analysis in the limiting case, the net force acting on the balloon will be zero. That is, the buoyancy foree and the weight will balance each ather: W=mg= Fy wn, fa 59565 a7 akg ‘el "@ 9.80Tm/s) Thus, Mcaple = Marat ~ "Mie = 607-4 — 86.8 = 520.6 kp,1-79 A barometer is used to measure the altitude of a plane relative to the ground, The barometric reading, at the ground and in the plane are given, The altitude of the plane is to be determined Assumptions The variation of air density with altitude is negligible. Properties The density of air is given to be p = 1.20 kg/m’. Analysis Atmospheric pressures at the location of the plane and the ground level are Prine =(P BP) pte 690 mm a - IN LkPa = (13,600 kg / m°}(9.8 m/ $20,690 mS | ra m/s 91.96 kPa 2 he? Ferount = (PB) grout va bs 753 = (13,600 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s?(0.753 my —1N__|_1kPa__ ay Tkg-1n/ }\ 1000 N/m 100.36 kPa Taking an air column between the airplane and the ground and writing a force balance per unit base area, we obtain Wei! A= Persunit ~ Prteie (WBA)air = Fgponnd ~ Ppiene (1.20 ke /m)(9.8 m/ (S| ae) = (100.36 -91.96) kPa Tkg-m/s? Ityields h=714m which is also the altitude of the airplane.1-80 A 10-m high cylindrical container is filled with equal volumes of water and oil. The barometer is used to measure the altitude of a plane relative to the ground, The pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the container is to be determined, Properties The density of water is given to be p = 1000 kg/m’. The specific gravity of oil is given to be 0.85 Analysis The density of the oil is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the density of water, 2 = (Px)(Pxio) = (0.85)(1000 kg / m?) = 850 kg/m? ‘The pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the cylinder is the sum of the pressure differences across the two fluids, AP nat = APou + AP oeaer = (28M + (8M) water = [(850 kg /n* (9.807 m /s?)(5 m) + (1000 kg/m*(9.807 m/s?)(5 m)] SPE 1000 N/mm = 90.7 kPa 1-81 ‘The pressure of a gas contained in a vertical piston-cylinder device is measured to be 500 kPa. The mass of the piston is to be determined. Assumptions ‘There is no frietion between the piston and the cylinder. i Analysis Drawing the free body diagram of the piston and balancing the vertical forces yield LLL oa wg mg =(P—Pay)A P ‘m)(9.807 m/s?) = (500 - 100 kPa)(30x 10-4 m? (asin) Wane Ityields m= 122.4 kg 1-82 The gage pressure in a pressure cooker is maintained constant at 100 kPa by a petcock. The mass of the petcock is to be determined. Assumptions ‘There is no blockage of the pressure release valve. Analysis Atmospheric pressure is acting on all surfaces of the petcock, which balances itself out. Therefore, it can be disregarded in calculations if we use the gage pressure as the cooker pressure, A force balance on the petcock (2F, = 0) yields We PyageA Page _ (100 kPay(a x 10% (08 sain) g 9.807 m/s 1kPa = 0.0408 kg1-83 A glass tube open to the atmosphere is attached to a water pipe, and the pressure at the bottom of the tube is measured. It is to be determined how high the water will rise in the tube. Properties The density of water is given to be p = 1000 kg/m’, Analysis The pressure at the bottom of the tube can be expressed as P= Pin (PEM rte Cpe Solving for h, jal Pm, = (115-92) kPa Ikg-m/s? 1000 N/m’ ps (1000 kg /m3)(9.8 m/s?) IN 1kPa | =2347 m a oe —— 1-84 The average atmospheric pressure is given a Py, = 101325(1~0.022562)8256 where z is the altitude km. The atmospheric pressure at various locations are to be determined. Analysis The atmospheric pressure at various locations is obtained by substituting the altitude z values in kam into the relation Pm = 101.325(1 -0.022562)5256 Atlanta: (Z= 0.306 km): Py, = 101.325(1 - 0,02256%0,306)'2 Denver: z= 1K J: Ps = 101.325(1 - 0.02256%1.610)* ** M. City: (2= 2.309 km): Py,, = 101.325(1 - 0.02256%2.309)°* Mt. Ev.: (z= 8.848 kin): P,,, = 101.325(1 = 0.02256x8.848)'* = 31.4 kPa1-85 The gravitational acceleration changes with altitude. Accounting for this variation, the weights of a body at different locations are to be determined. Analysis The weight of an 80-kg man at various locations is obtained by substituting the altitude z (values in m) into the relation W = mg = (80 k¥)(9.807-3.32«10-%: m/s?}] —N _ 1 kg-m/s* Sea level: (z=0 m); W = 80x(9,807-3.32x10%X0) = 809,807 = 784.6 N Denver: (z= 1610 m): W = 80x(9.807-3.32x10%% 1610) = 80x9.802 Mt. Ev.: (z= 8848 m): W = 80x(9.807-3.32x10°x8848) = 809,778 = 782.2 N 1-868 The efficiency of a reftigerator increases by 3% per °C rise in the minimum temperature, This increase is to be expressed per °F, K, and R rise in the minimum temperature. Analysis The magnitudes of 1 K and 1°C are identical, so are the magnitudes of 1 R and 1°F. Also, a change of | K or 1°C in temperature corresponds to a change of 1.8 R or 1.8°F. Therefore, the increase in efficiency is (a) 3% for each K rise in temperature, and (b), (@) 3/1.8 = 1.67% for each R or °F rise in temperature. 1-87E. The boiling temperature of water decreases by 3°C for each 1000 m rise in altitude. This decrease ‘in temperature is to be expressed in °F, K, and R. Analysis The magnitudes of 1 K and 1°C are identical, so are the magnitudes of | Rand 1°F., Also, a change of 1 K or 1°C in temperature corresponds to a change of 1.8 R or 1.8°F. Therefore, the decrease in the boiling temperature is (a) 3K for each 1000 m rise in altitude, and (b), (c) 3«1.8 = 5.4°F for each 1000 m rise in altitude. L-88E. The average body temperature of a person rises by about 2°C during strenuous exercise. This increase in temperature is to be expressed in °F, K, and R. Analysis The magnitudes of 1 K and 1°C are identical, so are the magnitudes of | R and 1°F. Also, a change of 1 K or 1°C in temperature corresponds to a change of 1.8 R or 1.8°F, Therefore, the rise in the body temperature during strenuous exercise is @2K (b) 2x18 =3.6°F (©) 2x1.8=3.6R1-89E Hyperthermia of 5°C is considered fatal. This fatal level temperature change of body temperature is to be expressed in °F, K, and R. Analysis The magnitudes of | K and 1°C are identical, so are the magnitudes of 1 Rand I°F. Also, a change of 1 K or 1°C in temperature corresponds to a change of 1.8 R or 1,8°F. ‘Therefore, the fatal level of hypothermia is @) 5K (b) Sx1.8=9°F (©) 5x18=9R 1-90E. A house is losing heat at a rate of 3000 kW/h per °C temperature difference between the indoor and the outdoor temperatures. The rate of heat loss is to be expressed per °F, K, and R of temperature difference between the indoor and the outdoor temperatures. Analysis The magnitudes of | K and 1°C are identical, so are the magnitudes of | R and 1°F. Also, a change of | K or 1°C in temperature corresponds to a change of 1.8 R or 1.8°F, Therefore, the rate of heat loss from the house is (a) 3000 kJ/h per K difference in temperature, and (b), (©) 3000/1.8 = 1667 kJ/h per R or °F rise in temperature. 1-91 The average temperature of the atmosphere is expressed as 7,,,, = 288.15 ~ 6.5z where z is altitude in km. The temperature outside an airplane cruising at 12,000 m is to be determined. Analysis Using the relation given, the average temperature of the atmosphere at an altitude of 12,000 m is determined to be = 288.15 - 6.52 288.15 - 6.5x12 = 210.15 K = - 63°C ‘ion This is the “average” temperature. The actual temperature at different times can be different.1-92 A new “Smith” absolute temperature scale is proposed, and a value of 1000 $ is assigned to the boiling point of water, The ice point on this scale, and its relation to the Kelvin scale are to be determined. Analysis All linear absolute temperature scales read zero at absolute zero pressure, and are constant multiples of each other, For example, T(R) = 1.8 T(K). That is, multiplying a temperature value in K by 1.8 will give the same temperature in R. The proposed temperature scale is an acceptable absolute temperature scale since it differs from the other absolute temperature scales by a constant only. The boiling temperature of water in the Kelvin and the Smith scales are 315.15 K and 1000 K, respectively. Therefore, these two temperature scales are related to each other by KAS 1000 373.15 1000 T(S) = ——— 1(K) = 2.6799 T(K s) 373.15, © a ‘The ice point of water on the Smith scale is T(Scz = 2.6799 T(K) ce = 2.6799%273..15 = 732.0 1-93 A man is considering buying a 12-0z steak for $3.15, or a 320-g steak for $2.80. The steak that is a better buy is to be determined. Assumptions The steaks are of identical quality. Analysis To make a comparison possible, we need to express the cost of each steak on a common basis. Let us choose | kg as the basis for comparison. Using proper conversion factors, the unit cost of each steak is determined to be $3.15) (16 02 1 lbm 12 oz) 1 Ibm / | 0.45359 kg $2.80 ) ( 1000 g — || —= | = $8.75/k; Gre kg } * ‘Therefore, the steak at the international market is a better buy. $9.26 / kg 12 ounce steak: Unit Cost 320 gram steak: Unit Cost1-94 Milk is transported from Texas to California in a cylindrical tank. The amount of milk in the tank is to be determined. Assumptions Milk is mostly water, and thus the properties of water can be used for milk. Properties ‘The density of milk is the same as that of water, p = 1000 kg/m’. Analysis Noting that the thickness of insulation is 0.05 m on all sides, the volume and mass of the milk in a full tank is determined to be Veyine = (DP /4)L; =[a(1.9 mm)? /4](69 m) = 19.56 mi aging = P¥ ine = (1000 kg, /m2)(19:56 m2) = 19,560 ke ‘The volume of the milk in gallons is Vy = (1956 ws (2etr a 1-95 The thermal conductivity of brick wall in SI units is 0.72 W/m.°C. It is to be converted to English units in Btu/h.ft°F. Analysis The conversion factors for W and m are straightforward, and are given in conversion tables to be W = 3.41214 Btu/h and 1m = 3.2808 But the conversion of °C into °F is not so simple, and it can be a source of error if one is not careful, Perhaps the first thought which comes to mind is to replace °C by (°F - 321.8 since T(°C) = [T@F) - 32)/1.8. But this will be wrong since the °C in the unit W/m.°C represents per °C change in temperature, Noting that 1°C change in temperature corresponds to 1.8°F, the proper conversion factor to be used is C=1.8°F Substituting, we get 3.41214 Btu/h (3.2808 f(1.8 °F) Lw/m.ec = 05778 Biu/b.ft.°F which is the desired conversion factor. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of the brick in English units is 172, W/m.2C = 0,72 x 0.5778 Btu/ h.ft.°F 42. Btu /h. ft. F vice1-96 An expression for the equivalent wind chill temperature is given in English units, It is to be converted to SI units, Analysis The required conversion relations are | mph = 1,609 km/h and T{°F) = 1.87(°C) + 32. The first thought that comes to mind is to replace T(°F) in the equation by its equivalent 1.87(°C) + 32, and in mph by 1.609 km/h, which is the “regular” way of converting units. However, the equation we have is not a regular dimensionally homogeneous equation, and thus the regular rules do not apply. The V in the equation is a constant whose value is equal to the numerical value of the velocity in mph. ‘Therefore, if V is given in km/h, we should divide it by 1.609 to convert it to the desired unit of mph. That is, Tesi F) = 914 [914 Trani (° FIIIOATS~0.0203(V / 1.609) +0.304V7 71,609] or (°F) = 914 [91.4 — Loajeg (© FLOATS 0001267 +0.240V¥ ] where / is in km/h. Now the problem reduces to converting a temperature in °F to a temperature in °C, using the proper convection relation: 18Toq,iy(@C)+32 = 914 [914 — (BT antic (°C) +32)][0475— 0.01267 + 0.24007 ] which simplifies to Teguiy(® ©) = 38.0 = (33.0 ~ Tayi (0.475 0.01260 + 0.2407) where the ambient air temperature is in °C. 1-97 The thrust developed by the jet engine of a Boeing 777 is given to be 85,000 pounds. This thrust is to be expressed in N and kgf Analysis Noting that 1 bf = 4.448 N and | kgf = 9.807 N, the thrust developed can be expressed in two other units as 4.A48N ibe Lket 9.807 N ‘Thrust in N: Thrust = (85,000 we ) = 378,080 N ‘Thrust in kgf Thrust = (378,080 wf Je sassa kgf1-98 A 100-kg man decides to lose 5 kg by exercising without reducing his calorie intake. The number of days it will take for this man to lose 5 kg is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The diet and exercise habits of the person remain the same other than the new daily exercise program. 2 The entire calorie deficiency is met by buming body fat. Properties The metabolizable energy content of body fat is 33,100 Cal/kg (text). Analysis. ‘The energy consumed by an average 68-kg adult during fast-swimming, fast dancing, jogging, biking, and relaxing are 860, 600, 540, 639, and 72 Cal/h, respectively. The daily energy consumption of this 100-kg man is [(860+-600+540 +639 Cal/h)(1 h) +(72 Cal /h)(20 nae } = 5999 Cal ‘Therefore, this person burns 5999-3000 = 2999 more Calories than he takes in, which corresponds to 38 ke Men _ 2999 Cal_( 4.1868 KI) _ 33,100 /kg\ 1Cal of body fat per day. Thus it will take only Ske i = ——_ = = 13.2d: 0.38 kg/ day ame for this man to lose 5 kg. 1-99 ‘The range of healthy weight for adults is usually expressed in terms of the body mass index (BMI) in W(kg) Hm)" pounds and the height in inches. Sl unitsas = BMI= This formula is to be converted to English units such that the weight is in Analysis Noting that | kg = 2.2 Ibm and | m =39.37 in, the weight in Ibm must be divided by 2.2 to convert it to kg, and the height in inches must be divided by 39.37 to convert it to m before inserting them into the formula. Therefore, wabm) HP (in?) Wks) wlbm)/2. Hom?) H*(in*)/(39.37) Every person can calculate their own BMI using either SI or English units, and determine if it is in the healthy range. BMI = 05:Chapter 2 PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE Pure Substances, Phase Change Processes, Phase Diagrams 21C Yes. Because it has the same chemical composition throughout. 2.2€ A liquid which is about to vaporize is saturated liquid; otherwise it is compressed liquid. 2-3C A vapor which is about to condense is saturated vapor: otherwise it is compressed vapor. 2-4C No. 2-5C No. 2-6C Yes. The saturation temperature of a pure substance depends on pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the saturation or boiling temperature. 2-7C The temperature will also increase since the boiling or saturation temperature of a pure substance depends on pressure, 2-8C Because one cannot be varied while holding the other constant. In other words, when one changes, so does the other one. 29C At critical point the saturated liquid and the saturated vapor states are identical. At triple point the three phases of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium. 2-10C Yes. 2-11C Case (c) when the pan is covered with a heavy lid. Because the heavier the lid, the greater the pressure in the pan, and thus the greater the cooking temperature 2-12C At supercritical pressures, there is no distinct phase change process. The liquid uniformly and gradually expands into a vapor. At subcritical pressures, there is always a distinct surface between the phases. Property Tables 2-13C A given volume of water will boil at a higher temperature in a tall and narrow pot since the pressure at the bottom will (and thus the corresponding saturation pressure) will be higher in that case, 2-14C A perfectly fitting pot and its lid often stick after cooking as a result of the vacuum created inside as the temperature and thus the corresponding saturation pressure inside the pan drops. An easy way of removing the lid is to reheat the food. When the temperature rises to boiling level, the pressure rises to atmospheric value and thus the lid will come right off. 2-1SC The molar mass of gasoline (CH) is 114 kg/kmol, which is much larger than the molar mass of air which is 29 kg/kmol. Therefore, the gasoline vapor will settle down instead of rising even if itis at a much higher temperature than the surrounding air. As a result, the warm mixture of air and gasoline on top of an open gasoline can will most likely settle down instead of rising in a cooler environment2-16C. Ice can be made by evacuating the air ina water tank. During evacuation, vapor is also thrown out, and thus the vapor pressure in the tank drops, causing a difference between the vapor pressures at the water surface and in the tank. This pressure difference is the driving force of vaporization, and forces the liquid to evaporate. But the liquid must absorb the heat of vaporization before it can vaporize, and it absorbs it from the liquid and the air in the neighborhood, causing the temperature in the tank to drop. The process continues until water starts freezing. The process can be made more efficient by insulating the tank well so that the entire heat of vaporization comes essentially from the water. 2-17C Yes, Otherwise we can create energy by altemately vaporizing and condensing a substance. 2-18C No. Because in the thermodynamic analysis we deal with the changes in properties; and the changes are independent of the selected reference state 2-19C The term hy represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of saturated liquid at a specified temperature or pressure. It can be determined from hg = hy - hy 2-20C Yes; the higher the temperature the lower the hy value. 2-21C Quality is the fraction of vapo superheated vapor region, fa saturated liquid-vapor mixture, It has no meaning, in the 2-22C Completely vaporizing | kg of saturated liquid at | atm pressure since the higher the pressure, the lower the hy, 2-23 Yes. It decresises with increasing pressure and becomes zero at the critical pressure. 2-24C No. Quality is a mass ratio, and it is not identical to the volume ratio. 2-25C The compressed liquid can be approximated as a saturated liquid at the given temperature. Thus Yep SV par 2.26 Complete the following table for H;O: Tc P, kPa vy, m/ kg Phase description 30, 12,349 416 Saturated mixture 120.23 200 0.8857. Saturated vapor 250 400 0.5951 ‘Superheated vapor 10 600 0.001052 Compressed liquid 2-276 Complete the following table for H; O: LF P, psia v, ft /Ibm Phase description 250 29.82 851 Saturated mixture 227.96 20 196.19 Saturated liquid 500 120 1174.2 Superheated vapor 400 400 374.27. Compressed liquid2-28 Complete the following table for HO: T, °C. P, kPa hy kJ/kg x Phase description 136.30 325) 1435.57 oa Saturated mixture 160 C178. 1682, 0.469 Saturated mixture 179.91 950 762.81 0.0 ‘Saturated liquid 80 500) 334.91 Compressed liquid 350 800 31617, ‘Superheated vapor 2-29 Complete the following table for Refrigeramt-134a: Te P, kPa vm / kg Phase description -12 600 0.007498 ‘Compressed liquid 20 571.60 0.022 Saturated mixture 2.48 320 0.0632 Saturated vapor 100 600 0.04790 ‘Superheated vapor 2-30 Complete the following table for Refrigeram-134a Te P, kPa uy ki kg, Phase description 30 770.06 120 Sanerated mixture 4 217.04 39.38 Saturated liquid 56.88 400 300 Superheated vapor 8 600 60.43 Compressed liquid 2-31E Complete the following table for Refrigerant-134a TF Py psi h, Btu / ibm x Phase description 58.35 70 a 0.426 Saturated mixture 20 33.137 78.549 Saturated mixture 10 70 14.66 Compressed liquid 160 180 128.77 ‘Superheated vapor He 161.04 115.96 ‘Saturated vapor 2.32 Complete the following table for HO: P, kPa vy, me / kg Phase description 2321 0.53 Saturated mixture 1000 0.001127. Saturated liquid 730 0.001003. Compressed liquid 2709 0.130 Superheated vapor2-33 Complete the following table for HO: £2 P, kPa i kd kg Phase description 136.30. 325, 2452 Saturated mixture 170 791.7 2576.35 Saturated vapor 190, 2000 806.19 Compressed liquid 466.7 4000 3040 Superheated vapor 2-34E The temperature in a pressure cooker during cooking at sea level is measured to be 250°F. The absolute pressure inside the cooker and the effect of elevation on the answer are to be determined. Assumptions Properties of pure water can be used to approximate the properties of juicy water in the cooker. Properties The saturation pressure of water at 250°F is 29.82 psia (Table A-SE). The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm = 14.7 psia. Analysis The absolute pressure in the cooker is simply the saturation pressure at the cooking temperature, Pygee, = 29.82 psia on 250"F 20 Itis equivalent to 20 Latm Pops = 29.82 ool The elevation has no effect on the absolute pressure inside when the temperature is maintained constant at 250°F. 2.03 atm 2-35E The local atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature, changes with the weather conditions. The change in the boiling temperature corresponding to a change of 0.3 in of mercury in atmospheric pressure is to be determined, Assumptions Properties of pure water can be used to approximate the properties of juicy water in the cooker, Properties The saturation pressures of water at 200 and 212°F are 11.529 and 14.698 psia, respectively (Table A-SE), One in, of mercury is equivalent to | inkig = 3.387 kPa = 0.491 psia (inner cover page). Analysis A change of 0.3 in of mercury in atmospheric pressure corresponds to P03 inHg 0.491 psi inky AP = (0.3 inHg) = 0.147 psia At about boiling temperature, the change in boiling temperature per | psia change in pressure is determined using data at 200 and 212°F to be AT 212-200)°F AP (14,696 ~ 11.529) psia Then the change in saturation (boiling) temperature corresponding to a change of 0.147 psia becomes 3.789 °F/psia ATreiting = (3.789 ° F /psia)AP = (3.789 °F | psia)(0.147 psia) = 0.56°F which is very small. Therefore, the effect of variation of atmosphei negligible, pressure on the boiling temperature is2.36 A person cooks a meal in a pot that is covered with a well-fiting lid, and leaves the food to cool to the room temperature. It is to be determined if the lid will open or the pan will move up together with the lid ‘when the person attempts to open the pan by lifting the lid up. Assumptions 1 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm = 101.325 kPa, 2 The weight of the lid is small and thus its effect on the boiling pressure and temperature is nealigible. 3 No air has leaked into the pan during cooling, Properties The saturation pressure of water at 20°C is 2.339 kPa (Table A-4). Analysis Noting that the weight of the lid is negligible, the reaction force Fon the lid after cooling. at the pan-lid interface can be determined from a force balance on the lid in the vertical direction to be PA = PawwA + F or, F = (Pay ~ P) = (AD? 14\( Pa — PY 2 = HOS 01325-2339) Pa Pp He = 6997 m*Pa=6997 N (since | Pa = | N/m?) Pan = 1 atm ‘The weight of the pan and its contents is Zl W = mg = (8 kg(9.8 mis?) =78N which is much less than the reaction force of 6997 N at the pan-lid interface. Therefore, the pan will move up together with the lid when the person attempts to open the pan by lifting the lid up. In fact, it looks like the lid will not open even if the mass of the pan and its contents is several hundred kg. 2-37 Water is boiled at sea level (1 atm pressure) in a pan placed on top of @ 3-kW electric burner that transfers 60% of the heat generated to the water. The rate of evaporation of water is to be determined. Properties The properties of water at | atm and thus at the saturation temperature of 100°C are Ag, = kikkg (Table A-4). 57 Analysis The net rate of heat transfer to the water is Vapor Q 160 x3 KW = 18 kW Noting that it takes 2257 KI of energy to vaporize | kg of saturated liquid water, the rate of evaporation of water is determined to be Q __18kI/s gg 2257 KITKR 0.80 x 10° kg /s =2.87 kg/h Frevaporion 40%2-38 Water is boiled at 1500 m (84.5 kPa pressure) in a pan placed on top of a 3-kW electric burner that transfers 60% of the heat generated to the water. The rate of evaporation of water is to be determined, Properties ‘The properties of water at 84.5 kPa and thus at the saturation temperature of 95°C are hy, = Analysis The net rate of heat transfer to the water is, rs Q=0.60x 3 kW =1L8 kW 95°C Noting that it takes 2270.2 KJ of energy to vaporize | kg of saturated liquid water, the rate of evaporation of water is determined to be Oo LB KI /s yy 2270.2 kJ/kg m, = 0.79 «107 kg/s = 2.85 kesh evaporation 2-39 Water is boiled at | atm pressure in a pan placed on an electric burner, The water level drops by 10 em in 30 min during boiling, The rate of heat transter to the water is to be determined Properties ‘The properties of water at | atm and thus at a saturation temperature of Ty = 100°C are fig = 2257 kJ/kg and vy = 0.001044 m/kg (Table A-4). Analysis The rate of evaporation of water is Vesan — OD? (4)L _ |x(0.2 my? /41(0.10 m) Mera = 3.009 ki ea vy; 0.001044 e ta Mevag ki Iitgjgp = 3.009 ke _ 9.00167 kg/s Ar 350x608 ‘Then the rate of heat transfer to water becomes O= Mtevapht Q> Miter = (0.00167 kg/s)(2257 kJ/kg) = 3.77 kW2-40. Water is boiled at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 79.5 kPa in a pan placed on an electric burner. The water level drops by 10 em in 30 min during boiling. The rate of heat transfer to the water is to be determined. Properties The properties of water at 79.5 kPa are Ty: = 93.2°C, /iig = 2275 kikg and vj = 0.001038 m'/ke (Table A-5). Analysis The rate of evaporation of water is ¥, 2 tena (aD? AL _ | x(0 (A010) _ 5.097 ky 10 a v, 0.001038. a Gi i kPa 3 Mevay 27 ke Meoap: _ 3027 KB _ 9.00168 kg/s At 3060s Then the rate of heat transfer to water becomes Fitevaps = Fitgyag lpg = (0.00168 kg /s)(2275 KI /kg) = 3.82 kW 2-41 Saturated steam at 7; = 30°C condenses on the outer surface of a cooling tube at a rate of 45 kg/h, The rate of heat transfer from the steam to the cooling water is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The condensate leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at 30°C. Properties ‘The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 30°C are fi = 2431 ki/kg. Analysis Noting that 2431 kJ of heat is released as | kg of saturated vapor at 30°C condenses, the rate of heat transfer from the steam to the cooling water in the tube is determined directly from = tinea yy = (AS ke HY2ABT KI /kg) = 109,395 kl /h= 30.4 KW 2.42 The average atmospheric pressure in Denver is 83.4 kPa. The boiling temperature of water in Denver is to be determined. Analysis The boiling temperature of water in Denver is the s atmospheric pressure in Denver which is 83.4 kPa: uration temperature corresponding to the ray; av 4 Wo = 944°C2-43 The boiling temperature of water in a 5-cm deep pan is given. ‘The boiling temperature ina 40-cm deep pan is to be determined, Assumptions Both pans are full of water. Properties The density of liquid water is approximately p~ 1000 kg/m’. Analysis The pressure at the bottom of the 5-cm pan is the saturation pressure corresponding to the boiling temperature of 98°C: P=P. are: = 94.63 kPa The pressure difference between the bottoms of two pans is 1kPa AP = pgh= (1000 kg/m'X9.8 m/s?}(0.35 m) — pah=( MeO. Siont kX ome 43 kPa Then the pressure at the bottom of the 40-cm deep pan is 4 P= 94.63 + 3.43 = 98.06 kPa 40cm ‘Then the boiling temperature becomes 5 —_ Fooitin 2-44 A cooking pan is filled with water and covered with a 4-kg lid, The boiling temperature of water is to be determined. Analysis The pressure in the pan is determined from a force balance on the lid, Pauw PA = Pail + W Pam 101 kPa maa 4 ke or m Pe Py tee am + ; i = (ii kPay + 4 B@C9-807 m/s") __1 kPa I lh (0.1m)? 1000 kg /m-s? P = 102.25 kPa ee The boiling temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure, T= Tay av02 25404 = 100.2°C2-45 A vertical piston-cylinder device is filled with water and covered with a 20-kg piston that serves as the lid, The boiling temperature of water is to be determined. Analysis The pressure in the cylinder is determined from a force balance on the piston, PA = Pay + W or, mg in P= Pei + | 2 = = (101 kPa CORBO-807 mis) aye ‘liom ) = 120.61 kPa wn oak P The boiling temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure, wom T= Tai @iyerira = 104.6°C 2-46 A rigid tank that is filled with saturated liquid-vapor mixture is heated. ‘The temperature at which the liquid in the tank is completely vaporized is to be determined, and the 7-v diagram is to be drawn, Analysis This is a constant volume process (v = V/m = constant). and the specific volume is determined to be HO r 2 75°C Vv m: m Ske 0.5 m3/kg ‘When the liquid is completely vaporized the tank will contain saturated vapor only. ‘Thus, =0.5 m? /kg 2 Vp = Vy The temperature at this point is the temperature which corresponds to this v, value, 1 T= Tory, -asussg = 140.7°C2-47 A rigid vessel is filled with refrigerant-134a, The total volume and the total internal energy is to be determined. Properties The properties of R-134a at the given state are (Table A-13).. P= 900 kPa 4 = 288.87 I /ky Re134a T=80°C v = 0.02861 m*/kg 2kg 900 kPa Analysis The total volume and internal energy are determined from 80°C V = mv = (2 kg(0.02861 m3 /kg) = 0.05722 m* 2. kg)(288.87 kJ/kg) = 577.74 kJ U=mm 2-48E_ A rigid tank contains water at a specified pressure. The temperature, total enthalpy, and the mass of each phase are to be determined. Analysis (a) The specific volume of the water is Sift y 1.063 ibm. m= S5ibm At 20 psia, ve = 0.01683 ft'lbm and v, = 20.09 fi'/lbm. Thus the tank contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture since v;< v < v,. and the temperature must be the saturation temperature at the specified pressure, T=T, = 227.96°F ar 20 psia (b) The quality of the water and its total enthalpy are determined from =¥y~ — 10—0.01683 x =< = 0.0490 Vj_ 20.09-0.01683 h= hy + xMy =196.26 + 0.049 x 960) = 243.3 Btu/Ibm te ce 5lbm H = mh = (5 lbm)(243.3 Biu /Ibm) = 1216.5 Btu 20 psia (c) The mass of each phase is determined from My xm, = 0.049 x5 = 0.245 Ibm 5-0.245 = 4.755 Ibm my =m, +m,2-49 A rigid vessel contains R-134a at specified temperature. The pressure, total intemal energy, and the volume of the liquid phase are to be determined Analysis (a) The specific volume of the refrigerant is 05m = 282 0.05 mike ven 10kg = At -20°C, vj = 0.0007361 mivkg and v, ~ 0.1464 m’/kg, ‘Thus the tank contains saturated liguid-vapor mixture since vj /kg) = 0.00487 m? mv 2-50 A piston-cylinder device contains a saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water at 800 kPa pressure. The mixture is heated at constant pressure until the temperature rises to 350°C. The initial temperature, the total of water, the final volume are to be determined, and the P-v diagram is to be drawn. Analysis (a) Initially two phases coexist in equilibrium, thus we have a saturated liquid-vapor mixture. ‘Then the temperature it the tank must be the saturation temperature at the specified pressure, T=Tya@ eons =170.43 “C (Table A-5) (b) The total mass in this case can easily be determined by adding the mass of each phase, ¥, 3 my == Ol" ___99.69kg Vy 0.001115 m3 /ke 3 — 0m __ aang 0.2404 m’ /kg Mm, my + thy = 89.69 43.74 = 93.43 kg (© At the final state water is superheated vapor, and its specific volume is 800 kPa } waa ait agorc 3544 m? /kg (Table A-6) va mV = (93.43 kg)(0.3544 m> /kg) = 33.1 m32-SIE Superheated water vapor cools at constant volume until the temperature drops to 250°F. At the final state, the pressure, the quality, and the enthalpy are to be determined. Analysis This is a constant volume process (v = /m = constant), and the initial specific volume is determined to be A = 180 psia P 7, = 500°F i 3.042 £07 fim (Table A-6E) At 250°F, vy = 0.017011 ft'/lbm and v, = 13.826 ft'/lbm. Thus at the final state, the tank will contain saturated liquid-vapor mixture since ve Pig @ 2s) Which can be approximated as a saturated liquid at the specified temperature, Vy = Vy qagc: = 0.001003 m3 /kg fl Ih = hpqursee = 104.89 KS / kg, ° 2 (a) The mass is determined from 1 H,0 E 25°C 0.050 ms = =——____ = 49.85 ky Pe my; 0.001003 mi /kg 3 y Sones (b) At the final state, the cylinder contains saturated vapor and thus the final temperature must be the saturation temperature at the final pressure, T= Tye soon = 133.55°C (c) The final enthalpy is hy = hy,q sco ure ~ 2725.3 Ki/kg. Thus, AH = m(hy ~ hy) = (49.85 kg)(2725.3 — 104.89) kJ / kg = 130,627 kJ2-53 A rigid vessel that contains a saturated liquid-vapor mixture is heated until it reaches the critical state. The mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the liquid at the initial state are to be determined. Analysis This is a constant volume process (v= V/m = constant) to the critical state, and thus the initial specific volume will be equal to the final specific volume, which is equal to the critical specific yolume of water, ¥) = 0) = vy = 0.003155 m3 /kg (last row of Table A-4) The total mass is = 158.48 kg T & At 100°C, ve= 0.001044 m’/kg and vy, = 1.6729 m'/kg. ui ‘Then the quality of water at the initial state is ii 7 3155 — = LLL _ 0.008155 0.001044 _ 9 on 1963 Ve 1.6729 — 0.001044 v ‘Then the mass of the liquid phase and its volume at the initial state are determined from my = (1-2), = (1—0.001263)(158.48) = 158.28 kg Vy =myv, = (158.28 kg)(0.001044 m3 / kg) = 0.165 m32-54 The properties of compressed liquid water at a specified state are to be determined using the compressed liquid tables, and also by using the saturated liquid approximation, and the results are to be compared, Analysis Compressed liquid can be approximated as saturated liquid at the given temperature. Then from Table A-4, TH 100°C = v= Mp yy 0.001044 m7 / kg (0.76%error) US Upagygg¢ = 418.94 kd / kg (.01% error) h 419.04 kS/ kg (2.61%error) Fayaurc From compressed liquid table (Table A-7), y =0.0010361m>/ ky, P=ISMPa | * ‘ are | u=414.74kl/ kg n=430.28 kJ/kg ‘The percent errors involved in the saturated liquid approximation are listed above in parentheses. 2-55E A rigid tank contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture of R-134a. The quality and total mass of the reftigerant are to be determined. Analysis At 30 psia, ve = 0.01209 f/lbm and v, ~ 1.5408 fr'/lbm. The volume occupied by the liquid and the vapor phases are Vy = 15 8 and 13.503 R-134a ‘Thus the mass of each phase is 16 3 30 psia my — 15 tags ibm aa 0.01209 f13/ Ibm 5 ft} My 1a = 8.76 bm vy, 1.5408 #8 /Ibm Then the total mass and the quality of the refrigerant are mn, = my + mg = 124.1 +8.76 = 132,86 Ibm 6 ——_ = 0.0659 32.862-56 Superheated steam in a piston-cylinder device is cooled at constant pressure until half of the mass condenses, The final temperature and the volume change are to be determined, and the process should be shown on a 7-v diagram. Analysis (b) At the final state the cylinder contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture, and thus the final temperature must be the saturation temperature at the final pressure, r Taree atta = 179.91 C (c) The quality at the final state is specified to be 20 The specific volumes at the initial and the final states are 300°C P, =10MPa oc i= = 3 7. =300°C } ¥, =02579 m*/ kg, Vp= Vy PX Vip = 0.001127 +05 x(019444—0.001 127) = 0.0978 m*/kg OMPa \ . Thus, AV =m(v —v,)=(08 kg}(0.0978 - 0.2579) m? kg =—0.128 m* 47 The water in a rigid tank is cooled until the vapor starts condensing, The to be determined. | pressure in the tank is, vim Analysis This is a constant volume process (v the final specific volume which is constant), and the initial specific volume is equal to 3k Te pave 2019405 m3 kg, 2 300 sirice the vapor starts condensing at 180°C. HO Then from Table A-6, Ti= 300°C P=? 190 7, =300°C 2 3 P,=1.325MPa v, = 0.194005 m3 /kg 1 vVapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium 2-58 A glass of water is left in a room. The vapor pressures at the free surface of the water and in the room far from the glass are to be determined, Assumptions ‘The water in the glass is at a uniform temperature, Properties The saturation pressure of water is 2.339 kPa at 20°C, and 1.703 kPa at 15°C (Table A-4). Analysis The vapor pressure at the water surface is the saturation pressure of water at the water temperature, ier urice = Pusey, = Peiarsee = 1-7087 kPa Noting that the air in the room is not saturated, the vapor pressure in the room far from the glass is Prat = Pranary, = PPansaoec = (0.6)(2.339 kPa) = 1.4034 kPa 2-59 The vapor pressure in the air at the beach when the air temperature is 30°C is claimed to be 5.2 kPa. The validity of this claim is to be evaluated. Properties ‘The saturation pressure of water at 30°C is 4.246 kPa (Table A-4). Analysis The maximum vapor pressure in the air is the saturation pressure of water at the given temperature, which is oF Po max = Pav ra, = Puraitec = 4246 KPa which is less than the claimed value of 5.2 kPa. Therefore, the claim is false.2-60 The temperature and relative humidity of air over a swimming pool are given. The water temperature of the swimming pool when phase equilibrium conditions are established is to be determined. Assumptions ‘The temperature and relative humidity of air over the pool remain constant. Properties ‘The saturation pressure of water at 20°C is 2.339 kPa (Table A-4). Analys! ‘The vapor pressure of air over the swimming pool is P, sic = PPaaer,, = PPamse20re = (0.42339 kPa) = 0.9356 kPa Phase equilibrium will be established when the vapor pressure at the water surface equals the vapor pressure of air far from the surface. Therefore, z sir = 0.9356 kPa ‘water surface = and sap) 9856 KP Tooter = Trove, Discussion Note that the water temperature drops to 5.8°C in an environment at 20°C when phase equilibrium is established. 2-61 Two rooms are identical except that they are maintained at different temperatures and relative humidities. The room that contains more moisture is to be determined. Properties. The saturation pressure of water is 2.339 kPa at 20°C, and 4.246 kPa at 30°C (Table A-4). Analysis The vapor pressures in the two rooms are Room 1: Py, = 4, Puror, =¢1 Pararrore = (0-4)(4.246 kPa) = 1.6984 kPa Room 2: 6373 kPa 2 Proper, = 92Praneanrc = (0.7(2.339 kPa) = Therefore, room | at 30°C and 40% relative humidity contains more moisture.2-626 A thermos bottle half-filled with water is left open to air in a room at a specified temperature and pressure, The temperature of water when phase equilibrium is established is to be determined Assumptions ‘The temperature and relative humidity of air over the bottle remain constant. Properties The saturation pressure of water at 70°F is 0.3632 psia (Table A-4E). Analysis The vapor pressure of air in the room is Poin = PPrateriy, = PPaerrooe = (0.35)(0.3632 D.1271 psia Phase equilibrium will be established when the vapor pressure at the water surface equals the vapor pressure of air far from the surface. Therefore, a, water surtace ~ 1, aie = 041271 psia and % fwater = Tane, = Tavieo201 pia = AVF Discussion Note that the water temperature drops to 41°F in an en equilibrium is established nment at 70°F when phase 2-63 A person buys a supposedly cold drink in a hot and humid summer day, yet no condensation occurs on the drink. The claim that the temperature of the drink is below 10°C is to be evaluated. Properties The saturation pressure of water at 35°C is 5.628 kPa (Table A-4), Analysis The vapor pressure of air is Prin = Prcar,, = PPavossee (0.7)(5.628 kPa) = 3.9396 kPa The saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure (called the dew-point temperature) is Tey = Ty 7 ha = wer, BPC ‘91 @3 9396 kPa That is, the vapor in the air will condense at temperatures below 28.7°C. Noting that no condensation is observed on the can, the claim that the drink is at 10°C is false.Ideal Gas 2-64C Propane (molar mass = 44.1 kg/kmol) poses a greater fire danger than methane (molar mass = 16 kg/kmol) since propane is heavier than air (molar mass = 29 kg/kmol), and it will settle near the floor. Methane, on the other hand, is Highter than air and thus it will rise and leak out. 2465C A gas can be treated as an ideal gas when it is at a high temperature or low pressure relative to its critical temperature and pressure. 2-66C R, is the universal gas constant which is the same for all gases whereas R is the specific gas constant which is different for different gases, These two are related to cach other by R = Ry /M, where M is the molar mass of the 2-67C. Mass m is simply the amount of matter; molar mass iM is the mass of one mole in grams or the mass of one kmol in kilograms. ‘These two are related to each other by m = NM, where N is the number of moles. 2-68. A balloon is filled with helium gas. The mole number and the mass of helium in the balloon are to be determined, Assumptions At specified conditions, helium behaves as an ideal gas. Properties ‘The universal gas constant is R, = 8.314 kPa,m'/kmol.K. The molar mass of helium is 4.0 kg/kmol (Table A-1). Analysis The volume of the sphere is voter Anam? =113.04 m3 3 3 Assuming ideal gas behavior, the mole numbers of He is determined from PY (200 kPa)(113.04 m3) kmol-K)(293 K) 9.28 kmol ‘Then the mass of He can be determined from m= NM = (9.28 kmol)(4.0 kg / kmol) = 37.15 kg,2-69 An automobile tire is inflated with air. The pressure rise of air in the tire when the tire is heated and the amount of air that must be bled off to reduce the temperature to the original value are to be determined. Assumptions 1 At specified conditions, air behaves as an ideal gas, 2 The volume of the tire remains constant, Properties. ‘The gas constant of air is R= 0.287 kPa.m’/kg.K (Table A-1). Analysis Initially, the absolute pressure in the tire is P= P+ Py =210+100=310 kPa ‘Treating air as an ideal gas and assuming the volume of the tire to remain constant, the final pressure in the tire can be determined from RY _ BY 7 Bp 323K 298K BR h "4 (310 kPa) = 336 kPa Thus the pressure rise is AP =P, - = 336-310 = 26 kPa ac 210 kes ‘The amount of air that needs to be bled off to restore pressure to its original value is matt G10KPaN0.025m) 5 99665 4p RT, (0.287 kPa-m> /kg-K\(298 K) B10 kPAay(0.025 m9) (0.287 kPa-m?/ka-K)(323 K) Am=m — my = 0.0906 —0.0836 = 0.0070 kg —a 0.0836 kg 2-70E An automobile tire is under inflated with air, The amount of air that needs to be added to the tire to raise its pressure to the recommended value is to be determined, Assumptions 1 At specified conditions, air behaves as an ideal gas, 2 The volume of the tire remains constant, Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.3705 psia.ft'/lbm.R (Table A-1E). Analysis The initial and final absolute pressures in the tire are P= Pup + Poim = 20 + 14.6 = 34.6 psia P= Pet Pam = 30 + 14.6 = 44.6 psia ‘Treating air as an ideal gas, the initial mass in the tire is (34.6 psiaX0.53 £3), =e = 0,0900 Ibm RT (0.3705 psia- fi / Ibm-RY550 R) m, Noting that the temperature and the volume of the tire remain constant, the final mass in the tire becomes BY (44.6 psia(0.53f) ys 160 tom ™ = "Re > (9.3705 psla-f1¥/ Ibm-RYS50R) ‘Thus the amount of air that needs to be added is Am = nty — 1m, = 0.1160~ 0.0900 = 0,0260 Ibm2-71 The pressure and temperature of oxygen gas in a storage tank are given, The mass of oxygen in the tank is to be determined. Assumptions At specified conditions, oxygen behaves as an ideal gas Properties ‘The gas constant of oxygen is R = 0.2598 kPa.m'/kg.K (Table A-1). Analysis The absolute pressure of O; is ® P= P+ Pegg = 500 +97 = 597 kPa Treating O; as an ideal gas, the mass of Os in tank is determined to be _ PV (597 kPa)(1.2. m3) _ RT (0.2598 kPa-m3 /kg-K\297 K) m 9.28 kg 2-728, A rigid tank contains slightly pressurized air. The amount of air that needs to be added to the tank to raise its pressure to the recommended value is to be determined. Assumptions 1 At specified conditions, air behaves as an ideal gas, 2 The volume of the tank remains constant, Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.3705 psia.ft/lbm.R (Table A-1E). Analysis Treating air as an ideal gas, the initial volume and the final mass in the tank are determined to be m RT, _ (20 bm)(0.3705 psia- {3 /Ibm-R)(530 R) ROO psia AY __@Spsiah( 105.4 Ry _ RE, (0.3705 psia- fi2 /Ibm- RY(S50 R) = 196.4 fe = 33.73 Ibm im Thus the amount of air added is ‘Aim = my ~ m, = 33.73 20.0 = 13,73 Ibm2-73. A rigid tank contains air at a specified state. The gage pressure of the gas in the tank is to be determined. Assumptions At specified conditions, air behaves as an ideal gas. Properties The gas constant of air is R= 0.287 kPam'/kg.K (Table A-1E). Analysis Treating ait as an ideal gas, the absolute pressure in the tank is determined from 3 8 py = MRT. _ (0 kw)(0.287 kPa a HegK)Q98K) _ 969 1 xpa Vv 0.8m Thus the gage pressure is Py = P— Pyy = 1069.1-97 = 972.1 kPa Gm 26°C P 2-74 Two rigid tanks connected by a valve to each other contain air at specified conditions. The volume of tank and the final equilibrium temperature when the valve is opened are to be determined. Assumptions At specified conditions, air behaves as an ideal gas. Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPam’/kg.K (Table A-1E). Analysis Let's call the first and the second tanks A and B. Treating air as an ideal gas, the volume of the second tank and the mass of air in the first tank are determined to be (5 kg)(0.287 kPa-m3 / kg-K)(08 K) _ =2.21 m3 200 kPa 3 my —__600kRal(1.0'm*) _ 5 a6 (0.287 kPa-m} /kg-K)(298 K) Thus, Va Vg+Vy =1.04221=3.21 ms m= mi) +my = 5.846 +5.0 = 10.846 kg 7 Then the final equilibrium pressure becomes sm kg. p, = MRE, _ 10.846 k)(0287 kPa! /K8-1)293 5) _ a4 1 py 3.21m3Compressibility Factor 2-75C It represent the deviation from ideal gas behavior. The further away it is from 1, the more the gas deviates from ideal gas behavior. 2-76C. All gases have the same compressibility factor Z at the same reduced temperature and pressure, 2-T71C Reduced pressure is the pressure normalized with respect to the critical pressure; and reduced temperature is the temperature normalized with respect to the critical temperature, 2-79 The specific volume of steam is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the compressibility chart, and the steam tables. The errors involved in the first two approaches are also to be determined. Properties The gas constant, the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of water are, from Table A-I R= 0.4615 kPa: m/kg-K, Ty = 647.3 K, Py, = 22.09 MPa Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, 4615 kPa-m' /ke RT _ {0.4615 kPa-m* he: KX673 K) _ gosi66 m3 /kg (17.6% error) P (10,000 kPa) (b) From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30), nfo its : ce oe Z=084 10 MPa 673K 400°C = 1.04 673K Thus, V = (ZV 4g) = (0.84)(0.03 106 m5 / kg) = (c) From the superheated steam table (Table A-6), P=10MPa } 1.02609 m3/ kg (12% error) 0.02640 m* /kg 00°C2-79 The specific volume of R-134a is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the compressibility chart, and the R-134a tables. The errors involved in the first two approaches are also to be determined. Properties The gas constant, the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of reftigerant-134a are, from Table A-1, R= 0.08149 kPam'/ke-K, Taq = 374.25 K, P= 4.067 MPa Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, , 9 kPa-m3 /kg- EE DE eee GTS _ ppp iseutieg (08% error) P 1,400 kPa (b) From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30), P__1AMPa R-134a Pym i od "RP, 4.067 MPa enuey 1.4 MPa , = 140°C Tye te SK Lion Ty 37A25K Thus, (22% error) ZV Vident) = (0-89)(0.02404 m’ / kg) = 0.02140 m3 / ke (c) From the superheated refrigerant table (Table A-13), E we | v= 0.02189 m?/kg T=140°C2-80 The specific volume of nitrogen gas is to be determined using the ideal gas relation and the compressibility chart, The errors involved in these two approaches are also to be determined. Properties ‘The gas constant, the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of nitrogen are, from Table Al, R = 0.2968 kPa /ke'K, Te= 126.2 K, P= 3.39 MPa Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, RT _ (0.2968 kPa-m*/kg-K)(150 K) = 0.004452 m3 / kg 86.4% Pp 10,000 kPa wes : se (b) From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30), JOMPa _ 9 MP. fo MPa Z=054 AS 150K =119 10 MPa 1262K * 150 K ‘Thus, V = (ZV pg!) = (0.54)(0.004452 m3 / ky) = 0.002404 m3 /kg. (0.7% error) 2-81 The specific volume of steam is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the compressibility chart, ard the steam tables, The errors involved in the first two approaches are also to be determined. Properties The gas constant, the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of water are, from Table A-1, R= 0.4615 kPam/keK, Ty, = 647.3 K, P., = 22.09 MPa Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, SA = 0.14364 m3 /kg (8.1% error) 20 4.6 MPa Z=0935 225°C Thus, = (ZMVjaeo)) = (0.9350. 14364 m3 / kg) = 0.13430 m3 / kg (11% error) (©) From the superheated steam table (Table A-6), 6 MPa = 228°C } v= 0.13287 m3 /kg2-82E The temperature of R-134a is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the compressibility chart, and the R-134a tables. The errors involved in the first two approaches are also to be determined. Properties The gas constant. the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of refrigerant-134a are, from Table A-1E. R= 0.10517 psia-ft'/Ibm-R, = 673.65 R, P., = 390 psia Analysis (3) From the ideal gas equation of state, _ Py _ (400 psia)(0.1386 f° / Ibm) =S27.2R R (010517 psia: ft? / Ibm-R) (b) From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30a), P__ 400 psia eR, 300 psia 0.678 Maul ___—_—(0.1386 RT! Py (0.10517 p: Ibm )(590 psia) -fU" / Ibm -R)(673.65 R) Thus, T= Ty Ty, =103 x 673.65 = 693.9 R (c) From the superheated refrigerant table (Table A-13E), P=400 psia v= 01386 08 / Ibm \ es)2-83 The pressure of R-134a is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the compressibility chart, and the R-134a tables. The errors involved in the first two approaches are also to be determined Properties The gas constant, the critical pressure, and the critical temperature of refrigerant-134a are, from ‘Table A-l, R= 0.08149 kPam*kerk, Tee= 37425 K, Pi.= 4.067 MPa Analysis The specific volume of the refrigerant is 01677 m , ya DTT eo C1GF7 Hi he R-134a m 0.01677 (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, nel 110°C Packt TREKS RT _ (0.08149 kPa-m} (kg K)VG383 K) _ 1961 keg v 0.01677 m kg (b) From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30), SE 23.023 Py =039 Thus, P= P,P, = 0.39 x 4067 = 1586 kPa (c) From the superheated refrigerant table (Table A-13), t y 1o°C F P= 1600 kPa 0.01677 m' / kg 2-84 Somebody claims that oxygen gas at a specified state can be treated as an ideal gas with an error less than 10%. The validity of this claim is to be determined, Properties The critical pressure, and the critical temperature of oxygen are, from Table A-1, T,=1848K and PB, =5.08 MPa Analysis From the compressibility chart (Fig, A-30), P __3MPa Pye = =0591 Pp, 5.08 MPa aah T _ 160K a Oe = 5 Tea 3 MPa ‘ 160K Then the error involved can be determined from error = Mutt = 1 -)-1_ 26.06% v Zz 0.79 ‘Thus the claim is false.2-85 The % error involved in treating CO; at a specified state as an ideal gas is to be determined, Properties The critical pressure, and the critical temperature of CO; are, from Table A-1, T,=308.2K and P, =7.39 MPa Analysis From the compressibility chart (Fig. 4-30), 3MPa = 0.406 Z=080 COs 3MPa 10°C 2-86 The % error involved in treating CO, at a specified state as an ideal gas is to be determined. Properties The critical pressure, and the critical temperature of COp are, from Table A-1. Ty =304.2K and P, = 7.39 MPa Analysis From the compressibility chart (Fig. A-30), - B _ SMPa P, 739MPa— T _ 350K Pe 0.677 CO Z=084 5 MPa 350 K T, 3042K Then the error involved in treating CO, as an ideal gas is = 0.190 or 19.0% error al 0.84Other Equations of State 2-87C The constant @ represents the increase in pressure as a result of intermolecular forces; the constant b represents the volume occupied by the molecules. They are determined from the requirement that the critical isotherm has an inflection point at the critical point. 2-88 The pressure of nitrogen in a tank at a specified state is to be determined using the ideal gas, van der Waals, and Beattie-Bridgeman equations. ‘The error involved in each case is to be determined. Properties The ges constant, molar mass, critical pressure, and critical temperature of nitrogen are (Table Al) R= 0.2968 kPam'kg:K, -M=28.013 ke/kmol, = 126.2 K, P= 33.90 MPa Analysis The specific volume of nitrogen is Vv _327m* 3 sae = 0.0327 m* /k; m 100kg & Sa 0.0327 m°/kg (a) From the ideal gas equation of state. 225K RT _ (0.2968 kPa-m* /kg-K)(225 K) ; = 2042 KPa (2.1% error) v 0.0327 m3 /kg. (b) The van der Waals constants for nitrogen are determined from _ 27R Tes _ (27)40.2968 kPa-m? /kg-K)?(126.2 K) OAR, (6413390 kPa) RT, _ (0.2968 kPa: 8A, 8x 3390 kPa 0.175 m® -kPa/ke? */kg-K)(126.2 K) _ .00138 m* kg Then, RT a __0.2968x225 0.175 — = 1969 KPa (1.6% error) vb vy? 0.0327-0.00138 (0.0327) (c) The constants in the Beattie-Bridgeman equation are determined ftom Table A-29a to be A=A,| 1-2) =136.2315| 1 \- V 0.9160 oat) 0.05084 =a, vos e=4.2x104 mK" /kmol since ¥ = Mv = (28.013 kg/kmol)(0.0327 m4 /kg) = 0.9160 nr /kmol . Substituting, RT, ¢ \ 4 P 1 T+B ( md. ) 5 2x10" 32.33 = 83104235); __ 42x10" _ lo sico+0 82399 _ 1989 kPa (06% error) (0.9160 ( 0.9160% 225 (0.9160)2-89 The temperature of steam in a tank at a specified state is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, van der Waals equation, and the steam tables. The error involved in the first two cases is to be determined. Properties The gas constant, critical pressure, and critical temperature of steam are (Table A-1) R= 04615 PamkeK, T= 647.3 K, = 22.09 MPa Analysis The specific volume of steam is si : 1m” _..9.3520'm? /kg Ha mm 2841 kg im < nies 2 2.841 kg (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, Sah (>) The van der Waals constants for steam are determined from 272 5 kPa-m? /kg+K)* ga ZIRT _ 710.4615 Pam” /kg-K) (647-3 6) _ 1 394 99 -kPa lke? AP, (64)(22,090 kPa) Pasm? /kg- p — Rls. _ (0.4615 kPa-m? /kg-KV6473 K) _ 9 99169 m3 /kg BP. 090 kPa ‘Then, aes Rov? to 352 — 0.00169) = 465.9 K (e) From the superheated steam table (Tables A-6), P=0.6 MPa 52m? kg } T=200°C (473K)2.90E The temperature of R-134a in a tank at a specified state is to be determined using the ideal gas relation, the van der Waals equation, and the refrigerant tables, The error involved in the first two cases is to be determined, Properties The gas constant, critical pressure, and critical temperature of R-134a are (Table A-1) R=0.1052 psia ft’ Ibm-R, Te = 673.65 R, Pe. = 590 psia Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, Py _ (100 psia)(0.4761 £0 /Tom) T= : R 0.1052 psia- lt? /Ibm-R = 452.6R (b) The van der Waals constants for the refrigerant are determined from Eq. 2-24 to be 27R'T2 _ (270.1052 psia-ft? /Ibm-R)26 589 f° -psia/ Ibm? on, (64)(590 psia) ).1052 psia-ft* + RY(673.65 (0.1052 psia tt? Albom RX673.65 8) _ 9 6159 03 /tbm 8 x 590 psia Then, i \e-o= 1/109 +228? _ |o.4761-0.0150) = 507.7 0.1052 (0.4761)? (c) From the superheated refrigerant table (Table A-13E), P = 100 psia 88 Riba } T=120°F (580 R)2-91 The pressure of nitrogen in a tank at a specified state is to be determined using the ideal gas relation and the Beattie-Bridgeman equation. The error involved in each case is to be determined. Properties The gas constant and molar mass of nitrogen are (Table A-1) R= 0.2968 kPam'/kg:K and M= 28,013 ke/kmol ‘Analysis (a) From the ideal gas equation of state, 50 K) 1063 kPa (6.3% error) 0.041884 m3 /kg (b) The constants in the Beattie-Bridgeman equation are determined from Table A-29a to be a= at 2) =162319{1 222817) 123.188 1.1733 Ne p= a{1-2) = 0.05046 1°" | - 05076 GngiBes. V 1.1733 mlkg ¢=4.2«104 m-K?/kmol eo since V = Mv = (28.013 kg/ kmol)(0.041884 m3 / kg) = 1.1733 m? |kmol . Substituting, __ 42x04 1.1733 «150° Jos + 0.05076) ~ ; (1.1733) © (1.1733)? =1000.4kPa (negligible error)Review Problems 2-92 A smoking lounge that can accommodate 15 smokers is considered. The required minimum flow rate of ait that needs to be supplied to the lounge is to be determined. Assumptions. Infiltration of air into the smoking lounge is negligible. Properties The minimum fresh air requirements for a smoking lounge is given to be 30 L/s per person. Analysis The required minimum flow rate of air that needs to be supplied to the lounge is determined directly from b ‘i ex peson (NO. of persons) 30 L/s:person)(15 persons) = 450 L/s= 0.45 m?/s 2-93 The minimum fresh air requirements of a residential building is specified to be 0.35 air changes per hour. The size of the fan that needs to be installed and the diameter of the duct are to be determined. Analysis. ‘The volume of the building and the required minimum volume flow rate of fresh air is Ting = 7220. 4H = 21S 830g 44,1) 172.8 tom Vroom 12.5ft/Ibm dry air Vir per person The volume flow rate of fresh air can be expressed as (No. of persons) = (30 L./s-person)(15 persons) = 450 L/s= 0.45 m*/s A= V(aD? 14) Solving for the diameter D and substituting, ay fa _ [av _ [4089/3600 m°/8) _ 6 196 my ™ a(6 m/s) Therefore, the diameter of the fresh air duct should be at least 10.6 cm if the velocity of air is not to exceed 6 mis. D2-94 The pressure in an automobile tire increases during a trip while its volume remains constant. The percent increase in the absolute temperature of the air in the tire is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The volume of the tire remains constant. 2 Air is an ideal gas. Properties The local atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa. Analysis The absolute pressures in the tire before and afer the trip are F; = Page) + Pay = 200 +90 = 290 kPa Py = Paagea + Pay = 220 +90 = 310 KPa feaze.d * Ean = Noting that air is an ideal gas and the volume is constant, the ratio of absolute temperatures after and before the trip are AM q t,_P,_ 310kPa >») ba. aS = 1.069 7, PB 290kPa Therefore, the absolute temperature of air in the tire will increase by 6.9% during this trip.