V.S.B.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
KARUDAYAMPALAYAM, KARUR – 639 111.

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I
 V.S.B. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
KARUDAYAMPALAYAM, KARUR – 639 111.

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during the year 2023 - 2024.

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IV
EXPT NO :
DATE :
DEPARTMENT OF CARDIOLOGY
AIM:
To study detail about Department of Cardiology.

INTRODUCTION:

Cardiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the disorders of the heart as well as some parts
of the circulatory system. The field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart
defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease and electrophysiology.
1.1 ECG MACHINE:
Electrocardiography is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG ). It is an
electrogram of the heart which is a graph of voltage versus time of the electrical activity of the
heart using electrodes placed on the skin. These electrodes detect the small electrical changes that
are a consequence of cardiac muscle depolarization followed by repolarization during each cardiac
cycle (heartbeat). There are three main components to an ECG: the P wave, which represents the
depolarization of the atria; the QRS complex, which represents the depolarization of the ventricles;
and the T wave, which represents the repolarization of the ventricles.

Figure 1.1 ECG machine

PROCEDURE:

• It works on the principle that a contracting muscle generates a small electric current that can
be detected and measured through electrodes suitably placed on the body.

1
• For a resting electrocardiogram, a person is made to lie in the resting position and electrodes
are placed on arms, legs and at six places on the chest over the area of the heart. The electrodes are
attached to the person’s skin with the help of a special jelly.
• The electrodes are attached to the person’s skin with the help of a special jelly.
• The electrode picks up the current and transmits it to an amplifier inside the
electrocardiograph. Then electrocardiograph amplifies the current and records them on a paper as a
wavy line.
• In an electrocardiograph, a sensitive lever traces the changes in current on a moving sheet of
paper.
• A modern electrocardiograph may also be connected to an oscilloscope, an instrument that
display the current on a screen.

FEATURES:

• ECG Interpretation Program

• A4 Full-Size Paper
• Low Maintenance Cost
• ECG Filing System BMS-Plus
• Upgradeable Software
• Simultaneous 12 Channel Resting ECG

APPLICATION:

• It indicates the rate and rhythm or pattern of contraction of heart

• It gives a clue about the condition of heart muscle and is used to diagnose heart disorders.
• It helps the doctors to determine whether the heart is normal, enlarged or if its certain
regions are damaged.
• It can also reveal irregularities in heart’s rhythm known as ‘arrhythmia’
• It is used by doctors to diagnose heart damage in conditions like high blood pressure,
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 rheumatic fever and birth defects.
• An ECG also helps to determine the location and amount of injury caused by heart attack
and later helps to assess the extent of recovery.

3
 PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMENCE 50

RECORD 15

VIVA-VOCE 10

TOTAL 75

Conclusion:

Thus various equipment in cardiology was studied successfully.

4
 DEPT NO :
DATE :

DEPARTMENT OF INTENSIVE CARE UNIT

AIM:
To study detail about Department of intensive care unit.

INTRODUCTION:
An ICU is an organized system for the provision of care to critically ill patients that
provides intensive and specialized medical and nursing care, an enhanced capacity for
monitoring, and multiple modalities of physiologic organ support to sustain life during a
period of life-threatening organ system insufficiency.
2.1DEFIBRILLATOR
Company Name : Phillips
Model Name : Heart start FR3

INTRODUCTION:
Defibrillators are devices that restore a normal heartbeat by sending an electric pulse or
shock to the heart. They are used to prevent or correct an arrhythmia, a heartbeat that is
uneven or that is too slow or too fast. Defibrillators can also restore the heart's beating if
the heart suddenly stops.

PRINCIPLE:
A defibrillator is a device that delivers direct electrical current across the myocardium
to cause synchronous depolarization of the cardiac muscle, with the aim of converting a
dysrhythmia into normal sinus rhythm. It is used to treat ventricular fibrillation (VF),
which is one of the main causes of sudden death.

5
 Figure 2.1 Defibrillator
DESCRIPTION:
Defibrillators are devices that restore a normal heartbeat by sending an electric pulse or
shock to the heart. They are used to prevent or correct an arrhythmia, a heartbeat that is
uneven or that is too slow or too fast. Defibrillators can also restore the heart's beating if
the heart suddenly stops.
Defibrillators need clear, reliable power that can very rapidly accumulate in their capacitors.
This can be anywhere between 200 volts and 1000 volts, at 360 joules, and 45 amps. The shock
lasts for approximately eight milliseconds.
With no compressions, the 90% confidence of successful defibrillation is reached at 6 minutes
and the median time limit for success is 9.5 minutes. However, with pre-shock chest compressions,
the modeled data suggest a 90% success rate at 10 minutes and a 50% rate at 14 minutes.

METHODS OF DEFIBRILLATION:

• Monophasic waveform

• Biphasic waveform
DISTINCT FEATURES:

A person needs CPR if they are unresponsive and not breathing normally. Remember,
time is crucial. If someone is unresponsive and not breathing, call an ambulance on triple
zero (000), start CPR and use a defibrillator as soon as possible.
APPLICATIONS:

• Defibrillators are devices that restore a normal heartbeat by sending an electric pulse
or shock to the heart.

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2.2ELECTOCARDIOGRAM

Company Name : GE

Model Name :Dash4000 INTRODUCTION:

An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) records the electrical signal from your heart to
check for different heart conditions. Electrodes are placed on your chest to record your
heart's electrical signals, which cause your heart to beat. The signals are shown as waves on
an attached computer monitor or printer.

PRINCIPLE:

The basic principle of the ECG is that stimulation of a muscle alters the electrical potential of
the muscle fibers. Cardiac cells, unlike other cells, have a property known as automaticity,
which is the capacity to spontaneously initiate impulse

Figure 2.2 ELECTROCARIOGRAM

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DESCRIPTION:
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a simple test that can be used to check your heart's rhythm
and electrical activity. Sensors attached to the skin are used to detect the electrical signals
produced by your heart each time it beats. Because injured heart muscle doesn't conduct
electrical impulses normally, the ECG may show that a heart attack has occurred or is in
progress. Normal range 120 – 200 ms (3 – 5 small squares on ECG paper). QRS duration
(measured from first deflection of QRS complex to end of QRS complex at iso- electric line).
Normal range up to 120 ms (3 small squares on ECG paper).
EKG results can help your doctor identify and diagnose:

• Arrhythmia, or irregular heartbeat.

• Congenital heart defects.

• Coronary artery disease, or a lack of blood flow to the heart.

• Heart failure, when your heart can't pump enough blood through your body.
APPLICATIONS:

• High blood pressure

• Heart Defects

• Birth defects
2.3 VENTILATOR:

Company Name: GE

Model Name : Datex – Ohmeda

INTRODUCTION:

A contrivance or opening for replacing foul or stagnant air with fresh air.
Medicine/Medical. an apparatus to produce artificial respiration, moving air into and out ofa
patient's lungs: The patient presented with signs of respiratory failure and was placed
immediately on a ventilator.

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PRINCIPLE:

A ventilator uses pressure to blow air into the lungs. This pressure is known as positive
pressure The machine works by bringing oxygen to the lungs and taking carbon
dioxide out of the lungs. This allows a patient who has trouble breathing to receive the proper
amount of oxygen.

Figure 2.3 Ventilator

DESCRIPTION:

Some patients need help to breathe. In this situation a “breathing machine” also known as
a mechanical ventilator – is used to assist the function of the lungs. The ventilator blows air into
the lungs, helping to maintain proper levels of oxygen in the blood.
Invasive ventilators gently force normal air (or a mixture of air and added oxygen) through a
breathing tube, into a patient's airways and down into their lungs. Mechanical ventilation not
only ensures that a patient receives sufficient oxygen but also helps move carbon dioxide, a
waste gas, out of the lungs. Among the basic components of a mechanical ventilator, there are
four main parts: the power source, controls, safety features, and monitors.
DISTINCT FEATURES:

Ventilators are machines that blow air—or air with extra oxygen—into your airways and
your lungs. Your airways are pipes that carry oxygen-rich air to your lungs when you breathe in.
They also carry carbon dioxide (a waste gas) out of your lungs when you breathe out.

9
APPLICATIONS:

• Life support
2.1 SYRINGE PUMP:

Company Name : Alaris

Model Name : NAC P3000

INTRODUCTION:
A syringe driver or syringe pump is a small infusion pump (some include infuse and withdraw
capability), used to gradually administer small amounts of fluid (with or without medication) to a
patient or for use in chemical and biomedical research.
PRINCIPLE:

A syringe pump is a small, positive-displacement pump used to gradually transfer precise

volumes of fluid. When the stepper motor turns in the opposite direction, the pusher
block moves such that the syringe plunger is pulled, thus drawing fluid into the syringe.

Figure 2.4 Syringe pump

DESCRIPTION:

A syringe pump is a small infusion device that is used to gradually administer specific
amounts of fluids for use in chemical and biomedical research. Syringe pumps either withdraw
or push out fluid via a syringe to obtain a predetermined volume depending on the size of the
syringe.
The common tip styles are lure lock, slip tip, catheter tip, and eccentric tip.

10
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES:

Syringe Pumps are designed to alert users when air or another blockage is detected in the tubing
that delivers fluid to the patient.
APPLICATIONS:

• Transfer Fluid

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50
RECORD 15
VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL 75

Conclusion
Thus, various departments in ICU were studied successfully.

11
DEPT. NO:

DATE: DEPARTMENT OF OPERATING THEATRE

AIM:

To study the details about the operation theatre.

3.1 OPERATING TABLE:

Company Name: Trident
Model Name : 5600s
INTRODUCTION:
An operating theatre is a facility within a hospital where surgical operations are
carried out in an aseptic environment. The term operating theatre referred to a non-sterile, tiered
theatre or amphitheatre in which students could watch the surgeons perform surgery.
PRINCIPLE:

Electric hydraulic operating table drive system is electric hydraulic system, its
control structure includes control switch, speed control valve and solenoid valve.

Figure 3.2 Operating Table

DESCRIPTION:
Electric operating table provides hydraulic power source through electric hydraulic gear
pump, control each bi-directional hydraulic cylinder’ reciprocating movement, and adjust
operating table’s position by handle controller, such as height adjustment, lateral tilt,
forward/backward tilt, back rest, move and fix function, meeting surgery’s requirement

12
APPLICATIONS:
• The operating table or the position in which it is erected is the basis for arranging all other
high-tech devices, such as ceiling mounts for anesthesia systems and surgery, operating
lights, possibly surgical microscopes.
• Patients can be adjusted using these automated rotating tables, so that doctors can perform
surgeries efficiently.

3.2 OPERATING THEATRE LIGHT:

Company name: Mediland Model
name : Medilux 600
INTRODUCTION:
A surgical light – also referred to as an operating light or surgical light head is a medical
device intended to assist medical personnel during a surgical procedure by illuminating a local
area or cavity of the patient.
PRINCIPLE:

Working principle, the operating light is usually composed of a single or multiple lamp
cap, fastened on the cantilever, can be moved vertically or circularly, and the cantilever is
normally connected to a fixed joint and can rotate around it.

Figure 3.3 Operating Theatre Light

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DESCRIPTION:

Surgical lights, also known as surgical lighting or operating lights, are mainly used in
hospital operating rooms and ambulatory surgery centers but can also be used in various
locations throughout the facility to provide high quality lighting for procedures.
The guide states that the closer an operating theatre light 'CRI value' is to 100, the better
its ability to render true colours to the human eye. This helps surgeons to recognize details better in
the area of the wound and to distinguish between tissue colors and arterial of Venous blood.

APPLICATIONS:

• OT lights are used to perform surgeries efficiently. These lights specially designed for
surgeries. These lights are helpful to focus our affected parts easily, so that doctors can
diagnose the patient successfully.
3.3 PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM (PMS)

Company Name : Sharnay

Model Name : Star 55
INTRODUCTION:
A patient monitor is an electronic medical device that consists of one of more monitoring
sensors, a processing component and a screen display that provide and record for medical
professionals a patient's medical vital signs (body temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate and
respiratory

PRINCIPLE:

Patient monitors measure, record, distribute and display combinations of biometric

values such as heart rate, SPO2, blood pressure, temperature and more. High-capability, multi-
function monitors are typically used in hospitals and clinics to ensure a high-level of quality
patient care.
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 Figure 3.3 Patient Monitoring system

DESCRIPTION:

Patient monitors found profound use in critical care units and other healthcare
departments to constantly monitor body temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate and blood
pressure. The periodic check on these key parameters helps in live monitoring the state of the
patient.
APPLICATIONS:

• To Maintain diabetes

• Prevent Dementia and Fall

SURGICAL DIATHERMY:

Company Name : Seal India

Model Name:D400

INTRODUCTION:
Diathermy is the use of high frequency alternate polarity radio-wave electrical current to
cut or coagulate tissue during surgery. It allows for precise incisions to be made with limited
blood loss and is now used in nearly all surgical disciplines.
PRINCIPLE:

Surgical diathermy is the passage of a high-frequency alternating current through the body
to produce a desirable surgical effect.

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DESCRIPTION:

Combination of diathermy and vessel sealer. The peculiar feature in this machine allows
you to use vessel sealer and bipolar cut/coagulation from single part. Electro surgery has three
effects on body tissue:
• Cut: Generation of heat destroys tissue cell

• Coagulation: Tissue cells contract to increase normal clotting

• Fulguration: cell walls destroyed through dehydration

APPLICATIONS:

• Cutting and Coagulation

3.4 C ARM

Company name : Toshiba Model

name : KMC 60
INTRODUCTION:

A mobile C-arm is a medical imaging device that is based on X-ray technology. C-

shaped arm used to connect the X-ray source and X-ray detector to one another.

PRINCIPLE:

These electromagnetic radiations or X-rays work on the absorption of low-level radiation by

parts of our body with higher density, making the radiation not absorbed hit the photographic
'plate' to form a 'negative image'.

16
 Figure 3.6 C-Arm
DESCRIPTION:
C-arm comprises a generator (X-ray source) and an image intensifier or flat panel detector.
The C-shaped connecting element allows movement horizontally, vertically and around the swivel
axes, so that X-ray images of the patient are produced from almost any angle. The generator emits
X-rays that penetrate the patient’s body. Physician can check anatomical details such as bones and
the position of implants and instruments at any time.
APPLICATIONS:

 It is mainly used for traumatic and orthopedic surgeries such as hip, knee,and spine.

 They are used primarily for fluoroscopic intra operative imaging during surgical,
orthopedic and emergency care procedures.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50

RECORD 15

VIVA-VOCE 10

TOTAL 75

CONCLUSION:
Thus, various equipment in Operating theatre was studied successfully.

17
DEPT.NO:
DATE:
DEPARTMENT OF OPTHALMOLOGY
AIM:
To study detail about Department of Opthalmology.
INTRODUCTION:
Ophthalmology is the study of medical conditions relating to the eye.
Ophthalmologists are doctors who specialize in the medical and surgical treatment of this
organ. A general practice doctor may refer someone to an ophthalmologist if they show
symptoms of cataracts, eye infections, optic nerve problems, or other eye conditions. An
ophthalmologist is a medical doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating eye-related
conditions. Ophthalmologists are responsible for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment
of almost all eye conditions and visual issues. However, subspecialist ophthalmologists
tend to treat and monitor certain conditions, such as:
• glaucoma
• retinal conditions, such as macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy
• corneal conditions
• cataracts
1. cases involving children or childhood eye conditions
2. cases with a neurological cause or component, such as optic nerve problems,
abnormal eye movements, double vision, and some kinds of vision loss
3. cases involving complex surgical procedures, such as reconstructive surgery
or advanced vision repair
4.1 OPTHALMOSCOPY:
Opthalmoscopy is a test that allows your ophthalmologist, or eye doctor, to look at
the back of your eye. This part of your eye is called the fundus, and consists of:
• retina
• optic disc

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4.2 RETINOSCOPE:
Retinoscopy (Ret) is a technique to obtain an objective measurement of the refractive
error of a patient's eyes.[1] The examiner uses a retinoscope to shine light into the patient's eye and
observes the reflection (reflex) off the patient's retina. While moving the streak or spot of light
across the pupil the examiner observes the relative movement of the reflex or manually places
lenses over the eye (using a trial frame and trial lenses) to "neutralize" the reflex. Retinoscopy (also
called skiascopy) is a technique to objectively determine the refractive error of the eye (farsighted,
nearsighted, astigmatism) and the need for glasses. The test can be quick, easy, reliably accurate
and requires minimal cooperation from the patient.

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4.3 TONOMETER:

Tonometry is a test to measure the pressure inside your eyes. The test is used to screen
for glaucoma. It is also used to measure how well glaucoma treatment works. A tonometry
test measures the pressure inside your eye, which is called intraocular pressure (IOP). This
test is used to check for glaucoma, an eye disease that can cause blindness by damaging the
nerve in the back of the eye (optic nerve).
A tonometer is an instrument that determines intraocular pressure by measuring the resistance
of your cornea to indentation. Your eye doctor or healthcare provider may use one of several
methods to measure the pressure inside your eyes.

Aside from caring for the eyes and vision, an ophthalmologist’s medical training may also
equip them to notice symptoms of conditions that do not directly relate to the eye.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50
RECORD 15
VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL 75

CONCLUSION:
Thus, various equipment in ophthalmology was studied successfully.
20
DEPT.NO:
DATE:
DEPARTMENT OF UROLOGY
AIM :
To study detail about Department of Urology.
INTRODUCTION:
Urology (from Greek "urine" and logia "study of"), also known as genitourinary
surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the
male and female urinary-tract system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under
the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles, prostate, and penis).

LAPAROSCOPY :
It is a rapidly evolving branch of urology and has replaced some open surgical
procedures. Robot-assisted surgery of the prostate, kidney, and ureter has been
expanding this field. Today, many prostatectomies in the United States are carried out
by so-called robotic assistance. This has created controversy, however, as robotics
greatly increase the cost of surgery and the benefit for the patient may or may not be
proportional to the extra cost. Moreover, current (2011) market situation for robotic
equipment is a de facto monopoly of one publicly held corporation[15] which further
fuels the cost-effectiveness controversy.

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 Figure 5.1 Urologic laproscopy

UROLOGIC ONCOLOGY :
It concerns the surgical treatment of malignant genitourinary diseases such as
cancer of the prostate, adrenal glands, bladder, kidneys, ureters, testicles, and penis, as well
as the skin and subcutaneous tissue and muscle and fascia of those areas (that particular
subspecialty overlaps with dermatological oncology and related areas of oncology). The
treatment of genitourinary cancer is managed by either a urologist or an oncologist,
depending on the treatment type (surgical or medical). Most urologic oncologists in
Western countries use minimally invasive techniques (laparoscopy or endourology, robotic-
assisted surgery) to manage urologic cancers amenable to surgical management.

Figure 5.2 Urologic oncology

NEURO UROLOGY
It concerns nervous system control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions
causing abnormal urination. Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke, multiple
22
sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury can disrupt the lower urinary tract and
result in conditions such as urinary incontinence, detrusor overactivity, urinary retention,
and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Urodynamic

23
studies play an important diagnostic role in neuro urology. Therapy for nervous system
disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic
drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly
used therapies such as sacral neuromodulation. Less marked neurological abnormalities can
cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous
system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent
urination (e.g., painful bladder syndrome also known as interstitial cystitis).

Figure 5.3 Neuro urology

UROLOGY TESTS AND PROCEDURES

• CT Scan of the Kidney

• Cryotherapy for Prostate Cancer

• Cystoscopy for Women
• Intravenous Pyelogram

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 • Kidney Biopsy
• Kidney Scan
• Kidney Ultrasound

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50
RECORD 15
VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL 75

CONCLUSION:

Thus, various equipment in urology was studied successfully.

25
DEPT. NO:
DATE:

DEPARTMENT OF RADIOLOGY

AIM:
To study details about the Department of Radiology.

INTRODUCTION:
Radiology is a branch of medicine that uses imaging technology to diagnose and treat
disease. Radiology may be divided into two different areas, diagnostic radiology and
interventional radiology. Doctors who specialize in radiology are called radiologists.
6.1 X-RAY MACHINE
Company Name: GE
Model Name : Genius60
INTRODUCTION:
An X-ray, or X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation.
Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10 nanometers, corresponding to
frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in
the range 124 eV to 124 keV.
PRINCIPLE:
X-ray imaging begins with a beam of high energy electrons crashing into a metal target and
x- rays are produced. A filter near the x-ray source blocks these low energy rays, which means
only the high energy rays pass through a patient toward a sheet of photographic film. X-ray can
penetrate liquids, gas and solids.

26
 Fig.6.1 X-Ray Machine
DESCRIPTION:
The most familiar use of x-rays is checking for fractures (broken bones), but x-rays are also
used in other ways. For example, chest x-rays can spot pneumonia. Mammograms use x- rays
to look for breast cancer. When you have an x-ray, you may wear a lead apron to protect
certain parts of your body.
Parts of X-Ray are: X-ray Tube, Collimator, X-Ray Detectors, and Bucky Grid.
APPLICATIONS:
 Radiation therapy
 Airport security

6.2 COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT):

Company Name : Siemens Model
Name : SOMATOM
Scope
INTRODUCTION:
The term “computed tomography”, or CT, refers to a computerized x- ray imaging
procedure in which a narrow beam of x-rays is aimed at a patient and quickly rotated around
the body, producing signals that are processed by the machine's computer to generate cross-
sectional images or “slices” of the body.
PRINCIPLE:
CT uses ionizing radiation, or x-rays, coupled with an electronic detector array to record a
pattern of densities and create an image of a “slice” or “cut” of tissue. The x-ray beam rotates
around the object within the scanner such that multiple x-ray projections pass through the
object.
27
 Figure 6.2 Computed Tomography

DESCRIPTION:
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a large magnet and radio waves to look at
organs and structures inside your body. Health care professionals use MRI scans to
diagnose a variety of conditions, from torn ligaments to tumors. MRIs are very useful for

examining the brain and spinal cord.

An MRI scan is a painless radiology technique that has the advantage of avoiding x-
ray radiation exposure. There are no known side effects of an MRI scan. The benefits of an
MRI scan relate to its precise accuracy in detecting structural abnormalities of the body.
A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is a painless procedure that lasts 15 to 90
minutes, depending on the size of the area being scanned and the number of images being
taken.

28
DISTINCT FEATURES:
The five major image quality characteristics—contrast sensitivity, detail, noise,
artifacts, and spatial—can be controlled to a great extent by the settings of the various
protocol factors. MRI is a powerful diagnostic tool because the process can be optimized to
display a wide range of clinical conditions.

29
 APPLICATIONS:
 Inflammation or infection in an organ.
 Degenerative diseases.
 Strokes.
 Musculoskeletal disorders.
 Tumors

6.4 ULTRASONOGRAPHY
Company Name : GE
Model Name : Logi Q F6
INTRODUCTION:
Medical ultrasound (also known as diagnostic sonography or ultrasonography) is a
diagnostic imaging technique, or therapeutic application of ultrasound. It is used to create an
image of internal body structures such as tendons, muscles, joints, blood vessels, and internal
organs.
PRINCIPLE:
The ultrasound machine transmits high-frequency (1 to 12 megahertz) sound pulses into
the body using a probe. The sound waves travel into the body and hit a boundary between
tissues (e.g. between fluid and soft tissue, soft tissue and bone). The reflected waves are
detected by the probe and relayed to the machine.

30
 Fig.6.4 Ultrasonography

DESCRIPTION:
An ultrasound scan uses high-frequency sound waves to make an image of a person's
internal body structures. Doctors commonly use ultrasound to study a developing fetus
(unborn baby), a person's abdominal and pelvic organs, muscles and tendons, or their heart
and blood vessels. Although often used interchangeably, ultrasound is the procedure of using
sound waves to create images from inside the body. Sonogram is the image produced by an
ultrasound examination.

DISTINCT FEATURES:
The characteristics of ultrasound, such as frequency and intensity, are wave properties
common to all types of waves. Ultrasound also has a wavelength that limits the fineness of
detail it can detect. This characteristic is true of all waves.
APPLICATIONS:
 Ultrasound is used in many different fields.
 Ultrasonic devices are used to detect objects and measure distances.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50
RECORD 15
VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL 75

Conclusion:
Thus, various equipment in radiological department was studied successfully.
31
DEPT. NO:

DATE:

DEPARTMENT OF OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY

AIM:

To study detail about Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

INTRODUCTION:

Obstetrics is a medical specialty dealing with the fields of birth and related issue and
Gynecology deals with diseases particular to women. OB is a commonly used abbreviation for
obstetrics and GYN is the abbreviation for gynecology or for a gynecologist, a practitioner who
specializes intreating diseases of the female reproductive organs.

7.1 ABUS 3D

3D whole breast ultrasound, also known as ABUS, gives us the ability to provide the most
advanced technology on the market for screening patients with dense breasts. In conjunction
with a mammogram, 3D whole breast ultrasound offers a better chance to diagnose breast cancer
early at a more treatable stage. Approximately 40 percent of women have dense breasts, which
means there is more dense tissue than fat in the breasts. 3D whole breast ultrasound (ABUS)
improves cancer detection by 35 percent over mammography alone in women with dense
breasts.

7.2 ULTRASOUND:

An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create a picture (also known as
a sonogram) of organs, tissues, and other structures inside the body. Unlike x- rays, ultrasounds
32
don’t use any radiation. An ultrasound can also show parts of the body in motion, such as a
heart beating or blood flowing through blood vessels.

PRINCIPLE:

The diagnostic ultrasound, also known as the sonography test, uses the principle of
“Doppler effect” or echoes to convert the reflected sound energy into images.

Figure 7.2 Ultrasound

WORKING:

The term “ultrasound” refers to sound with a frequency that humans cannot hear.
For diagnostic uses, the ultrasound is usually between 2 and 18 Megahertz Trusted Source
(MHz). Higher frequencies provide better quality images but are more readily absorbed by the
skin and other tissue, so they cannot penetrate as deeply as lower frequencies. Lower
frequencies penetrate deeper, but the image quality is inferior. Ultrasound will travel through
blood in the heart chamber, for example, but if it hits a heart valve, it will echo, or bounce back.
It will travel straight through the gallbladder if there are no gallstones, but if there are stones, it
will bounce back from them. The denser the object the ultrasound hits,the more of the
ultrasound bounces back. This bouncing back, or echo, gives the ultrasound image its features.
Varying shades of gray reflect different densities. We saw Philips clear value 350 in Meridian
hospital. They prefer this company for Philips quality imaging through and through, the clear
value 350 with active array technology offers image quality designed to enhance diagnostic
confidence sophisticated yet simple features, and advances in ease of use and reliability.
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7.3 MAMMOGRAPH:
Mammography (also called mastography) is the process of using low-energy X-ray (usually around
30 Kvp) to examine the human breast for diagnosis and screening. The goal of mammography is
the early detection of breast cancer typically through detection of characteristic masses or micro
calcifications. A mammogram is an x-ray picture of the breast.
It is used to detect the early stage of breast cancer.

WORKING:
A mammogram uses a machine designed to look only at breast tissue. The machine takes x-rays at

lower doses than usual x-rays. Because these x-rays don't go through tissue easily, the machine has
2 plates that compress or flatten the breast to spread the tissue apart.

Figure 7.3 Mammograph

LIMITATION:
• Not accurate – The accuracy of the mammography depends on the multiple conditions including
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skill of the radiologist performing it and, on the technique used. Mammography may sometimes
give false-positive or false-negative results, which may happen due to the factors like age and
density of the breast.
• Exposure to radiations – Although, the dose of the radiation is low, some of the women might be
at a greater risk of exposure to radiation based hazards.

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7.4 DEXA SCAN:
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, or DEXA) is a means of measuring bone mineral
density (BMD) using spectral imaging. Two X-ray beams, with different energy levels, are aimed
at the patient's bones. When soft tissue absorption is subtracted out, the bone mineral density
(BMD) can be determined from the absorption of each beam by bone. Dual-energy Xray
absorptiometry is the most widely used and most thoroughly studied bone density measurement
technology. A DEXA scan is an imaging test that measures bone density (strength). DEXA scan
results can provide helpful details about your risk for osteoporosis (bone loss) and fractures (bone
breaks). This test can also measure your body composition, such as body fat and muscle mass .

WORKING:
DXA works by sending two low-dose X-rays which are absorbed differently by bones and soft
tissues. The density profiles from these X-rays are used to calculate bone mineral density. The
lower the density, the greater the risk of fracture. DXA is painless and takes about 10 minutes.

USES:
• Bone density scans, also known as DEXA scans, help to work out your risk of breaking a bone.
• They're often used to help diagnose bone-related health problems, such as osteoporosis, or to
assess the risk of getting them.
7.5 CARDIOTOCOGRAPHY
Cardiotocography (CTG) is a technique used to monitor the fetal heartbeat and the uterine
contractions during pregnancy and labor. The machine used to perform the monitoring is called a
cardiotocograph. Fetal heart sounds was described as early as 350 years ago and
approximately 200 years ago mechanical stethoscopes, such as the Pinard horn, were introduced in
clinical practice.
WORKING:
CTG uses sound waves called ultrasound to detect the baby's heart rate. Ultrasound is a high
frequency sound that you cannot hear but it can be sent out (emitted) and detected by special
machines. Ultrasound travels freely through fluid and soft tissues. However, ultrasound bounces
36
back as 'echoes' (it is reflected back) when it hits a more solid surface. For example, the ultrasound
will travel freely through blood in a heart chamber. But, when it hits a solid valve, a lot of the
ultrasound echoes back. So, as ultrasound 'hits' different structures in the body, of different density,
it sends back echoes of varying strength. In CTG monitoring, a special type of ultrasound, called
Doppler®, is used. This type of ultrasound is used to measure structures that are moving, making it
useful for monitoring heart rate.
The other plate on the CTG measures how tense the mother's tummy (abdomen) is. This
measurement is used to show when the uterus is contracting.

USES:
• Cardiotocography (CTG) is a continuous recording of the fetal heart rate obtained via an
ultrasound transducer placed on the mother's abdomen. CTG is widely used in pregnancy as a
method of assessing fetal well‐being, predominantly in pregnancies with increased risk of
complications.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50

RECORD 15

VIVA-VOCE 10

TOTAL 75

Conclusion:
Thus various equipment in obstetrics and gynecology departments were
studied successfully.

37
DEPT. NO:
DATE: DEPARTMENT OF NEUROLOGY

AIM :
To study detail about Department of Neurology.
INTRODUCTION:
Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system.
Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease
involving the central and peripheral nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and
all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurology overlaps with other specialties, so in this medical
equipment catalog, you can find various devices and tools such as neurosurgical operating
microscopes, staplers and clips, stereotactic frames, electromyographs, nerve monitors, nerve
stimulators, etc.
8.1ELECTROMYOGRAPHY:
Electromyography (EMG) is a technique for evaluating and recording the electrical
activity produced by skeletal muscles.[1] EMG is performed using an instrument called an
electromyograph to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the
electric potential generated by muscle cells[2] when these cells are electrically or neurologically
activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect abnormalities, activation level, or recruitment

38
order, or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement. Needle EMG is an
electrodiagnostic medicine technique commonly used by neurologists. Surface EMG is a
nonmedical procedure used to assess muscle activation by several professionals, including
physiotherapists, kinesiologists and biomedical…
8.2 NERVE MONITORS:
Intraoperative monitoring, or IOM, is a technique used during surgery to monitor the
condition of a patient's nervous system throughout the surgical procedure. Monitoring the
condition of the nervous system helps prevent damage to the spinal cord, brain, or nerves.

8.3 NERVE STIMULATOR:

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a therapy that uses low voltage
electrical current to provide pain relief. A TENS unit consists of a battery-powered device that
delivers electrical impulses through electrodes placed on the surface of your skin. The electrodes
are placed at or near nerves where the pain is located or at trigger points. TENS therapy has been
used or is being studied to relieve both chronic (long lasting) and acute (short-term) pain. Some of
the most common conditions for which TENS has been used include:
• Osteoarthritis (disease of the joints).
• Fibromyalgia (aching and pain in muscles, tendons, and joints all over the body,
especially along the spine.
39
 • Tendinitis (an inflammation or irritation of a tendon).
• Bursitis (inflammation of the fluid-filled sacs that cushion joints).
• Labor pain.
• Low back pain.

APPLICATIONS:
• Arthritis
• Period pain
• Pelvic pain caused by endometriosis
•

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

•
PERFORMANCE 50

RECORD 15

VIVA-VOCE 10

TOTAL 75

CONCLUSION:
Thus various equipment in neurology department was studied successfully.

40
DEPT.NO.:
DATE:
AIM : DEPARTMENT OF PULMONOLOGY
To study detail about Department of Pulmonology.
INTRODUCTION:
Pulmonology is a medical speciality that deals with diseases involving the respiratory tract.
It is also known as respirology, respiratory medicine, or chest medicine in some countries and
areas. Pulmonology is considered a branch of internal medicine, and is related to intensive care
medicine. Pulmonology often involves managing patients who need life support and mechanical
ventilation. Pulmonologists are specially trained in diseases and conditions of the chest,
particularly pneumonia, asthma, tuberculosis, emphysema, and complicated chest infections. One
of the first major discoveries relevant to the field of pulmonology was the discovery of pulmonary
circulation. Originally, it was thought that blood reaching the right side of the heart passed through
small 'pores' in the septum into the left side to be oxygenated, as theorized by Galen; However, the
discovery of pulmonary circulation disproves this theory, which had previously been accepted
since the 2nd century. Thirteenth- century anatomist and physiologist Ibn Al-Nafis accurately
theorized that there was no 'direct' passage between the two sides (ventricles) of the heart. He
believed that the blood must have passed through the pulmonary artery, through the lungs, and
back into the heart to be pumped around the body. This is believed by many to be the first
scientific description of pulmonary circulation. Although pulmonary medicine only began to
evolve as a medical specialty in the 1950s, William Welch and William Osler founded the 'parent'
organization of the American Thoracic Society, the National Association for the Study and
Prevention of Tuberculosis. The care, treatment, and study of tuberculosis of the lung is recognized
as a discipline in its own right, One of the first major discoveries relevant to the field of
pulmonology was the discovery of pulmonary circulation. Originally, it was thought that blood
reaching the right side of the heart passed through small 'pores' in the septum into the left side to be
oxygenated, as theorized by Galen; However, the discovery of pulmonary circulation disproves this
theory, which had previously been accepted since the 2nd century. Thirteenth-century anatomist
41
and physiologist Ibn Al- Nafis accurately theorized that there was no 'direct' passage between the
two sides (ventricles) of the heart. He believed that the blood must have passed through the
pulmonary artery, through the lungs, and back into the heart to be pumped around the body. This is
believed by many to be the first scientific description of pulmonary circulation. When the specialty
did begin to evolve, several discoveries were being made linking the respiratory system and the
measurement of arterial blood gases, attracting more and more physicians and researchers to the
developing field. Surgery of the respiratory tract is generally performed by specialists in
cardiothoracic surgery (or thoracic surgery), though minor procedures may be performed by
pulmonologists. Pulmonology is closely related to critical care medicine when dealing with
patients who require mechanical ventilation. As a result, many pulmonologists are certified to
practice critical care medicine in addition to pulmonary medicine. There are fellowship programs
that allow physicians to become board certified in pulmonary and critical care medicine
simultaneously. Interventional pulmonology is a relatively new field within pulmonary medicine
that deals with the use of procedures such as bronchoscopy and pleuroscopy to treat several
pulmonary diseases. Interventional pulmonology is increasingly recognized as a specific medical
specialty. DIAGNOSIS: The pulmonologist begins the diagnostic process with a general review
focusing on:
• hereditary diseases affecting the lungs (cystic fibrosis, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency)
• exposure to toxicants (tobacco smoke, asbestos, exhaust fumes, coal mining fumes, e-
cigarette aerosol)
• exposure to infectious agents (certain types of birds, malt processing)
• an autoimmune diathesis that might predispose to certain conditions (pulmonary fibrosis,
pulmonary hypertension)
• Physical diagnostics are as important as in other fields of medicine.
• Inspection of the hands for signs of cyanosis or clubbing, chest wall, and respiratory rate.
• Palpation of the cervical lymph nodes, trachea and chest wall movement.
• Percussion of the lung fields for dullness or hyper-resonance.
• Auscultation (with a stethoscope) of the lung fields for diminished or unusual breath
sounds.
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 • Rales or rhonchi heard over lung fields with a stethoscope.
• As many heart diseases can give pulmonary signs, a thorough cardiac investigation is
usually included.
CLINICAL PROCEDURE:
Pulmonary clinical procedures include the following pulmonary tests and procedures:
• Medical laboratory investigation of blood (blood tests). Sometimes arterial blood gas tests
are also required.
• Spirometry the determination of maximum airflow at a given lung volume as measured by
breathing into a dedicated machine; this is the key test to diagnose airflow obstruction.
• Pulmonary function testing including spirometry, as above, plus response to
bronchodilators, lung volumes, and diffusion capacity, the latter being a measure of lung oxygen
absorptive area
• Bronchoscopy with Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL), endobronchial and transbronchial
biopsy and epithelial brushing Figure 9.1 Bronchoscopy
• Chest X-rays
• CT scan
• Scintigraphy and other methods of nuclear medicine
• Positron emission tomography (especially in lung cancer)
• Polysomnography (sleep studies) commonly used for the diagnosis of sleepapnea.

Figure 9.1 Bronchoscopy

43
 SURGICAL PROCEDURES:
Major surgical procedures on the heart and lungs are performed by a thoracic surgeon.
Pulmonologists often perform specialized procedures to get samples from the inside of the chest or
inside of the lung. They use radiographic techniques to view vasculature of the lungs and heart to
assist with diagnosis. Treatment and therapeutic medication is the most important treatment of
most diseases of pulmonology, either by inhalation (bronchodilators and steroids) or in oral form
(antibiotics, leukotriene antagonists).
A common example being the usage of inhalers in the treatment of inflammatory lung
conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Oxygen therapy is often
necessary in severe respiratory disease (emphysema and pulmonary fibrosis). When this is
insufficient, the patient might require mechanical ventilation.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50
RECORD 15
VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL 75

Conclusion:

Thus, various equipment in pulmonology department was studied successfully

44
DEPT.NO:
DATE:
DEPARTMENT OF NEPHROLOGY
AIM:
To study detail about Department of Nephorlogy.

INTRODUCTION:
Nephrology is a specialty of adult internal medicine and pediatric medicine that concerns the study
of the kidneys, specifically normal kidney function and kidney disease, the preservation of kidney
health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to renal replacement therapy.

10.1 HEMODIALYSIS:
Hemodialysis, also spelled hemodialysis, or simply dialysis, is a process of purifying the blood of a
person whose kidneys are not working normally. This type of dialysis achieves the extracorporeal
removal of waste products such as creatinine and urea and free water from the blood when the
kidneys are in a state of kidney failure. Hemodialysis is one of three renal replacement therapies
(the other two being kidney transplant and peritoneal dialysis). An alternative method for
extracorporeal separation of blood components such as plasma or cells is apheresis.

Figure 10.1 Hemodialysis

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PROCEDURE:
Hemodialysis is usually performed at a dialysis center or hospital, or at home.
Two needles are inserted into your arm, and each is attached to a flexible plastic tube that connects
to a dialyzer (a filter that cleans your blood).
The dialyzer takes your blood in through one tube. It allows extra fluids and wastes to pass from
your blood into a cleansing fluid.
The filtered blood is then returned to your body through a second tube.
You can sit in a chair and watch TV, read, or nap while you receive hemodialysis.
Most people have about three treatments a week, each of which takes about three to four hours.
We saw Fresenius medical care 4008S, Nipro B-brand hemodialysis machines in the hospital.
These company manufacture a high quality and user friendly equipment so the technician prefer
these brand hemodialyzer especially.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN NEPHROLOGY:
Nikkiso DBB 27 Hemodialysis Machine
Nikkiso DBB 27 Hemodialysis Machine is for Acetate/Bicarb dialysis/volume-controlled UF and
conductivity profiling. The compact design of the machine offers comfort to the patient during
treatment and offer a user-friendly interface that allows continuous monitoring of pumps and
values during treatment and detection for air bubble and blood tubbing lines.
It takes low disinfection consumption and less power consumption per dialysis. Offers continuous
monitoring for discharge value of Duplex & UF Pump and for open-close of the solenoid valve. It
also reminds us of preventive maintenance kit replacement period.
‘T’ Dialyzer Series
T’ Dialyzer Series – Low Flux Polyether Sulfone Hollow Fiber Dialyzers. A dialyzer is an
apparatus in which dialysis is carried out, and Dialyzer are reliable and safe with advanced
membrane design, higher clearance of uremic toxins, especially for a middle molecule.
They have excellent biocompatibility, a stronger ability to remove toxins, a high clearance rate of
the molecules with small molecular weight, and better anticoagulant properties. Ultrasonic bonding
of the cap, avoid blood and dialysate leakage. The D-Shape Ring improves the blood shear stress at
46
the edge and prevents the blood residual effectively.
Fistula Needles
Fistula needles allow safe and gentle vascular access for successful dialysis treatment. The use of
the best quality needles reduces the chances of trauma during the vascular access following dialysis
procedure. The needles have flexible butterfly wings for better grip and this also allow easy
insertion and minimize trauma to the patient.
Bloodline
During the treatment process, the flow must be constant and at the right speed so that the exchange
of solute is complete with the proper flow for successful dialysis. Trivitron bloodlines are specially
designed to ensure the proper flow of the blood through the dialysate system to offer quality
treatment.
HD Concentrate
Trivitron HD concentrate is used in hemodialysis and the solution can be prepared according to
patient need and help to regulate electrolytes and remove metabolic waster products from the
blood. With the help of dialysis concentrate the fluid is prepared for the dialysis process and it
helps regulate acid-base balance, electrolyte balance and remove metabolic waste.
Water Treatment (RO)
The dialysate is made up of water and chemicals and the patient blood comes in contact with
dialysate, and the water used for this process must be very pure. Reverse Osmosis procedure can
make the normal tap water enough pure to use for hemodialysis. Trivitron Water treatment (RO)
system produces water that is safe for dialysis.
Electric Dialysis Chair
Dialysis Chair is specifically designed for dialysis patients. The chair feature a foot beard for
relaxation and upholstery thickness improves patient comfort. The footrest can be pressed by the
patient during the procedure to relieve the muscle cramps that may occur during treatment. The
chair has an electric tilt adjustment that makes the treatment comfortable for the patient.
Disinfectant
Hemodialysis disinfectant contains the best cleaning agents for hemodialysis machines that help
47
keep instruments clean all the time.
Transducer Protector
Transducer protectors are used in hemodialysis bloodlines that help to keep the blood side from the
spirited circuit from the machine side. It helps prevent contamination of the machine by the blood
that is flowing through the circuit. The transducer act as a barrier and pressure monitoring during
hemodialysis.
PRODUCT FEATURE:
• Quality treatment to suit your budget quality
• High-quality HD treatment to protect your patient.
• Easy, fast and intuitive handling
• Advanced dialysis fluid circuit with highly-precise volumetrically controlled ultrafiltration.

RISK:
• low blood pressure.
• anemia, or not having enough red blood cells.
• muscle cramping.
• difficulty sleeping.
• itching.
• high blood potassium levels.

PARTICULARS MARKS ALLOTTED MARKS OBTAINED

PERFORMANCE 50

RECORD 15

VIVA-VOCE 10
TOTAL
75
Conclusion:
Thus various equipment in nephrology department was studied successfully
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