rere eee LN Sree aRee tues ceraA Level Chemistry for OCR O Rob RitchieOXFORD Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom (Oxford University Press is a department of the University of (Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, (Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Rob Ritchie and Dave Gent 2015 ‘The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First published in 2015 All rights reserved. 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Printed in Great Britain ‘This resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification 032 AS Level GCE Chemistry A and H432 A Level GCE Chemistry A. In order to gain endorsement this resource has undergone an independent quality check, OCR has not paid for the production of this resource, nor does OCR receive any royalties from its sale. For more nformation about the endorsement process please visit the OCR website wwwocrorg.uk jements (Cover: EVE OF SCIENCE|SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY p22: Tischenko lWina/Shutterstock; p6-7: Seience Photo Library; pO: Author: p-10: Carles D. Wintery/Science Photo Library; p13: Mauro Rermarello, Science Photo Library; p16: Nagydodo/Shutterstock; p20: Martyn F. CChilimaid)Science Photo Library, p22: ApttonejiStockphoto: p23: [Nadezda Roltaca/Shutterstock: p2a{T}- Fablok/Shurterstocls p2A() ‘Martyn F.ChillmaidjScience Photo Library; p26: HavescenjShutterstock; [p28 David Hay jones/Science Photo Libraty: p40: Author: p41 ‘Martyn F, ChllmaidScience Photo Library, p41(B): Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p43(7): Author, pil} Author, ‘p43(0): Author, Martyn F-ChillmaigScience Photo Library: ol) ‘thor: p60: Martyn F. ChillmaigScience Photo Library: PSY: Martyn F CChilimatdjScience Photo Library: p60- Usas/iStockphoto: p69: Author: ‘p62{R|: Author, p79: Claude Naridsany & Marie PexennouScience Photo Library; pH0: Andrew Lambert Photograph/Seience Photo Library Science Photo Library: = Ria Novost/Science Photo Library: (p87; Bizroug/Smutterstock; p88-89- Elena Moiseeva/Shutterstock: p90: Science Photo Library: p94(1: Arhip4/Shutterstock; p9A{B) Stuart. ‘MonkSnutterstock: p81: Darren Begley/Shutterstock; p106: Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library; p107: Charles D. WintersScience Photo Library; p108: Charles RrutlagiShutterstock; p109\1) Author, pLO9|R}: Author: p110: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p11348):Petesayistockphoto. pL T}; Martyn F-Chillmatd) Science Photo Library; p111(B) Andrew Lambert Photography7Science Photo Library: p115(T) Andrew Lambert PhotographyfScience Fhoto brary: p115(): Charles D. WinteryScience Photo Library: p116: Andrew Lambert PhotographyjScience Photo Library: pL17: Hong, ‘Xia(Shutterstock: p101: Denis Burdin/Shutterstock: p02: Mathicr) Shutterstock: p113(T}: Author: p130: Martyn F. ChillmaidjSeience Photo Library: p143\T|: Blvdone|Shutterstock: p143(8): Trevor Chord PhotographypScience Photo Library: p126: Author; p148(B}: Dosing KindersleyiUig/Science Photo Library: p153: Charles. WintersScience Photo Library: p142{0) Gary719/Shutterstock: p142{B): Jean Mortison} Shutterstock; p14}: Andrew Lambert PhotographyjScience Photo Library: p145(81): Author, p145(BR): Author, pl48(T): Ssuaphotos) Shurterstock; p15S: Charles D, Winters Science Photo Library ‘VipavlenkoriShutterstock: p157: HacohobjShurterstock; p63: Photography; p185: ClafftaShutterstock: p187(7- Author: p188 Author, P177(l: Daniel Korzeniewski/hutterstock: p177(R): Nito} Shutterstock; p166: Picia NeriShutterstock: p195: Author p196{T} Zixian/Shutterstock: p187(B}: Ekaterina Baranova(Shutterstock: {p202;B): Author; p202(T: Stanzi Shutterstock; p20: Martyn F Chillmaidcience Photo Library: p209: Hasrudin/Shutterstock: 1p210: Gyvafoto/Shutterstock: p242T) FLPNAlamy: p21 4(7 rin) Shuwerstock; p214(C) Maxal Lauor/Sutwerstoek, p28): Vana) Shutterstock: p196/8L): Thinkstock: p196(HK): Ingram: p220: Andrew lambert PhotographyiScience Photo Library: p197(T: Fabio Sacchi) Shutterstock; p197(B}:PavlaShureerstoc; : Cayvoronskaya_Yana) Shutterstock: p206: Author: p213:Satit_Svihin/Shutterstock: p212(C ): SpwidodfShutterstock: p212(8): Author p216: Christian Draghici Shutterstock; p227; Andrew Lambert Phatography/cience Photo Library: p218: Jong HackemannjShurterstock: p230: Anna Omelchenko) Shutterstock; p23}: Author; p235(C Author: p235/B} Author. [p236(T: Author, p236(R: Jerry MasonjScience Photo Library; p242(L David NunukiScience Photo library; p242/Rl: Molckuul BeShutterstock: 1p251: Fenton One,Shutterstock, p254: Jim Varney/Science Photo Library: p246: Simon Fraser/Science Photo Library; p249: Helene ‘Wiesenhaan(Gerty Images; p164-165: Mopic)Shutterstock; p23: Arica StdiShutterstock; p259: Lanych/Shutterstock; p27(T} Martya F. ChllmaidiScience Photo Library: p299: Robert Boesch) Corbis: p300: Hacohobjshutterstock; p13: Cost osifShutterstock: [pSI5: PhotongiShurterstock; p321: Africa Stadio/Shutterstock: (9327: Charles D. WintersScience Photo Library: p337: Sherry Yates ‘Young/Shutterstock; p340: Science Photo Library: p444: Andrew lambert Photograpliy/Science Photo Library: paS4(D): Rikkert Harink) Shutterstock; p4540): Dusan JankovieSmutterstock; p4S6: Andrew Iamhert Photography/Science Photo Library, pal: Andrew Lambert Photography}Science Photo Library: p463: Artem FurmanyShutterstock; ‘AGH, Brian Lasenby/Shutterstock: p75: DutfeyShutterstock, ABO: LttleStocker'Shutterstock: p32(R): Dionisvera Shutterstock: ‘pA32IL) Tim UR\Shutterstock, pASS: Gannet77)Stockphoto; pado: lipw)Shurterstock; p442{Cy- Jon Le-Ron)Shntterstock: p90: ovfoxofUIG Getty Images; p$ 104): Andrew Lambert Photography} Science Photo Library: p69: Andrew Lambert Photagraphy/Seience Photo Library: p77: Optimar/Shutterstock: p484K()- Anukool Manoton/Shutterstock; p48: Tommaso lizzulShutterstock: p2S7: Xo_limit_piemaes/stockphoto; pO Impactimage, iStockphoto; 1p360(R} Byjeng/Shutterstock: p363xT} Valentyn Volkow/Shutterstock: 1p363(C)); Science photo/Shutterstock: p363{Ci) CAN BALCIOGLU] Shutterstock: p366: Mango)uicy/Shutterstock: p369: Arica Studio Shutterstock; p372: Peticolas)Megnayfundamental Photos/Science Photo Library: p3734L): MareynF-Chillmaid/Science Photo Library: [p373(R}: Martyn F. CillmaldjScfence Photo Library: p378: Avarand) Shutterstock; p384(C: Marco mayer/Shutterstock: p384(B): Cyvafoto) Shutterstock: p349; Andrew Lambert Photography/elence Photo Library: p395(7} Claus LunaujScience Photo Library, p395(B) Martin BondjScience Photo Library; p403iC}: Andrew Lambert Photography] Science Photo Library: p415(7: Power and SyredScience Photo Library AOL: Melinda Fawver/Shutterstock: p498(T): Monika Wisniewska) Shutterstock; p498®}: Maks Narodenko)Shutterstock; pSO8: Tanewpx) Shutterstock; p510{a Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library; ‘p510}): Andrews Lambert PhotographyjSclence Photo Library; P51: Andrew Lambert PhotographyjScience Photo Library; pS12: Mauro Fermariell)Science Photo Library, p513(B| Colin Cuthbert/Science Photo Library: p270-271: Lye of SciencelScience Photo Library: PBBACT) Andrew Lambert PhotographyjScience Photo Library: p442iB} Science Photo Library: p443: Martin RondjScience Photo Library: paSS(L: AntoinetteW Shutterstock; p455;): Maksimilian/Shutterstock: G7: Afica StudiShutterstock: p481[L) ImagemanjShutterstock:AS/A Level course structure This book has been written to support students studying for OCR AS Chemistry A and OCR A Level Chemistry A. It covers all of the modules from the OCR A Level Chemistry A specification, with modules 2, 3, and 4 also part of the OCR AS Chemistry A specification. The modules covered are shown in the contents list, which also shows you the page numbers for the main topics within each module. There is also an index at the back to help you find what you are looking for If you are studying for OCR AS Chemistry A, you will only need to know the content in the blue box. Year 1 content Year 2 content e * 2 1. Development of practical skills 5 Physical chemistry and s 2 inccheristry transition elements 3S 2. Foundations in chemistry 8 Giganic chemistry and analysis | 3 Periodic table and energy > 4 Core organic chemistry = < Level exams will cover content from Year 1 and Year 2 and will be at a higher demand. You will also carry out practical activities throughout your course, pA82{Q) Valentina Proskutina/Shutterstock: p543(T Bibipoto! Thank you to St John Rigby college, Wigan, forthe use of ther Shutterstock; p34: Charles D.WintersScience Photo Library, P9SS: _laboratry facilites inthe production of photographs MarcelClemens/Shutterstock: p29): Abramova Elena/Shutterstock: PALE), Remikesaoaisiutterhork, PSOB, Seenee Photofsuttertork, Although we have made every effort to trace and contact all 1430-431; Eye of SciencefScience Photo Libray. pS41; Olha Rohulya!___€0PYFight holders before publication this has not been possible TREE rine Eaner Teens in all cases, Ifnotified. the publisher will rectify any errors or Library p19(0 Chaves D, WintesSeience Photo Lbeary: omissions atthe earliest opportunity. ‘Author Photos: p277(8), p26018),p296, p01, p460, pAG4, pAGS, Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith HZ, p510(), pS, paBaB). P5631). p37OIL), p76.) and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for 1381(L), p384(C), p381(R). p382(L). p382(C), p382(R), p382(B), p994, ‘PA00{L},p400(), p4OORR), 402, 402A), p403(B), pAUS(T, PAOS(,pAOT, 13, pata(D). pA14(O, palA{B), p415(C), p415(), p16, pt, pa19(N, ‘#20, pA94, pADS{TL) pABSITC), pAVSITR),pA95(BL, pAVSIBC),p95/BR, #96{T), PASO(BL), pABGIRC), pAIPCT, 49718), nSOG(T, PSOO(C), PHOS, 507, p982(R), p86, pA9G(C), PADGIBR}, p28O(), p29t, p316: lithium battery: Author, ‘the materials contained in any third party website referenced inthis work Artwork by Q2A mediaHow to use this book Kerboodle Module 1 Development of practical skills in chemistry Module 2 Foundations in chemistry Chapter 2 Atoms, ions, and compounds 2.1. Atomic structure and isotopes 2.2. Relative mass 2.3. Formulae and equations Practice questions Chapter 3 Amount of substance 3.1. Amount of substance and the mole 3.2. Determination of formulae 3.3. Moles and volumes 3.4. Reacting quantities Practice questions Chapter 4 Acids and redox 4.1 Acids, bases, and neutralisation 4.2 Acid-base titrations 4.3 Redox Practice questions Chapter 5 Electrons and bonding 5.1 Electron structure 5.2. lonic bonding and structure 5.3 Covalent bonding Practice questions Chapter 6 Shapes of molecules and intermolecular forces 6.1 Shapes of molecules and ions 6.2. Electronegativity and polarity 6.3. Intermolecular forces 6.4 Hydrogen bonding Practice questions Module 2 summary Module 2 practice questions 2 6 8 8 12 15 19 20 20 22 26 32 38 40 40 43 44 52 54 54 59 63 68 70 70 74 7 81 84 86 88 vil Module 3 Periodic table and energy Chapter 7 Periodicity 24 The periodic table 22 _lonisation energies 23 Periodic trends in bonding and structure Practice questions Chapter 8 Reactivity trends 8.1 Group 2 8.2 The halogens 8.3 Qualitative analysis Practice questions Chapter 9 Enthalpy 9.1 Enthalpy changes 9.2. Measuring enthalpy changes 9.3. Bond enthalpies 9.4 Hess’ law and enthalpy cycles Practice questions Chapter 10 Reaction rates and equilibrium 10.4 Reaction rates 10.2 Catalysts 10.3 The Boltzmann distribution 10.4 Dynamic equilibrium and le Chatelier's principle 10.5 The equilibrium constant K. — part 1 Practice questions Module 3 summary Module 3 practice questions Module 4 Core organic chemistry and analysis Chapter 11 Basic concepts of organic chemistry 14.4 Organic chemistry 11.2 Nomenclature of organic compounds 14.3 Representing the formulae of organic compounds 90 92 92 96 101 106 108 108 112 117 tat 124 124 129 135 138 142 144 144 149 152 154 160 162 164 166 170 172 172 174, 17911.4 Isomerism 11.5 Introduction to reaction mechanisms Practice questions Chapter 12 Alkanes 12.1 Properties of alkanes 12.2 Chemical reactions of alkanes Practice questions Chapter 13 Alkenes 13.1 Properties of alkenes 13.2 Sterecisomerism 43.3 Reactions of alkenes 13.4 Electrophilic addition in alkenes 13.5 Polymerisation in alkenes Practice questions Chapter 14 Alcohols 14.4 Properties of alcohols 14.2 Reactions of alcohols Practice questions Chapter 15 Haloalkanes 15.4 The chemistry of the haloalkanes 15.2 Organohalogen compounds in the environment Practice questions Chapter 16 Organic synthesis 16.1 Practical techniques in organic chemistry 16.2 Synthetic routes Practice questions Chapter 17 Spectroscopy 124 Mass spectrometry 122 Infrared spectroscopy Practice questions Module 4 summary Module 4 practice questions 182 187 190 190 193 198 200 200 203 207 211 215 220 222 222 226 229 230 230 235 238 240 240 244 250 252 252 256 262 264 266 Module 5 Physical chemistry and transition elements Chapter 18 Rates of reactions 18.4 Orders, rate equations, and rate constants 18.2 Concentration—time graphs 18.3 Rate—concentration graphs 18.4 Rate-determining step 18.5 Rate constants and temperature Practice questions Chapter 19 Equilibrium 19.4 The equilibrium constant Kc ~ part 2 19.2 The equilibrium constant Kp 19.3 Controlling the position of equilibrium Practice questions Chapter 20 Acids, bases, and pH 20.1 Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases 20.2 The pH scale and strong acids 20.3 The acid dissociation constant Ka 20.4 The pH of weak acids 20.5 pH and strong bases Practice questions Chapter 21 Buffers and neutralisation 21.4. Buffer solutions 21.2 Buffer solutions in the body 21.3 Neutralisation Practice questions Chapter 22 Enthalpy and entropy 22.4 Lattice enthalpy 22.2 Enthalpy changes in solution 22.3 Factors affecting lattice enthalpy and hydration 22.4 Entropy 22.5 Free energy Practice questions Chapter 23 Redox and electrode potentials 23.1 Redox reactions 23.2 Manganate( Vil} redox titrations 23.3 lodine/thiosulfate redox titrations 270 are 272 277 282 287 289 292 294 294 298 302 307 310 310 31s 319 322 326 330 332 332 337 340 344 352 358 362 365 370 372 372 376 38123.4 Electrode potentials 23.5 Predictions from electrode potentials 23.6 Storage and fuel cells Practice questions Chapter 24 Transition elements 24.1 d-block elements 24.2 The formation and shapes of complexions 24.3 Stereoisomerism in complex ions 24.4 Ligand substitution and precipitation 24.5 Redox and qualitative analysis Practice questions Module 5 summary Module 5 practice questions Module 6 Organic chemistry and analysis Chapter 25 Aromatic chemistry 25.1 Introducing benzene 25.2 Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene 25.3 The chemistry of phenol 25.4 Disubstitution and directing groups Practice questions Chapter 26 Carbonyls and carboxylic acids 26.1 Carbonyl compounds 26.2 Identifying aldehydes and ketones 26.3 Carboxylic acids 26.4 Carboxylic acid derivatives Practice questions Chapter 27 Amines, amino acids, and proteins 27.1 Amines 27.2 Amino acids, amides, and chirality 27.3 Condensation polymers Practice questions Chapter 28 Organic synthesis 28.1 Carbon—carbon bond formation 28.2 further practical techniques 386 391 394 397 400 400 405 409 413 418 422 424 426 430 432 432 437 442 446 451 454 454 460 463 466 472 474 474 478 483 488 490 490 494 28.3 Further synthetic routes Practice questions Chapter 29 Chromatography and spectroscopy 29.1 Chromatography and functional group analysis 29.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR] spectroscopy 29.3 Carbon-12 NMR spectroscopy 29.4 Proton NMR spectroscopy 29.5 Interpreting NMR spectra 29.6 Combined techniques Practice questions Module 6 summary Module 6 practice questions Unifying concepts Analysing and answering a synoptic question Practice questions Reference Glossary Answers Index Periodic table 498 504 506 506 512 515 520 525 530 534 536 534 542 542 54? 268 273 288 294How to use this book Learning outcomes > Atthe beginning ofeach topic, there is alist of learning outcomes. > These are matched to the specification and allow you to monitor your progress. > Aspecification reference is also included in the topic header, SE Study tips contain prompts to help you with your understanding and revision fun iad These highlighted the key areas where topics relate to each other. AAs you go through your course, knowing how to link different areas of chemistry together becomes increasingly important. Many exam questions, particularly at ALevel, will require you to bring together your knowledge from different areas. ned to ns, as This book contains many different features, Each feature is desi support and develop the skills you will need for your examinat well as foster and stimulate your interest in chemistry Terms that you will need to be able to define and understand are highlighted by bold text C23 Application features These features contain important and interesting applications of chemistry in order to emphasise how scientists and engineers have used their ‘scientific knowledge and understanding to develop new applications and indundlcas:Theasealeapceitel aelerlin ets, nib ietoa(ll ‘to support further development of your practical skills 4 All application features have a question to link to material covered with the concept from the specification. + Extension features These features contain material that is beyond the specification. They are designed to stretch and provide you with a broader knowledge and understanding and lead the way into the types of thinking and areas you right study in further education. As such, neither the detail nor the depth of questioning will be required for the examinations. But this book is about ‘mare than getting through the examinations. 1 Extension features also contain questions that link the off-specification material back to your course, SIUC 1 These are short questions at the end of each topic 2 They test your understanding of the topic and allow you to apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired 3. The questions are ramped in arder of difficulty. Lower-demand questions have a paler background, with the higher-demand questions having a darker background. Try to attempt every question you can, to help you achieve your best in the exams. vitBas tes inthis module some of the key that module inter modules, across Level course. Introduction at the beginning of each module summarises what you will cover. Visual summaries show how concepts of link with other the entire A a Maths skills checklist A checklist helps you assess your knowledge from KS4 and earlier in your A Level course, before starting work on the module. There is also a maths skills checklist to demonstrate the skills you will learn in that module. Application task brings together some of the key concepts of the module in anew context. Extension task bring together some key concepts of the module and. develop them further, leading you towards greater understanding and further study.Practice questions at the end of each chapter and the end of each module, including questions that cover practical and math skills. Practice questions at the end of each chapter, with multiple choice questions and synoptic style questions, also covering the practical and math skills. The questions at the end of the AS modules are also labelled according to the AS. exam structure.Kerboodle This book is supported by next generation Kerboodle, offering unrivalled digital support for independent study, differentiation, assessment, and the new practical endorsement If your school subscribes to Kerboodle, you will also find a wealth of additional resources to help you with your studies and with revision. + Study guides Maths skills boosters and calculation worksheets + On your marks activities to help you achieve your best + Practicals and follow up activities to support the practical endorsement + Interactive objective tests that give question-by-question feedback + Animations and revision podcasts Self-assessment checklists Revise with ease using the study guides to guide {you through each chapter and direct you towards the resources you need, For teachers, Kerboodle also has plenty of further assessment resources, answers to the questions in the book, and a digital markbook along with full teacher support for practicals and the worksheets, which include suggestions on how to support and stretch students. All of the resources are pulled together into teacher guides that suggest a route through each chapter.MODULE 1 Development of practical skills in chemistry Chemistry is a practical subject and experimental work provides you with important practical skills, as well as enhancing your understanding of chemical theory, You will be developing practical skills by carrying out practical and investigative work in the laboratory throughout both the AS and the Alevel Chemisty course. You will be assessed on your practical skills is two different ways: © written examinations (AS and A level] * practical endorsement (A level only) Practical coverage throughout this book Practical skills are a fundamental part of a complete education in science, and you are advised to keep a record of your practical work from the start of your A level course that you can later use as part of your practical endorsement. You can find more details of the practical endorsement from your teacher or from the specification. In this book and its supporting materials practical skills are covered in a number of ways. By studying Application boxes and 1.1.1 Planning Designing experiments Identifying variables tobe controlled Evaluating the experimental method Exam-style questions in this student book, and by using the Practical activities and Skills sheets in Kerboodle you will have many opportunities to learn about the scientific method and carry-out practical activities. 1.1 Practical skills assessed in written examinations In the written examination papers for AS and Alevel, at least 15% of the marks will be from questions that assess practical skills. The questions will cover four important skill areas, all based on the practical skills that you will develop by carrying out experimental work during your course. © Planning — your ability to solve a chemistry problem in a practical context. + Implementing — your understanding of important practical techniques and processes © Analysing — your interpretation of experimental results setin a practical context and related to the experiments that you would have carried out. + Evaluating — your ability to develop a plan thatis fit for the intended purpose.1.1.2 Implementing Usinga range of practical apparatus Carrying out a range of techniques Using appropriate units for measurements Recording data and observations in an appropriate format 1.1.3 Analysis Processing, analysing, and interpreting results Analysing data using appropriate mathematical skills Using significant figures appropriately Plotting and interpreting graphs 1.1.4 Evaluation Evaluating results to draw conclusions Identify anomalies Explain limitations in method Identifying uncertainties and errors Suggesting improvements1.2 Practical skills assessed in practical endorsement You will also be assessed on how well you carry outa wide range of practical work and how to record the results of this work. These hands-on skills are divided into 12 categories and form the practical endorsement. This is assessed for A level Chemistry qualification only. The endorsement requires a range of practical skills from both years of your course. If you are taking only AS Chemistry, you will not be assessed through the practical endorsement but the written AS examinations will include questions that relate to the skills that naturally form part of ‘the AS common contentto the A level course. 1.2.1 Practical skills By carrying out experimental work through the course, you will develop your ability to: «design and use practical techniques to investigate and solve problems © use a wide range of experimental and practical apparatus, equipment, and materials, including chemicals and solutions + carry out practical procedures skillfully and safely, recording and presenting results in a scientific way * research using online and offline tools. Along with the experimental work, these skills are covered in practical skills questions throughout the book. 1.2.2 Use of apparatus and techniques To meet the requirements for the practical endorsement, you will be assessed in at least 12 practical experiments to enable you to experience a wide range of apparatus and techniques. These practical experiments are incorporated throughout the book in practical application boxes. This will help to give you the necessary skills to be a competent and effective practical chemist.Practical Activity Group (PAG) overview and Application features The PAG labels are opportunities for activities that could count towards the practical endorsement. The table below shows where these PAG references are covered throughout this course. PAG1—PAG3 and PAGS will be covered in Year 1, PAG6—8 and PAG10~11 in Year 2, and PAG4 and PAGS throughout the two-year course. There are a wide variety of opportunities to assess PAG12 throughout the specification, Topic tion reference eeu) PAG1 Moles determination 2.1.3(d); 2.1.3(i) 3.2,3.4,4.2, 9.2,10.1 PAG2 Acid—base titration 2.1.4(d) 42 PAG3 Enthalpy determination 3.2.1(e) 92 PAG4 Qualitative analysis of ions 3.1.4(a) 5.3.2(a) 83 PAGS Synthesis ofan organic liquid 4.2.3(a) 16.1 PAG6 Synthesis ofan organic solid 6.2.5(a) 6.3.1(a) 28.2, 29.1 PAG? Qualitative analysis of organic functional groups 6.3.1(c) 13.3, 15.1, 26.2, 29.1 PAG8 Electrochemical cells 5.2.3(g) 23.4 PAG9 Rates of reaction — continuous monitoring method 3.2.2(e) 5.1.1(h) | 10.1,18.2 PAG10 Rates of reaction — initial rates method 5.1.1(h) 18.3 PAG11 pH measurement 5.1.3(0] 213 PAG12 Research skills Maths skills and How Science Works across Module 1 Maths is a useful tool for scientists and as you study your course you will learn maths techniques and equations that support the development of your science knowledge. Each module opener in this book has an overview of the maths skills that relate to the. theory in the chapter. There are also questions using maths skills throughout the book that will help you practice How Science Works skills help you to put science in a wider context, and to develop your critical and creative thinking skills and help you solve problems in a variety of contexts. How Science Works is embedded throughout this book, particularly in application boxes and practice questions. You can find further support for maths and how science works on Kerboodle.MODULE 2 Foundations in Chemistry Chapters in this module 2 Atoms, ions, and compounds 3 Amount of substance 4 Acids and redox 5 Electrons and bonding 6 Shapes of molecules and intermolecular forces neces Ca tC) Chemistry is about all matter and the ee ane cn ces cy PERSE ote uae Ree a Suge ett Muster Dea eure eure Ce ene ee eau acUr Ec cy ee ec en Aree ae Cua kc Se ene kee Dated Cae eC eee! Carers ine Cu tee AC Pere ae Cu CeUea TT see on your periodic table. You will also learn Prema erence ers formulae and equations that allow chemists OR a oe RU eee ee eae PO eu Sen eRe Mn nuts TUR Come c Lome RU Co) Pe eat ne ate CG Ty Tees PORE ocean Cia seen RETIRE UC ee hg by titration using pipettes and burettes the Pes ei Ret aura ie curls from washing powders to medicines. In redox Ten ee te Ea Senos CC RU ee RCD ae eerie eee Electrons and bonding looks at the role of Sere Een Rune ee eC Le A good understanding of bonding and Bitrate ess cnr ie uae Shapes of molecules and intermolecular eee Sueur eR see how electrons determine the shape and polarity of molecule. You will learn about Teaco ac Pe eed et et ee ne Pee Reece cmKnowledge and understanding checklist From your Key Stage 4 study you should be able to answer the following questions. Work through each point, using your Key Stage 4 notes and the support available on Kerboodle. © Recall relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Calculate numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in atoms, given atomic number and mass number. Write formulae and balanced chemical equations. Calculate relative formula masses of species separately and in a balanced chemical equation. Use a balanced equation to calculate masses of reactants or products. Recall that acids react with some metals and with carbonates and write equations predicting products from given reactants. Describe neutralisation as an acid reacting with an alkali to form a salt and water. Explain reduction and oxidation in terms of gain or loss of electrons, identifying which species are oxidised and which are reduced. Ce OF (OF © S4ee Fe) Construct dot-and-cross diagrams for simple ionic and covalent substances. tye Uh MELE A =, a ” E Maths skills checklist In this module, you will need to use the following maths skills. You can find ‘support for these skills on Kerboodle and through MyMaths. ©) Working with standard form and significant figures, and using appropriate units, for carrying out all calculations in this chapter. ©) Changing the subject of an equation, for carrying out structured and unstructured mole calculations. C. Using ratios, fractions, and percentages, for working with moles and equations using ratios, calculating percentage yields, and calculating atom economies. NAL CO) Finding arithmetic means, for calculating weighted means when determining an atomic mass and when calculating mean titres. Using angles and shapes in regular 2-D and 3-D structures, for predicting the shapes of and bond angles in molecule and ions. @ MyMaths counATOMS, IONS, AND COMPOUNDS 2.1 Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > atomic structure > isotopes. proton electron ‘dutron ‘A Figure 1 The nuclear atom e__8 1 neutron 1 proton 1836 electrons. 1 proton ‘A Figure 2 Relative masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons Atomic structure and isotopes Specification reference: 2.1.1 Protons, neutrons, and electrons The nuclear atom AtGCSE, you learnt about the nuclear model of the atom (Figure 1). © The atom consists of a nucleus made up of two types of subatomic particle ~ protons and neutrons. © A third type of subatomic particle, called an electron, occupies a region outside the nucleus. Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in shells. ind electrons Properties of protons, neutrons, Mass Atoms and their subatomic particles have tiny masses. Instead of working in grams, chemists compare the masses of subatomic particles using relative masses (Figure 2). © A proton has © An-lectron has negligible mass, about irtually the same mass as a neutron. 1 Tact the mass of a proton. Accurate measurements show that a neutron has a slightly greater mass than a proton, by a factor of 1.001375. This is so close to 1 that chemists usually assume that protons and neutrons have the same mass. Charge ® A proton has a positive charge. ® Anelectron has a negative charge. © The charge on a proton is equal but opposite to the charge on an electron. The charges balance. © Ancutron, as its name suggests, is neutral and has no charge. The actual charge on a single proton is tiny: +1.60217733x10-!C (coulombs). The charge on a single electron must balance the charge. ona proton and is -1.60217733 x 10-!°C. It is much easier to use relative charges of 1+ for a proton and 1 for an electron. Building the atom Table 1 summarises the relative charges and masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons. © Nearly all of an atom’s mass is in the nucleus. © Atoms contain the same number of protons as electrons.RTPA ks ie bie ‘Vable 1 Charges and masses of some subatomic particles, relative tothe proton proton P 1 1 neutron a 0 1 electron e - a 1836 © The total positive charge from protons is cancelled by the total negative charge from electrons. © The overall charge of an atom is zero — an atom is neutral Neutrons can be thought of as providing the glue that holds the nucleus together despite the electrostatic repulsion between its positively charged protons. © Most atoms contain the same number of, or slightly more, neutrons than protons. © As the nucleus gets larger, more and more neutrons are needed. Atomic number — the identity of an element The number of protons in an atom identifies the element. As of 2014, the existence of 114 elements has been confirmed, and others have been tentatively reported, © Every atom of the same clement contains the sante number of protons. © Different elements contain atoms that have different numbers of protons. © The periodic table lists elements in order of the number of protons in the nucleus. Fach element is shown with the number of protons as its atomic number (or proton number). Figure 4 shows the first 18 elements in the periodic table with their atomic numbers. I 2 H He | 3 | 4 Bz ea 2 li | Be | Bi|c|N|o|F [Ne | 12 3 | 14 | is | t6 | a7 | a8 Na | Mg Atsi|e|s [oar ‘A Figure 4 Atomic numbers (proton numbers) for the first 18 elements Isotopes Every atom of an element has the same number of protons. © Every atom of mitrogen, atomic number 7, contains 7 protons. © Every atom of oxygen, atomic number 8, contains 8 protons. ©... And so on. ‘A Figure 3. One coin, two pounds, and three elements ~ next to one another in the periodic table 2 | 2 | 30 wi | w | Zn ‘+ alii atoms have 28 protons + all Cuotoms have 29 protons * allZn atoms have 30 protons Every periodic table shows each element labelled with its atomic number. You will always have ‘access to a copy ofthe periodic table. Using the periodic table, you will always be able to work out the number of protons (and electrons) inan atom.2.1. Atomic structure and isotopes deuterium 1 proton 1 proton Oneutron L neutron 1 electron L electron ‘A Figure 5 Twoisotopes of hydrogen with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons ‘mass number, A chemical symbol i) 8 atomic nismber, Z ‘A Figure 6 Isotope notation Sore) To work out the number of neutrons inan atom, simply subtract the ‘atomic number, from the mass number A: number of neutrons =A -Z A Figure ? Both glasses contain water. The left-hand glass contains ice cubes ‘made from heavy water. The right-hand glass contains normel ice. Solid 0,0 is denser than liquid water and so 0,0 ice cubes sink in water Unlike protons, the number of neutrons in the atoms of an can be different, usually within a narrow range. © Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and different masses (Figure 5). © Most elements are made up of a mixture of isotopes. Representing isotopes Isotopes are represented using the chemical notation shown in Figure 6. © Mass number (nucleon number) 4 4 © Atomic number (proton number) Z number of protons + number of neutrons Z= number of protons You can use this notation to work out the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in different isotopes of an element. Table 2 shows the atomic structures of three isotopes of oxygen. ‘V table 2. Atomic structures for isotopes of oxygen *0 8 8 8 %o 8 9 8 “0 8 10 8 Other ways of representing isotopes Chemists refer to isotopes in different ways, so you may sce an isotope of oxygen written as 60, '0, or simply as oxygen-16. All oxygen atoms contain eight protons, so if the ‘8’ is omitted, as in !6O and oxygen-16, you still know how many protons the isotope contains. Isotopes and chemical reactions Chemical reactions involve the electrons surrounding the nucleus. © Different isotopes of the same element have the same number of electrons. @ The number of neutrons has no effect on reactions of an element. © Different isotopes of an element therefore react in the same way. There may be small differences in physical properties — with higher-mass isotopes of an element having a higher melting point, boi density ~ but the chemical reactions are the same. (eve) Heavy water ‘You may have heard of heavy water, used to control processes in nuclear reactors. The H,0 molecules in normal water nearly all contain the ‘H isotope of hydrogen. In heavy water, all molecules of H,0 contain the 2H isotope ofRTPA ks ie bie hydrogen. The 2H isotope is often referred to as deuterium and even given its own symbol, D, The formula for heavy water is often written simply as 0,0 ‘The chemical properties of heavy water are almost identical to those of normal water. However, it has slightly different physical properties, shown in Table 3 V lable 3 Properties of 0,0 and H,0 Normal water, Heavy ry melting point /°C 0.00 boiling point /°C 100.00 density /gem? 1.00 The greater density of 0,0 gives heavy water its name. If all water were heavy water, you would sec ice far more often, as the water would freeze at a higher temperature. Tritium, T, isa third isotope of water containing two neutrons in the nucleus. Tritium forms an oxide called super heavy water. ‘2 Whats the reative mass of a molecule of ())H,0, iD, and (Ii) 7,0? b Predict how the melting point, boiling point, and density of f,0 would be different from H,0 and 0,0. Atomic structure of ions An ion is a charged atom. The number of electrons is different from the number of protons, © Positive ions, or cations, are atoms with fewer electrons than protons, Cations have an overall positive charge. © Negative ions, or anions, are atoms with more electrons than protons. Anions have an overall negative charge. Tons are always shown with their overall relative charge. Take the two: ions 4Mg?* and 3Scr- © Mg?* has two fewer electrons than protons. © Cl-has one more electron than protons. Table 4 shows the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the ions Mg and 22Cr-. YW lable 4. Atomic structures of ions CeCe Cece 2 oMe* 12 12 10 Scr wv 18 18 Ions and atoms of an element have the same number of protons but a different number of el Summary quest UE 1. State the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following isotopes: a 2 (1 mark) ee (1.mark) 2a. (1. mark) 2 Iron contains a mixture of four different isotopes: 54Fe, S5Fe, Fe, Fe. State how these isotopes differ. (1mark) b State the similarity between these isotopes. (1 mark) 3 State the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following isotopes: a SN (1:mark) b Bag (t1murk) c Pb (1mark) 4 State the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following ions: a ik (1:mark) bees (1 mark) ic cre (1. mark) 5 State the difference in the number of protons, neutrons, or electrons of the following: a Liand’Li (1mark) b "Qand%02 (1 mark) © 9K and4Ca®* (1 mark)Yer CELE) Sere iene scalars el Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass > mass spectrometry. This topic looks at how chemists use a mass system based on relative mass to compare the masses of atoms. Later you will see that this idea is extended to all chemicals. Carbon-12 Table 1 shows the relative mass of protons, neutrons, and electrons. To find the relative mass of an isotope, it might seem sensible to add together the relative masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons — but things are nor that simple. In fact, the strong nuclear force holding V Table 1 Masses of three subatomic particles together protons and neutrons comes at the expense of the loss of a fraction of their mass. This astonishing fact was worked out by Albert Einstein over 100 years ago. The small amount of mass lost is called proton pf ot the mass defect. If you are studying A Level physics, you may learn more about the mass defect and its importance to the nucleus. ea neutron | on 1.001325 0.000544 ‘So how do chemists calculate the mass of atoms if some mass is lost to hold the nucleus together? electron e First, a standard isotope is needed on which to base all atomic masses. This role is taken by the carbon-12 isotope, which is the international standard for the measurement of atomic masses. One atom of carbon-12 & has a mass of 1.992646538x 10-2kg. Working in kg would be very awkward so instead a new unit called the atomic mass unit is used. © The mass of a carbon-12 isotope is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units (12) © The standard mass for atomic mass is 1u, the mass of 7 th of an A Figure 1. Carbon-12 contains six atom of carbon-12. protons (black), six neutrons (blue), ond sixelectrons (red).An atom of carbon-12 @ On this scale, 1 u is approximately the mass of a proton or has a mass of exactly 12u aneutron. Relative isotopic mass Sorry Relative isotopic mass is the mass of an isotope relative to 7th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Table 2 shows the relative isotopic mass of several isotopes relative to the mass of carbon-12. Relative isotopic mass has no units hecause itis a ratio of two masses. You need to learn the definition for ‘V Table 2 Relative isotopic masses Relative isotopic m ee cous ee 1 12 exactly 12.0 *N 4 14.003 07400529 140 0 16 15.994914635 16.0 SF 19 18.998.403221S 19.0RTPA ks ie bie For A Level chemistry, you will be working with masses to one decimal place. In most cases, you can assume that the relative isotopic mass is the same as the mass number 4 of the isotope (number of protons and number of neutrons) Relative atomic mass Most el relativ ‘ments contain a mixture of isotopes, each with a different isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass 4, is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element relative to jth of the mass of an atom 12. of carbor The weighted mean mass takes account of: You may be provided with relative isotopic masses, but ifnot you can use the mass number (the sun ‘of the numbers of protons and neutrons), You should learn the definition for relative atomic mass. © the percentage abundance of each isotope ——— © the relative isotopic mass of each isotope. 14 5 16 In the periodic table, in addition to the atomic number, each si P s element is shown with its relative atomic mass, 4,. Figure 2 silicon | phosphorus | sulfur shows six elements of the periodic table, together with their | 9g 1 310) 321 m1 ber ve atomic ma I atomic numbers and relative atomic masses. a a a Determination of relative atomic mass ee & Be The percentage abundances of the isotopes in a sample eee eam of an element are found experimentally using a mass 72.6 7A9 79.0 spectrometer. Different types of mass spectrometer exist but all work to the same basic principle. mass A, 1 A sample is placed in the mass spectrometer, 2 The sample is vaporised and then ionised to form positive ions. 3. The ions are accelerated. Heavier ions move more slowly and are more difficult to deflect than lighter ions, so the ions of each isotope are separated. 4) The ions are detected on a mass spectrum as a mass-to-charge ratio m/z. Each ion reaching the detector adds to the signal, so the greater the abundance, the larger the signal, m relative mass of ion mass-to-charge ratio “4 = _telative mass of jon Z _ Felative charge on ion For an ion with one positive charge, this ratio is equivalent 0 the relative isotopic mass, which is recorded on the x-axis of the spectrum. Figure 4 shows part of the mass spectrum obtained from a sample of chlorine, with the percentage abundances for each isotope shown by each peak. The mass spectrum reveals two isotopes: © 75.78% of chlorine-35 @ =24.22% of chlorine-37. ‘A Figure 2. Elements in the periodic table. The ‘smaller number at the top is the atomic number Z, the larger number underneath is the relative atomic ‘A Figure 3 Ascientist using a mass spectrometer 7578 ge a3 # 2422 35 37 ‘A Figure 4 Mass spectrum of chlorine2.2 Relative mass You can work out the relative atomic mass using the method in the worked example below. Worked example: Relative atomic mass of chlorine ‘As accurate relative isotopic masses have not been provided, the mass number for each isotope is used. contribution contribution from *Cl from *7Cl ——— 75.78 x 35 + 24.22 x 37 100: 5.5 to one decimal place Relative atomic mas Summary questions Relative atomic mass = 35.4844 = Seton ern Determination of relative isotopic mass a relative isotopic mass (mark) THE mass spectrometer can also record the accurate m/z ratio for iby elcove fume mace, ee is so that accurate values of relative isotopic mass can fimork) Be measured 2 Calculate the relative atomic aa Relative atomic masses — time for change? mass of the following elements, Give your answers Every two years, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry to two decimal places. (IUPAC) reviews values for relative atomic masses for use across the world, ‘a Asample of potassium The review usually results in some very small adjustments, but the 2011 consisting of 93.20% of K, review made a more fundamental change. It has been known for many years 0.07% of “°K, and 6.73% that the isotopic abundances of an element may vary slightly depending on of **K. (mark) where the sample originates. In 2011, IUPAC published a new periodic table to b Asample of antimony take into account this variation by showing the relative atomic mass of some consisting of 56.87% elements as a range rather than a single value. Figure 4 shows an extract of "Sb and 43.13% from this periodic table. Compare the relative atomic masses of silicon and of !3Sb, (1 mark) ‘sulfur in Figure 2 and Figure 5. This change does not really affect the values © Asample of neon consisting used at A Level, but atomic masses shown to greater accuracy are affected, of 91.075 of Ne and and future reviews may affect other elements. 8.93%0fNe, (1 mark) 5 6 7 S 3. The accurate relative isotopic B c N 0 masses for the isotopes boron carbon nitrogen coygen chlorine-35 and chlorine-3? are (1080, 10.831 | (12.00, 12.021 | 114.00, 14.011 | 115.99, 16.001 34,968 852 721 69 (Cl) and BS es a aS ae 36.965 902 6211 (Cl). Al Si P * rai Gacaateihe eine ctonie aluminium sticon | phosphorus | sulfur chlorine aa or chloinatae sawn 2698 | 128.08, 28.001| 3097 _| (32.06, 32.081 | (35.44, 35.461 in the worked example, ‘A Figure 5. Extract from 2011 IUPAC Periodic Table using these accurate isotopic masses. (2 marks) Boron occurs naturally as a mixture of two isotopes, "°B and "1B. The b Comment on whether the relative isotopic masses are 1B 10.00 and'B 11.00. difference from use of Calculate the percentage abundances by mass of "°B and "Bin samples mass numbers is ‘of boron with relative atomic masses of (a) 10.80 and (b) 10.83, the limits significant, (1mark) of the range in the new IUPAC Periodic Table.2.3 Formulae and equations Specification reference: 2.1.2 lonic charges To study chemistry successfully at any level, you need to be able to write chemical formulae and construct balanced chemical equations. In this topic, you will review how to write the formula of an ionic compound from ionic charges and how to balance chemical equations. Simple ions from the periodic table You should remember from GCSE that many atoms lose or gain electrons to achieve the same electron structure as the nearest noble gas, helium (He) to radon (Rn). © Atoms of metals on the left of the periodic table fese electrons to form cations (positive ions) Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > writing formulae of ‘compounds > prediction of ionic charge from the periodic table names and formulae of ions v > chemical equations. © Atoms of non-metals on the right of the periodic table gain electrons to form anions (negative ions). Electron structure and ionic bonding - . willbe developed iater in Topic 5.1, For many elements you can use the element's position in the periodic | gigctin structure and Topie 52, table to work out the likely charge on the ion, as shown in Figure 1. iwacbapineandscaine 1+ 3+ a < —s + ions: electrons lost — ions: electrons gained He He ur Ne | O=[ F | Ne Nae | Mage Ay p> | s® | cr | ar Kt | Ca? Zn? Br | kr Rb* | Siz Agt F | xe Cst | Batt Rn ————— transition metals ‘A Figure 1. The charges of some simple ions can often be deduced from their position in the periodic table Some metals, mostly transition metals (Figure 1), can form several ions with different charges. The ionic charge is then shown with a Roman numeral in the name of the ion, For example: © Copper forms two ions ~ copper(l), Cu*, and copper(I), Cu. © Iron forms two ions - iron(Il), Fe?*, and iron(Ill), Fe**. Binary compounds A binary compound contains two elements only. © Toname a binary compound, use the name of the first element but change the ending of the second element's name to -ide. © For ionic compounds, the metal ion always comes first. For example, sodium and oxygen form sodium oxide. Synoptic link You are expected to know the charges on all the ions shown in Figure 1. Notice that Zn®* and Ag shown in green, do not fit into this pattern and you will need to learn these ionic charges. You will earn more about using Roman numeralsin names in Topic 43, Redox.2.3 Formulae and equations ‘A Figure 2 Cu* ions are responsible {forthe blue colour of copper(!) sulfate crystals, CuSO, Cor You are expected to know the names and forrnulae of the ions shown in blue in Table 4, but you will find it useful to learn them all Be warned - there is no easy way to work out these formulae! Polyatomic ions Sometimes, an ion may contain atoms of more than one element bonded together. These ions are called polyatomic ions. Table | shows some common polyatomic ions and their names. ‘V Table 1. Common polyatomic ions and their names rea ammonium hydroxide carbonate phosphate NH, OH c0,? nitrate sulfate No; so, nitrite sulfite Nos $0, hydrogencarbonate | dichromate(V!) HO, Cr,0,2 manganate (Vil) (permanganate) Mn0,, Writing formulae from ions An ionic compound contains a cation and an anion. The formula can be worked out from the charge on each ion In a correct formula: © the overalll charge is zero so the ionic charges must balance © sum of positive charges = sum of negative charges. Worked example: lonic formulae Compound name Ions present Balance charges Formula zine chloride Zn? and Cr 1 Zn?* ions balances 2 Cl- ions ZnCl, aluminium sulfate AP* and $0,2- 2 Al>* ions balance 3 $O,2- ions AL,(SO,)5, The charges must balance, but it’s just a matter of multiplication tables. 1 Zn (1 x 2+ = 2+) is balanced by 2 Cl- (2 x 1= = 2-) 2 AD* (2.x 34 = 64) is balanced by 3 $0,2- (3 x2 6) Writing the formula © The number of each ion present is shown as a subscript after the ion. The ionic charges are usually omitted in the completed formula. © Brackets are used if there is more than one polyatomic ion. Aluminium sulfate contains 2 AP* ions and 3 $0,?-ions and so the formula is Al,(SO,)5.RTPA ks ie bie Writing equations You will have practised balancing equations at GCSE. For A Level chemistry, you will come across many more equations, but you will find that balancing them quickly becomes second nature. By the end of the course you should be able to write equations for all the reactions you have studied and also for some unfamiliar reactions. Representing elements and compounds in equations Elements In equations, elements are shown simply as their symbol except for the few elements that exist as small molecules. Most of these elements exist as diatomic molecules, containing two atoms bonded together ~ H,, N,, 05, F,, Cl,, Bry, and I, The only other elements that exist as small molecules are phosphorus, P,, and sulfur, S,. (However, it is normal practice to write sulfur simply as S$ in equations ~ otherwise every formula in the equation has to be multiplied up by a factor of 8.) Compounds Covalent compounds do not contain ions. Most covalent compounds exist as molecules with a small number of atoms bonded together, for example, CO, and H,0. In equations, the formula of the molecule is used. For ionic compounds, the formula worked out from the ionic charges is used in equations. This is called the formula unit. State symbols in chemical equations State symbols are shown in brackets after a formula to indicate the physical state. There are four state symbols: © (g) -gas © () ~liquia © (3) ~solid © (aq) ~ dissolved in water (aqueous) Balancing equations To balance an equation, you multiply each formula by a balancing number until the number of atoms of each element is the same on each side of the equation. Balancing numbers are written in front of cach formula, 2.Na,O means two Na, formula units giving 2 x 2 = 4 Na’ and 2x 1=20* ions. © When balancing an equation you must not change any chemical formula. © Balancing numbers go iv front of chemical formulae and on the line {not subscripted) © The equation is balanced when there are the same number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation, Remember to use brackets. Students often lose marks by omitting brackets when writing the formula of a hydroxide, Magnesium hydroxide contains: Mg?* and OH ions. MgOH, is incorrect as it means one ‘oxygen and two hydrogen ators! The correct formula is Me(OH),. Brackets are added ifthere is more than one polyatomic ion in a formula, You will find out more about these different formulae in Topic 3.2, Determination of formulae, Bere When balancing equations, itis ‘a common mistake to change a formula. The formula for water is H,0. Do NOT change the formula to H,0,, this is hydrogen peroxide!_ 2:2) Form ‘Aluminium oxide is an ionic compound, so you will need to ic charges. Aluminium is shown simply as its symbol, Al Oxygen exists as diatomic molecules and sos shown as 0, Start with the formulae of compounds and count the number of atoms of each element. You are allowed to use fractions. when balancing equations. I you are comfortable using fractions, this can be easier than whole numbers. For the worked example, this would give 1, 2Al+ 150, —-Al,0, Don't forget to add state symbols! nd equations Worked example: Constructing a balanced equation Aluminium reacts with oxygen to form aluminium oxide. Step 1: Work out the formulae. Aluminium oxide contains Al’* and O?- ions, so the formula is Al,O,. ee eer and products. n using formulae for all reactants Formulae only: Al + 0, — Al,0; Step 3: Balance the equation by placing balancing numbers on the line, in front of formulae. The key here is to get the oxygen atoms equal on both sides. 4A1 +30, — 2Al,0, Asa final check, © Left-hand side has 4 Al and 3 x 2 (= 6) 0 © Right-hand side has 2 x Al,O, =2 x 2 (=4) Aland 2x 3 (= 6) 0 The equation is balanced. Step 4: Finally, add state symbols to complete the equation. 4Al(s) + 30,(g) > 2A1,0,(s) Balancing formulae with brackets Take care when balancing formulae with brackets. Remember that the balancing number multiplies the entire formula. 3 Zn(NO,), means 3 x Zn(NO,), ‘This gives 3 Zn, 3 x 2=6N, and 3x3x2=180 Summary questi 1. Write formulae for the following: 3. Balance the following equations: a potassium oxide (1mark) a NH,(g) +0,(aq) — NO(aq) + 4,0(1) (1 mark) b_ magnesium iodide (1mark) —b CyHia(e)+0,(g) > C0,(e) +H,0()) (1 mark) ¢ calcium phosphide (1 mark) ¢ Al,0,(s) +H,P0,(aq) — Al,(P0,)-(aq) +H,0(I) 4. iron(Il) hydroxide (1 mark) (1mark) fe ammonium carbonate (mark) _Zn(s) + HNO,(aq) — Zn(NO.), (aq) + No(g) + H,0(!) £ iron(Il) nitrate (1 mark) (1mark) 2 Name each compound from the formula. 4 Write balanced equations with state symbols for the a AIN (1mark) following reaction: b (NH,);PO, (1mark) Magnesium reacts with solid phosphorus ¢ Fe,(S0,)5 (1 mark) to form solid magnesium phosphide. (2 marks) Iron reacts with aqueous copper(I) nitrate to form copper and aqueousiron(Il) nitrate. (2 marks) © Lead(|!) nitrate decomposes to form solid lead(l!) oxide and two gases, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. (2marks)Practice questions 1 This question refers to species A-D. For cach part, select the correct species. tp ie ec or pane 13 7 . 1 a The number of protons and neutrons are the same. (I marky b_ The number of neutrons and electrons are the same. (1 mark) ¢ The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons are all different. (1 marky The answer to each part of this question is a number, a How many neutrons are in an atom of zine-68? (1 mark) b_ Whatis the total number of electrons in a CO, ion? (1 mark) © What is the total number of ions is one formula unit of chromium (111) sulfate? (1 mark) This question looks at isotopes of three elements. a An isotope of element A contains the same number of neutrons as are found in an atom of °!V. The isotope of A also contains 26 protons. (i) How many protons in an atom of V2 (1 mark) (ii) Write the symbol, including the mass number and the atomic number, of this isotope of A. (2 marks) b_ An isotope of element B has half as many protons and half as many neutrons as an atom of Ti, Write the symbol, including the mass number and the atomic number, of this isotope of B. (2 marks) © An isotope of element € has three more protons and four more neutrons than an atom of *!Br. Write the symbol, including the mass number and the atomic number, of this isotope of C. (2 marks) Neon exists as a mixture of isotopes. a What is meant be the term isotopes? (1 mark) b_ Define the term relative isotopic mass. (2 marks) RICE e oie bie © A sample of gallium, 4, = 69.7, was analysed and was found to consist of 65% Ga and one other isotope. Determine the mass number of the other isotope in the sample of gallium, (1 mark) Complete the table below for two ions that have the same number of electrons as a neon atom. (2 marks) CCAM Ca ud 9 2- 4 3+ A sample of sulfur, Z = 16, was analysed in a mass spectrometer to give the following composition of isotopes. Abundance (%) Bs 94.93 = 0.76 4.29 0.02 From the results, the relative atomic mass of the sulfur sample can be calculated. a Define the term relative atomic mass. (3 marks) b Calculate the relative atomic mass of the sample of sulfur. Give your answer to two decimal places. (2 marks) ¢ Complete the table to show the number of sub-atomic particles in a °S atom and an 5? jon. (mark) es 4S sg Write equations, with state symbols, for the following reactions. a Magnesium reacts with nitrogen to form magnesium nitride. (2 marks) b= Calcium reacts with water to form a solution of calcium hydroxide and hydrogen. (2 marks) ¢ Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with iron(II) sulfate solution to form an iron(ill) hydroxide precipitate and sodium sulfate solution. (2 marks)Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > the amount of substance, ‘the mole, and the Avogadro constant > molar mass > calculations involving masses and moles. AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE 3.1 Amount of substance and bem uted(y Specification reference: 2.1.3 Counting and weighing atoms Chemicals are usually measured by mass or volume. Because reactions take place on an atomic scale, chemists need a method for converting a measured mass or volume into the actual number of particles involved in reactions Amount of substance and the mole Chemists use a quantity called amount of substance 1 to count the number of particles in a substance, measured in a unit called the mole mol. One mole is the amount of a substance that conta 6.02 10? particles. The Avogadro constant N, is 6.02% 10?*mol the number of particles in each mole of carbon-12 as The choice of 6.02 x 10" particles per mole may seem strange, but You learnt about carbon-12 in is directly linked to the mass of carbon-12, the standard for the Topic 2.1, Relative mass. The mass of 1 mole of atoms of an element equals the relative atomic mass in grams measurement of relative atomic masses. 12 g of carbon-12 contains 6.02 107 atoms. You can easily find the mass of one mole (1 mol) of atoms of any element ~ itis the relative atomic mass in grams. One jole of carbon, C, atoms has a mass of 12.08 One mole of hydrogen, H, atoms has a mass of 1.03 One mole of magnesium, Mg, atoms has a mass of 24.3 One mole of iron, Fe, atoms has a mass of 55.8g So if you have a sample of an element and know its mass, you now have a way of kuowing the number of atoms. This is a very important idea for chemistry — it offers an easy way of counting something that cannot be seen, just by measuring the mass. Itis difficult for us to comprehend the size of very large numbers. . ales ws > | The Avogadro constant - amazingly large If 6.02% 10 (1 mol) pennies were shared evenly between all humans ‘A Figure { Molarquantites forchemical 0” Earth, every person could spend £1m every hour for their whole life. ‘elements, clockwise from top left * 12.09 carbon, C #321 g sulfur,S + 55.89 iron, Fe * 63.59 copper, Cu * 24.3 g magnesium, Mg. Particles matter Amount of substance and moles can refer to anything, not just atoms. When you worl , it is important to use the formula or unambiguous name of a substance for clarity mole Each sample contoins the samenumber @ 1 mol of H: 1 mol of hydrogen atoms ofatoms, but their masses are different © 1 mol of H,: 1 mol of hydrogen moleculesROTM eeu Molar mass Molar mass, M, gives a convenient way of linking moles with mass for any chemical substance. e Mc) © M(NO,) = © M(Na,CO,) 2.0 gmol? 4.0 + 16.0 x 2 = 46.0 mol. 3.0 x 2+ 12.0 + 16.0 x 3 = 106.0 gmol Molar mass gives the mass in grams in each mole of the substance © Molar mass is the mass per mole of a substance. © = The units of molar mass are gmol". Amount of substance 1, mass vt, and molar mass M are linked by the equation below. mass m amount 1 =—™285 amore simply, molar mass M re a Bettas m i= Misa key equation for working out 1, m, or M. Le aie ay M you are comfortable rearranging the equation so that you can work Worked example: Amount of substance, mass, and mibomset nmi andi any he other two. You may find this format molar mass useful to remember: 1 Calculate the amount of substance, in moles, in 96.0 of carbon, C. m _ 96.0 ‘i 75:0 = 8.0mol 2 Calculate the mass, in g, of 0.050 mol of NO,, u Mig m=nx M=0.050 x 46.0 =2.3g rearrange 7 M 3. Calculate the molar mass when 2.65g contains 0.025 mol of a IF you cover, you are left with Fr. IF you cover m, you are left Speen with n x M. you cover M, you are rearrange: M = 06.0gmol teftwith Summary questions 4. Calculate the amount of substance, in mol, in the 2. Calculate the mass, in g, of the following. Use relative following, Use relative atomic masses to one decimal atomic masses to one decimal place. place. a 280 mol BeO (1 mark) a G.00gHF (1 mark) b 0.150 mol HNO, (1.mark) b 220gN,0 (1mark) © 0,0500mot H,PO, (1mark) © 114gCr,0, (1mork) — @ 1.25%10-2mo!Na,CO, (1mark) d 0.0150 ¢C,H,.0, (1mark) @ 4.55% 10-$molCa(NO.), (1mark) © 3.45% 107g Ca(OH), (tmork) 3 Calculate the molar mass, in gmol +, ofthe following substances. Use relative atomic masses to one decimal place. a 5.00 mol Ahas amass of 140g (1mark) b 0.125 mol B has a mass of 9.25 g (1mark) © 4.50% 10-*mol Chas amass of 3.825 (1 mark)Were CLE Specification reference: 2.1.1, 2.1.3 Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: empirical and molecular formula formula determination hydrated salts practical techniques for measuring mass. boue ‘VTable 1 Examples of compounds with their empirical and molecular formulae co, co, GH, —+ (tH, POs CoH 205 ‘AFigure 1. A diamond crystal and the giant structure of carbon atoms in a diamond ST uns You learnt about relative isotopic ‘mass, relative atomic mass, the important role of carbon-12 in atomic mass measurements in Topic 2.2, Relative atomic mass. Chemical formulae In this topic, you will sce how to use the results from chemical experiments to work out a chemical formula. Molecular formulae Some compounds are made up of small units called molecules — two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. The molecular formula is the number of atoms of each element in a molecule. In Topic 2.3, Formulae and equations, you looked at the elements that exist as molecules. In equations, these nents are shown as their molecular formulae ~ Il, Ny, Oy, Fy Cly, Bry, Ty, Py and 5, Many compounds also exist as molecules, and again the molecular formula is used in equations. Empirical formulae The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. The empirical formula is important for substances that do not exist as, molecules. This includes metals, some non-metals (e.g., carbon, C, and silicon, $i), and ionic compounds (¢.g., sodium chloride, NaCl). These substances form giant crystalline structures of atoms 01 ns, It would be impossible to base a formula on the actual number of atoms or ions — the numbers would go into billions of billions and would vary depending on the size of the crystals. The empirical formula is the ratio of atoms or ions in the structure and will always be the same. Figures 1 and 2 show giant crystalline structures of carbon and sodium chloride. You will find out more about these structures later in the course, More relative masses Some compounds exist as simple molecules (e.g., water, H,0, and carbon dioxide, CO,). Other compounds exist as giant crystalline strnctures (e.g, all ionic compounds). Two terms are needed for relative mass, one for simple molecules and another for giant structures. Relative molecular mass Relative molecular mass M, compares the mass of a molecule with the mass of an atom of carbon-12. You can easily calculate a relative molecular mass by adding together the relative atomic masses of the clements making up a molecule. The examples below show how to work out the relative molecular mass of molecules of water, H,0, carbon dioxide, CO,, and glucose, C,H,,0,.ROTM eeu © M,{H,0) = © MICH,) = © MICH, 306) 1.0 x 2) + 16.0 = 18.0 2.0 + (1.0 x 4) = 16.0 (12.0 x 6) + (1.0 x 12) + (16.0 x 6) = 180.0 Relative formula mass Relative formula mass compares the mass of a formula unit with the mass of an atom of carbon-12. It is calculated by adding together the relative atomic masses of the elements in the empirical formula, as shown in the examples below. © NaCl = 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5 © Ca(NO,)y = 40.1 + (14.0 + 16.0 x 3) x 2 = 164.1 chloride ion, i Finding formulae by experiment @ You can predict the formula of an ionic compound from its ions, but sogium ion, Na’ if you do not know which ions are in a compound, the formula can a re 2 Rock salt (sodium chloride) be worked out from the results of experiments. Investigating the crystals ond the giant structure with one chemical composition of a substance is called analysis. sodium ion for every chloride ion These worked examples show two common ways to calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental mass readings. Notice the central role of the mole in these calculations, Worked example: Empirical formula from mass Study tip In an experiment, 1.203g of calcium combines with 2.13g of - Students sometimes wrongly chlorine to form a compound [4,: Ca, 40.1; Cl, 35.5]. a round ratios of moles that appear Step 1: Convert mass into moles of atoms using = 7 quite close toa whole-number (Ca) =4203 -9.930m0l _n(cl) = 213 = 0.060mol ratio. IF you calculate a ratio of 40.1 35.5 1:1,67, don't be tempted to round Step 2: To find the smallest whole-number ratio, divide by the itup to 1:2. Instead see whether smallest whole number. {you can convert the ratio into a (Ca): nen) 20.030 0.06025 whole-number ratio by multiplying .030 * 0.030 both sides by the same factor, in Step 3: Write the empirical formula: CaCl, his aaa arn give 45 Worked example: Determination of a molecular formula Chemical analysis of a compound gave the percentage composition by mass C: 40.00%; H: 6.67%; 0: 53.33% [A,: C, 12.0; H, 1.0; O, 16.0]. The relative molecular mass of the compound is 180.0. mn Step 1: Convert % by mass into moles of atoms using 1 = 5 _ 40.00 6.67 53.33 _ n(c) = 99.090 — 3.33mol n(Ht) = $57 — 6.67mol n(0) =72:3 = 3.33mol Step 2: Find smallest whole-number ratio and empirical formula. _ 3:33 , 6.67 3.33 _ 1.5, . (Cp: m(H) : m(0) = 33% SSF 399 12221 empirical formula = CHO Step 3: Write the relative mass of the empirical formula CH,O: 12.0 + 1.0 x 2 + 16.0 = 30.0 at 180 ind number of CH,O units in one molecule: 35%, Step 5: Write the molecular formula: CH,O x 6 = C,H,,0, Step3.2 Determination of formulae Hydrated salts Many coloured crystals are hydrated — water molecules are part of their crystalline structure. This water is known as water of crystallisation. When blue crystals of hydrated copper(II) sulfate are heated, bonds holding the water within the erystal are broken and the water is driven off, leaving behind white anhydrous copper(I) sulfate. The equation below represents the change when water is removed. The water of crystallisation is shown in the formula of hydrated copper(I) sulfate with a large dot + between the compound formula and the five water units. CuS0,#51,0(s) + Cuso,(s) + 5H,0(1) hydrated anyhdrous Without water, the crystalline structure is lost and a white powder A Figure 4 Hydrated (blue) and remains. It is difficult to remove the last traces of water, as you can ‘enyhydrous (white) copper(l) sulfate sec from the very pale blue colour of the anhydrous copper) sulfate in Figure 4. Formula of a hydrated salt ‘The method below describes how you could carry out ‘The results are shown below. an experiment to determine the water of crystallisation in hydrated crystals. The calculation is similar to the ‘method described for an empirical formula. mass of crucible + 28.726 hydrated salt/g massofcrucible/g | 18742 | < ReadingA — Reading B The experiment uses hydrated copper(I) sulfate but the mass of crucible + ‘method would be suitable for any hydrated salt 25.126 Reading anhydrous salt/g, Step 1: Weigh an empty crucible. Step 1: Calculate the amount, in mol, of anhydrous CuSO, massm of CuSO, formed = C-A=25.126 ~ 18,742 =6.384g 384 Step 3: Using a pipe-clay triangle, support the ‘n{CuS0,) =F = tg g = 0.0400 mol crucible containing the hydrated salt on a tripod ‘Step 2: Calculate the mass and amount, in mol, of water. (Figure 5). Heat the crucible and contents gently mass m of H,0 formed = B ~ C = 28726 ~ 25.126 = 3.600g for about one minute. Then heat it strongly for a 3.600 (11,0) = 2-200 - 9, 1 further three minutes. n(teo Sen ie ‘Step 2: Add the hydrated salt into the weighed crucible. Weigh the crucible and the hydrated salt. 18.0 ‘Step 3: Find the smallest whole-number ratio. n(CuS0,):n(H,0) = 0.0400: 0.200 = 1:5 crucible Step 4: Write down the value of x and the formula of hydrated copper) sulfate hydrated copper sulfate. pipe-clay triangle x=5sso the formula is CuS0,*SH,0 ‘Step 4: Leave the crucible to cool. Then weigh the crucible and anhydrous salt | tripoa Use the student results below to determine the value ‘of x and the formula of CoC +xH,0. ‘Bunsen burner mass of crucible/g | 17265 mass of crucible + hydrated salt/g | 18.438 mass of crucible + anhydrous sait/g | 12906 A Figure 5 Apparatus for heating crucibleHow accurate is an experimental formula? The application above gives a perfect formula for hydrated copper(I) sulfate. Some assumptions have been made, and real experiments may not always work out as well. Assumption 1 — All of the water has been lost If the hydrated and anhydrous forms have different colours, you can be fairly sure when all water has been removed. However you only see the surface of the crystals and some water could be left inside. If the hydrated and anhydrous forms are similar colours, it is not as easy. A good solution is to heat to constant mass ~ the crystals are reheated repeatedly until the mass of the residue no longer changes, suggesting that all water has been removed. Assumption 2 — No further decomposition Many salis decompose further when heated; for example, if heaved very strongly, copper(II) sulfate decomposes to form black copper(II) oxide. This can be very difficult to judge if there is no colour change. ROTM eeu Synoptic link As part of the practical skills required for your course, you need to know how to measure mass, volumes of solutions, and volumes of gases. This practical application box tells, {you how to measure masses. Measuring mass, volumes of solutions, and volumes of gases are also covered in: © Topic 3.4, Reacting quantities, for howto measure the volumes of gases Topic 4.2, Acid—base titrations, for how to measure volumes of solutions Summary questions Topic 9.2, Measuring enthalpy 1 a Determine the relative molecular mass of the following: (3 marks i So, MIP; HID, b Determine the relative formula mass of the following: (3 marks; 1 MgBr, ii NH,NO, iti A1,(SO,); 2 Anickel compound has the formula Ni(NO.),*xH,0 and @ molar mass changes, for how to measure ) mass Topic 10.1, Reaction rates, for haw to measure volumes. ) of gases. of 290.7 g mol * Calculate the value of x. (3marks) 3. Determine all possible molecular formulae and M, values less than 12U for the empincal formula LH. (1mark) 4 Astudent carried out an experiment to calculate the water of crystallisation of two hydrated salts. For the first salt, the student did not remove all the water of crystallisation. For the second salt, the student removed all the water of crystallisation, but unfortunately the salt decomposed further. For each salt, explain whether the student's calculated value of x, the ‘number of water molecules in the formula unit, would be greater or ‘smaller than the actual value of xin data books. (4 marks)} 3.3 Moles and volumes Jolt dere lant cl1 tal eer ae Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > concentration, solution volumes, and the mole > molargas volumes Using volume for measuring amount of substance Liquids and gases are measured by volume. As with mass, the volume of a solution or a gas can be converted into amount of substance, in moles, giving us a way to count the particles present. The volume measurements commonly used in chemistry are: © the cubic centimetre (cm?) or millilitre (ml): Lem © the cubic decimetre (din) or litre (): > the ideal gas equation. 1m? = 1000cm? = 100ml = 1 litre, 11. You will be expected to use em? and dm. In practical work, you will uve glassware graduated int ant aud 1, anid you should record these readings in em? and dm>, Moles and solutions To work out the amount, in moles, of a measured volume of the solution, you need to know the concentration (moldm-) of the solute (the dissolved compound). The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute, in moles, dissolved in each 1dm? (1000cm)) of solution. ‘A Figure 1 Laboratory glassware A Imoldm™ solution contains 1 mol of solute dissolved in each 1dm? of solution, Converting between moles and solution volumes For a solution, amount 7 (mol) and volume V (dm?) are linked by the concentration ¢ (mol dm). Berk You will use these equations many times, so you will need to lear them. n=exV You will usually measure volumes in cm? so you will need to convert into dm? by dividing by 1000. The equation then becomes: x Vfcm’) 1000 n=c Worked example: Converting between solution volumes and moles 1 Calculate the amount of NaCl, in mol, in 30.0cm) of a 2.00moldm solution. = cx Yam) 30.0 (NaCl = ¢ x Toag = 2-00 x T59 .0600 mol 2 Calculate the volume of a 0.160 moldm™ solution that contains 3.25 x 107 mol of NaCl. = ex Vien) = 1000 xm _ 1000 x 3.25 x 10 mee1000 Aa 0.160 =20.3cm?ROTM eeu Synoptic link Standard solutions A standard solution is a solution of known concentration, In practical work, you will have seen bottles of standard solutions labelled with their concentration, often as 1 mol dm-’. Standard solutions and their preparation are discussed in detail in Topic 4.2, Acid-base titrations. Standard solutions are prepared by dissolving an exact mass of the solute in a solvent and making up the solution to an exact volume, Using your understanding of the mole, you can work out the mass required to prepare a standard solution. Worked example: Standard solutions Calculate the mass of Na,CO, required to prepare 100m? of a 0.250moldm- standard solution. Step ¢ work out the amount in moles required, = ex Vin cm) _ eal0dre n(Na,CO,) 1000 = 9250 * Fogg = 0-0250mol Step 2: Then work out the molar mass of Na,CO,. M(Na,CO,) = 23.0 x 2+ 12.0 + 16.0 x 3 = 106.0gmol" ‘Step 3: Rearrange 1 = x to calculate the mass of Na,CO, required. m= nx M= 0.0250 x 106.0 = 2.658 Other ways of showing concentrations You will often see mass concentrations with units of gdm™>. For the solution of Na,CO, in the worked example above, the concentration is 0.250moldm>, To work out the mass concentration, you need to convert between moles and grams. m uM © mass concentration of Na,CO, = 26.5 gdnr ” 50, m= x M = 0.250 x 106.0 = 26.508 Moles and gas volumes In Topic 3.1, you saw how to convert between mass in grams and amount of substance in moles. It is difficult to measure the mass of a gas but easy to measure gas volumes. At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of molecules. So when you measure a gas volume, you are indirectly counting the number of gas molecules (or the amount of gas molecules in moles) Molar volume The molar gas volume V,,, is the volume per mole of gas molecules at a stated temperature and pressure. The volume of a gas depends on the pressure and temperature, but many experiments are carried out at room temperature and pressure (RTP).3.3 Moles and volumes % ‘A Figure 2 Ahelium weather balloon is released by 0 meteorologist. A sensor ‘attached tothe balloan will measure ‘ozone distribution in and beyond the ‘ozone layer, which is 20-30km above the Earth's surface. So helium balloons ‘are farless dense than air and they are ‘able to rise up to the ozone layer © RIPis about 20°C and 101 kPa (1 atm) pressure © ALRTP. 1 mole of gas molecules has a volume of approximately 24.0dm} = 24000cm’. 24.0dm* mol". © Therefore, at RTP, the molar gas volume Converting between amount in moles and gas volumes Using the following equation, you can convert between the amount in moles of a gas, and the volume of the gas, V. volume V) molar gas volume V,, ALRT, V,, = 24.0dm* mol", so a © when Visindm® n= ¥idm) 24.0 © when Visinon! —n- Yam) 24000 amount (mol| Worked example: Converting between gas volume and amount in moles 1 Calculate the amount (mol) of hydrogen, H,(g), in 480cm> at RTP. ie n= Vlinem’) _ 480 _ 9.900 mol of H, 24000 ~ 24000 2 Calculate the volume, in dm?, of 0.150mol O,(g) at RTP, Rearrange to give V (dm?) = 1 x 24.0 0.150 x 24.0 = 3.60dm? The ideal gas equation Room temperature and pressure will always be approximate, chosen to match the ty So what do you do when carrying out experiments where the gases are at different temperatures or pressures. or if you need to be more accurate? The ideal gas equation provides a solution. 1 conditions that experiments are carried out in. You will have come across the following assumptions for the molecules making up an ideal gas: © random motion © clastic collisions © negligible size © no intermolecular forces. The ideal gas equation is shown below. pV=nkT The ideal gas constant & is a pV = nRT constant and always has the same value of 8.314 mol! K-!, Temperature is in units of K (Kelvin), which starts at absolute zero (-273°C). Each 1K rise in temperature is the same asa 1°C rise in temperature.ROTM eeu idea gas conta SU aedans volume 831 1mol#Kt tm?) Ifyou have not met the Kelvin scale of temperature before, you can find out more detail in Topic y= <———_ ects 9.2, Measuring enthalpy changes © pressufe amount as (Pa) motecules (mol) As long as you know three of p, V, 2, and T, you can always find out the unknown variable using the ideal gas equation. Before using the ideal gas equation, you need to convert any quantities into the correct units Pa, K, and m?. The conversions from measurements likely to be made when carrying out experiments are shown below. © cm tom x 10% © dm tom? x 107 © “CtoK +273 © kPa to Pa x 10° Worked example: What is room temperature and pressure? You can use the ideal gas equation to find out the conditions that give a molar gas volume of 24.0dm? mol", Assume that the pressure is 1 atm = 101 kPa and use this to calculate room temperature. The hardest part of calculations using the ideal gas equation, pV=oRT, is making sure that you Sor Step 1: Convert all quantities to match the ideal gas equation. p=101kPa = 101x10%Pa ‘are working in units of Pa, m®, and V=24.0dm> = 24.0x107m?* K. Learn the conversion rules. n=1mol T= unknown Step 2: Use the ideal gas equation to calculate the unknown. pV =nRT rearranges to, T=2E (LOL x 10°) x (24.0 x 107) _ =19°C T ee 292K = 19°C Many people make the incorrect assumption that room temperature is 25°C (298K), the temperature often regarded as standard temperature for chemistry. Using the ideal gas equation, you can show that the molar gas volume at 25°C and an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa is actually equal to 24.5dm? mor.3.3 Moles and volumes Ae ; UJ Finding a relative molecular mass You can use the ideal gas equation to find the relative molecular mass of a volatile liquid. Using the method below, the unknown compound would need to be a liquid at room temperature but have a boiling point below 100°C so that it vaporises. 1. Add a sample of the volatile liquid to a small syringe via a needle, Weigh the small syringe. Inject the sample into a gas syringe through the self-sealing rubber cap (Figure 3). Reweigh the small ‘syringe to find the mass of the volatile liquid added to the .g2s syringe. Place the gas syringe ina as syinge boiling water bath at 101 aeecaee ‘as shown in Figure 3.The _rubtercan }—boiling water liquid vaporises producing a gas. The pressure is recorded. 4 Figure 3 Results mass of volatile liquid =0.2245g volume of gasin gas syringe =81.0cm? atmospheric pressure 100 kPa Follow the steps below to calculate the relative molecular mass of the volatile liquid, Step 4: Convert all quantities to match the ideal gas equation V=810cm> =81.0%10-m? =100°C = 100+ 273K =373K p=100kPa = 100 103Pa ‘unknown Step 2; Use the ideal gas equation to calculate the unknown. v pV =nRT rearrangesto, n=E 100 x 10°) x (81.0 » 10°) n ae 0.00261 mol of x Step 3: Find the molar mass. massm moiar mass M =m _ 0.2285 _ 1 M= = Qonaet = 808m! relative molecular mass, M, = 86.0 ‘40.320 g sample of a volatile liquid was heated until it vaporised. The resulting vapour then occupied 61.5 cm? at 101 KPa and 100°C. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the volatile liquid.ROTM eeu a Real gases The ideal gas equation relies on two key assumptions: © forces between molecules are negligible * gasmolecules have negligible size compared to the size oftheir container. These assumptions hold at low pressures and high temperatures when the ges molecules are far apart and moving fast. When gas molecules are close together, the volume of the molecules, ‘compared withthe volume of the container starts to become significant Also if gas molecules move comparatively slowly, they have less energy and intermolecular forces may become significant. Scientists have developed several improvements to the ideal gas equation for real gases. In the real gas equation, corrections have been made to take into account the volume of gas molecules and intermolecular forces. 2 real gas equation: (p + 2) (V—nb)=nRT accounts e atcounts for volume intermolecular forces of gas molecules Predict the conditions of pressure and temperature that cause the ideal {g25 equation to break down. Explain your answer. Summary questions 1. Calculate the amount of substance, in moles, in: a 250m? of a 1.00 mol dm” solution (1 mark) b 10.0cm* of a 0.200 mol dm solution. (2 marks) 2 Calculate the concentration, in g dm~, for: @ 2.00 mol of NaQH in 4.00 dm? of solution (2marks) b 0.500 mol of HNO, in 200 cm? of solution. (2 marks) 3 Calculate the amount of substance, in mol, in the following gas volumes at RTP: a 1440dm?0.(g) (2 marks) b 720cm? He(g) (2 marks) © 34.0cmH,(g) (2 marks) 4 Calculate is the volume of one mole of a gas at: @ 10°C and 100kPa (2marks) b 35°C and 92.0kPa (2 marks) 5 Calculate the volume in cm? at RIP of: a 0.136 gNH,(e) (2 marks) b 0.088 gC0,(g) (2 marks) 0.0175 gN,(e) (2 marks) 6 0.1565 g of X occupies 80.0 cm? at 101 kPa and 100°C. Calculate the relative molecular mass of X. (3 marks)/ 3.4 Reacting quantities Ry oTetell lero (eH ae ee} Learning outcomes Demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of: > stoichiometry > quantities of reactants and products from equations percentage yield atom economy practical techniques for measuring the volume of agas. vue Sern For most problems, steps 1 and 2 will follow the same method. The processing for step 3 can vary. Rrra You need the ratios: 4 moll 2molAl,0, Then halve the moles of Alto get the moles of Al,0,: 0.300 mol Al —+0.150mol Al,0, Stoichiometry Ina balanced equation, the balancing numbers give the ratio of the amount, in moles, of each substance. This ratio is called the stoichiometry of the reaction. equation 2 Hy(g) + O,(g), —+ 21,041) amount 2 mol Imol —+ 2mol Chemists use balanced equations to find: © the quantities of reactants required to prepare a requried quantity of a product © the quantities of products that should be formed from certain quantities of reactants. These quantities can then be changed to adjust the scale of a preparation Quantities from amounts and equations The two worked examples show how unknown information about a substance can be obtained using amounts and an equation together. Each example follows the same basic method: © Step 1: Work out the amount in moles of whatever you can. © Step 2: Use the equation to work out the amount in moles of the unknown chemical, © Step 3: Work out the unknown information required. Worked example: Reacting masses Calculate the mass of aluminium oxide, Al,0,, formed when 8.10 of aluminiuin completely reacts with oxygen. Step 1: Calculate the amount, in moles, of Al that reacts. n(Al 0.300 mol Step 2: Use the equation to find the amount of Al,O,, in moles, that forms. equation 4Al(s) + 30,2) > 2 Al,0,(s) moles 4mol = + = 3mol_ = mol amounts 0.300mol = 0.150mol Step 3: Calculate the mass of Al,O, formed. n(Al,0,) = 30, m= x M=0.150 x (27.0 x 2 + 16.0 x 3) = 0.150 x 102.0 = 15.3gWorked example: Reacting mass, gas volumes, and concentration 0.552g of lithium reacts with water to form 125cm’ of a eolihom cr thimnn yieedoaninyd eer event inte the concentration of the lithium hydroxide and the volume of hydrogen formed at room temperature and pressure (RTP). alculate the amount, in mol, of lithium that reacts. n(Li) 9552 _ 9,9800mol 69 Step mn M Step 2: Use the equation to find the amounts of LiOH and H, formed. equation 21i(s) + moles amounts 0.0800mol 2H,0(l) + 21iOH(aq) + H,(g) = 2mol + 0.0800 mol 2mol + Linol 0.0400 mol Step 3: Calculate the concentration of LiOH(aq) and volume of H,(g) in cm? at RTP. n{LiOH) = ex ¥inan®) 1000 — 1000 x 2 _ 1000 x 0.0800 a nn = 0.640 moldm 5 Hii) = one 24000 so, V= mx 24000 = 0.0400 x 240000 = 960.cn> Identifying an unknown metal ‘The method below shows how you could carry out an experiment to identify an unknown Group 2 metal X. The results can then be analysed using the set method for reacting quantities. 41. Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 1. 2 Weigh a sample of the metal and add to the flask ‘gas syringe Using a measuring cylinder, add 25.0.em? LOmoldm? HCI(aq) (an excess) to the flask and Quickly replace the bung dilute hydrochloric acid Measure the maximum, volume of gas in the syringe. unknown metal A Figure 1. Apparatus for determination of {an unknown metal ROTM eeu Ota eins As part ofthe practical skills required for your course, youneed to know howto measure mass, volumes of solutions, and volumes of gases. This practical application box tells {you how to measure the volumes: of gases. Measuring mass, volumes of solutions, and volumes of gases are also covered in: © Topic 3.2, Determination of formulae, for haw to measure mass Topic 4.2, Acid—base titrations, for how to measure volumes of solutions, Topic 9.2, Measuring enthalpy changes, for how to measure mass Topic 10.1, Reaction rates, for how to measure volumes of gases.