Lecture series: CPY 207 Cognitive Psychology. Published by University-of Nairobi Couneil, 8. 0. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya Printed by College of. Education. and External Studies, University of Nairobi, P. 0. Box 30197, Nairobi, 2008. e “ © University of Nairobi Councll, 2008; all vights reserved: No part of this Module may be reproduced in any form ot by any means without permission in writing from the Publisher, TABLE OF CONTENT TABLE.OF CONTENT, LECTURE ON! ORIGIN AND SCOPE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY... 1.1 Introduction 12° Objectives... 13 Definition’of Cognitive Psychology ...-.. 14 — History of Cognitive Psychology... 1.4.1 Philosophical Background sacs 3 1.4.2 Contribution of the Structuralist, 4 15 Emergence of Modern Cognitive Psychology 51.5.4 Development of Information Processing Theory. .. 1.5.2 Developments in Computer Science.. 1.5.3 Contribution from Linguists... 1.6 Characteristics of Cognitive Psychology. 1.7 Binergence of Cognitive Science. 1.8” information Processing Theory of Cognitive Psychology’. 1.9 Models of Information Processing «.. 1,91 Traditional (simple) information processing model... 1.9.2 Advanced model of information processing... 1,10 Characteristics of the Structural Components of the Information Processing Models L.L1 Control Systems in Information Processing Models... 1,12 Summary.. References LECTURE TWO THE NEURAL BASIS OF COGNITION.. a 21. Introduction 2.2 Objectives 23. ‘The Structure and Function of the Neuron 23.1 - Death of Neutons, 121 23.2. Types of Neurons. ; 22 23.3. Neural Transmission 23 23:4 © Synaptic Transmission... 23 25 2.4 . The Nervous System and Cognition 2.5. The Nervous System and Sensory Information iit2.5.1 Visual Sensation. 2.5.2 Auditory Sensation. 2.5.3 Olfactory Sensation... 3.3 Sensation as a Physiological Process., «354 The Absolute Threshold. 3.3.2 Signal Detection Theory. : 3.3.3 ust Noticeable Differenées. 3.3.4 Weber’ law. Pop penory Bdapton.. 3.4 Classification and characteristics ors 34 Visual Sensation. ere 3.4.2 Auditory Sensation 3.4.3 Olfactory Sensation 3.4.5” Tactile Sensation 3.5 Perception.3.6 Principles of Perception. 3.6.1 Principle of selectivity... 3.6.2 Principle of Organization. 3.7 Role of Attention in Perception... 3.7.1 ~ Selection Theories of attention. "3.72 Capacity Models of Attention. 3.8 Pattern Recognition ... .3.9 Bottom-up and top-down processes... 3.10 Suminary.... Reference. r LECTURE FOUR.. MEMORY... 4,1, Introduction ... 4.2, Objectives 43. The Concept of Memory. 44. Meinory Processes... 4d Registration... 442 — Storage... 44.3 Retrieval. 4.5. The Structure of Memory . 2.5.1 Sensory Register (Memoty)... 2.5.2 Short Term Memory... 2.53 Long Term Memory 4,6 The three stage model of memory~_- Redintegration Disorders of Memory. Alzheimer’s disease... Amnesi5.4 Theories of Intelligence... 5.4.1 ‘Two-factor theory of intelligence by Spearmen (1927) 5.4.2 Burt and Vernon’s Hierarchical model of intelligence..... 5.43 Fluid and Crystallized intelligence by Cattell (1987). 5.4.4 Information Processing Apptoach to Intelligerice... $:4,5 Trlarchic Theory of intelligence. ... 5.5.Heredity and Environmental Factors in Latelligénce: 5.6 Concept of Intelligence Testing. 5.7 Mental Retardation .. 5,8 The intellectually gifted... 5.9 Artificial Intelligence. 5.8 Summary. References ... LECTURE SIX... THINKING PROCESSES. 6.1 Introduction . 6.2 Objectives. 6.3 Definition of thinking, ....... 6.4, Mental Representations... 6.5 Problem solving as a thinking process. «1... 6.5.1 Types of problems... 6.5.2 Categories of problems 6.6 Ill defined vs well defined problems... 6.7 Process of Problem Solving. vii6.7.1 Polya’s stages of problem solving. 6.1.2 Information processing approach to problem solving 6.8 Phenomena of Problem Solving .... 6.8.1 Incubation and Insight... 68.2 Satisficing... 68.3, Rigidity-and s | 6.9 Creativity and. 73 The concept of reasoning ‘1.4 Types of reasonin, 7.4.1 Deduetive reasoning 7.4.2 Inductive reasoning... 7.5 Sources of error in reasoning.a4 titrodution "8.5 Theories of Language Acquisition 8.2 Objectives " 8.3 Definition and concept of languag 8.4 The structure of Tangtiage .. sae £5. The Leamings'Theory approach. 85.2 Language Acquisition Device . 85:3. Cognitive theory of language acquis 8.6 The felationship between language and thought 8.7 The uniqueness of speech fo human beings...INTRODUCTION This module is primarily designed for students doing a course in Cognitive Psychology in the Department of Psychology, University of Nairobi, It, however, meets the needs of other students whose courses touch on cognitive processes, The module therefore covers topics in cognitive psychology. The general aim is to broaden the students’ understanding of the concept and application of cognitive processes in a variety of settings such as schools, industries, media and at home, Some of the topics. covered may have: been-studied by the student in CPY 101 Introduction to Psychology Course. However, they are now given amore detailed and focused approach relevant to the understanding of the branch, of psychology known es_cngni psychology. The outline of the model is as follows In Lecture One, you will learn how cognitive psychology evolved into a modern sub discipline of psychology. You will also leam about the theoretical perspective of cognitive psychology. - In‘ Lecture Two you will leam about the role of the nervous system in cognitive processed, In this respect you will learn about how information is received by the sensory organs and taken to the central nervous system to’ be processed and perceived, In Lecture Three, you will lean how sensation takes place, and how it results into perception. You will also lear about the role of attention in perception. You will learn about the principles of perception, including pattern recognition. In Lecture Four, you will be taught about the process and structure of many. You will also learn about the theories of forgetting, memory aids and memory disorder x (=Tn Lecture Five, you will'ledrn abdut thé concept of intelligence’and the theories that explain intelligence, Focus will be mainly in the cognitive theories of intelligence. You will also learn about factors responsible for the development of intelligence and the concept of intelligence quotient ({Q). The lecture will introduce you to the concept of Satitoal intelligence. eit ke i caltak irks usd 8 a Lecture Six will deal with thinking processes, especially problem solving, the process and phenomena of problem solvitg. It will also discuss the concept of creativity and its role in problem solving. : 2 puis d Lecture Seven will introduce you to reasoning -as a thinking process. It will lapses different types of reasoning and sources of error in reasoning, xLECTURE ONE, ORIGIN AND SCOPE, OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY. Lecture Outline 1.1 tigoduction~ 1.2 Objebtives’ 1. Definition of Cognitive Psychology ti ind ae Ouy . 1.4 Barly History of Cognitive Psychology 5 Emergence of Modern Cognitive Psychology 1.6 Characteristics OF Cog 1.7 Bmergeace of Cognitive Seience 1,8 Information Processing Theory in Cognitive P: 19'Summary ive Psyehiology Ll Introduction In this Lecture you will be introduced to the concept of cognition where you will learn about cognitive psychology and its scope: You will be told about how current cognitive psychology emerged ‘and the factors that contributed to the development of cognitive psychology, Finally you will léam that cognitive Psychology is continuing fo evolve as it comtibines with other disciplines to form a new alsepling known as‘cognitive science, ale GH Ata fa Nei vey 1.2 Objectives At the erid of this lectiire you should be able to 1, Define cognitive Psychology Explain the scope of cognitive Psychology 3. Explain the history of coguilive Psychology * Deseribe the characteristics of cognitive Psychology 2: 3. 4. Discuss the emergence of present day cognitive Psychology’ 5, 6 . Explain the coacept ot opie science1.3 Definition of Cognitive Psychology In CPY 101 Introduction to Psychology, you leamed that Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human and animal behavior-and- cognitive processes. What are cognitive processes? Cognitive processes form the basis for cognition which is the basis for understanding the environment. According to Feldman (1987) cognition constitutes higher mental processes by which we understand the world, process information, make judgments and decisions and then coimmuniéate knowledge to other people. Activities e iiliadaec : g &,) 1.. Explain what we mean by understanding the world. 2, Identify situations where hymnan cognition applies Cognitive Psychology can be defined as the field of Psychology that deais with the study of cognitive processes stich as’ thinking, reasoning, perveption, memory, language, intelligence, concept formation, pattem recognition and. attention, It also studies how these processes can be applied, Remember these processes are very importattt for human beings to operate in theit environment, Why do we study Cognitive Psychology? Cognitive Psychology is studied tovenable us Understand the nature of cognition and its impact onthe’ individuals) behavior. It is motivated by the need to know and understand how people become aware of their environment and the processes involved. It niéang that cognitive Psychology has to study. various cognitive processes that are important in our awareness of the environment in witich we live, For example, in order fox us fo know wheie we are going we must have memory of the place, We must also reason and plan the route or journey. In other words we should understand what we are doing.= | Activity : ~ Explain, with an example in each case how each of the cognitive Gh ‘processes help in understanding and awareness of the énvironment, 1.4 History of Cognitive Psychology, In this section, we will look at the history of cognitive psychology especially its origin. , 141 Philosophical Background, , Interest in, human cognition. is, many.centuries. old-and,can_be traced back to the ancient Greeks such as Plato and Aristotle who speculated that memory and’ knowledge were the basis for our knowledge. Where as the empiricists believed that all knowledge was due to Our experience the nativists also known as rationalists, argued that children come into this, 3f } 4 | world with a great deal of innate or biologically determined knowledge. This debate was mainly in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. British Philosophers such as Locke Hume and Mill supported the empiricist view while continental philosophers such as Descartes and Kant proposed the nativists view. These discussions were however mainly philosophical, although occasionally there were psychological speculations about cognition. 1.4.2 Contribution of the Structuralists. : ‘The date usually associated with the begining of psychology as a science is 1879 when Wilhem Wangt, a Germany physiologist, established the first Psychology laboratory in Leipzig University Germany. Together with his associates such as Titchner, Wundt brought subjects in to a laboratory and asked them to respond to a stimulus presented to them, For exafnple, a bell would be rung and the subjects were supposed to say what vas going on in their minds as a reaction to the stimulus (bell). Wundt’s Psychology was basically cognitive psychology because it was focused on the structure of the mind which included thoughts and feelings. Structuralism was concemed with the study of the structure of the mind. In fext question ‘What was: the methodology’ that. the structuralists"used id: studying human mind? * - Through a method known as introspection subjects were supposed to repgrt the contents of their consciousness (mind) under carefully controlled ‘conditions. Structuralists believed that the mind should be open to self obseivation or examination. Although the work of the structuralists provided a good basis for the study of cognitive processes it failed to advance due to the criticism by American Psychologists fronted by behaviorists such as John B., Watson, and B.F Skinner. I hope you can remember the work of these psychologist covered in CPY 101 Introduction to Psychology course, 4You leamed earlier that structuralism never evolved into a full discipline of cognitive i | psychology due to the extensive criticism from behaviorists. However, from the 1950's there was significant interest in cognitive processes through the work of experimental psychologists who were interested in cognitive processes such as memory, perception, language and attention, This marked the rebirth of cognitive psychology. From there on there was extensive work in cognitive processes as you will learn in the next section, 1.3 Emergence of Modern, Cognitive Psychology ; Modem. cognitive psychology owes. its development to the following three main influeriees, ee es z - 1.5.1 Development of Information Processing Theory y Information processing is the ch. people take in, use and store information. | p iB ople take in, use and store information. In other words, it is the ability to receive information from the environment, process or manipulate the information, store it and then use it whenevet it is required. The concept of information processing developed from the work o1 factors and information processing. Human factors refers to research on the application of human skills in performance. For,example, the application of typing skills in typing activities, It may also refer to skills in driving, work in industries ete, It-focuses on how a person may use his psychomotor skills to perform motor or physical tasks. For example how the individual-uses visual sensation to enable him or her do a task such as driving. Activity, Identify more skills and the agtivities in which they are appliedlectures. proce - ee Information theory, on the other hand, is a branch of communication sciences. that provides an abstract way of analyzing the processing of information. It was the British Psychologist; Donald Broadbent (1958) who was influential in inograting ideas from rnuman factors and information theory’ and developing: the- information processing approach, He developed these ideas with regard to mainly atention and perception bat this has now been extended to all aspects of cognitive psychology as we will see in later Other types of analysis in cognitive Psychology exist but information sing isthe dominant theoretical foundation of cognitive psychology, Activity Describe a task ot an activity that is based on the information processir approach < 1.5.2 Developments in Computer Science, ‘Work in computer sofence, especially artificial intelligence, which involves simulation of coghttive processes in computers so that they behave intelligently like human beings also hhad a great impact in the development of cognitive Psychology. . Computer Science is mainly based on information processing especially ‘where: information is. registered, stored, processed and retrieved for use: A lot of concepts have, therefore; been taken from, computer science and used in Psychological theories. Psychological concepts have in tum een applied in computer science. ‘Activity | 2 Explain how the operation of a computer simulates human cognitive Gh function‘The thitd area of influence on cognitive psychology came from the work of linguists, especially Noam Chomsky, in the 1950s. Noam Chomsky, a linguist from the Massachusetts. Institute of Technology began to develop a model of analyzing the structure of.Janguage. From this work it was understood that language was much more complex than had previously been believed. It also showed that many of the existing behaviorist theories were not. capable of explaining the complex nature of language. Chomsky’s linguistic analyses enabled cognitive Psychologists to discredit the prevailing behaviorist theories. It was George Miller at Havard University who in the 1950's and 1960s was’ instrumental in bringing the linguistic analyses to the attention of Psychologists and hence identifying new ways of studying not only language but other psychological phenomena: : ‘Activity : Explain 'the contribution of Noam Chomsky’s work to the development of “cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology has grown rapidly since the 1950"s especially when Ulric Neisser published his book “Cognitive Psychology” in 1967, The book consisted of six chapters on perceptioti and attention and four chapters. on language, mémory and thought. ‘Another important event ‘after Neissers book was published was the launching of the Journal of Cognitive psychology in 1970, ‘This journal has doné much to provide a forum. for dissemination of wotk in cognitive psychology, 1.6 Characteristies of Cognitive Psychology. In this section we will look at the characteristics that distinguish the cognitive approach from behaviorist. ‘These charneteristis are: i) ‘The cognitive approach emphasizes knowing rather than responding. Cognitive psychologists are interested. in studying mental processes involved in the acquisition and application of knowledge. ‘They are not interested in stimulus — response bonds that are the basis for behaviorism. Cognitive psychologists are tsa!I interested in mental events as opposed to behaviour. ‘They do not, however, ignore ! behaviour, To cognitive psychologists, behaviors are seen as responses that can be used as indicators th 4 es-vegarding mental events. In other words what we do is-a reflection of what we think” Cognitive Psychologists believe that cognitive Psychology can be a Science even if their subject matter is not observable (overt) like in natural sciences. In other words, even if we cannot observe what is going on in the individuals mental state, we can stil study it scientifically. ii) Emphasis on mental structure or organization. ‘The cognitive approach argues that an individual’s knowledge is organized and that new stiniuli must be-interpreted-in light of this knowledge... If you remember Jean Piaget’s work discussed in CPY’116 Psychology of Human Development then you should be able to-understand ‘what is meant:by the: organization of the individuals knowledge. Piaget has argued that all living creatures are born with the capacity to organize their experience. This tendency provides an important impetus for cognitive development. It is this organization of-knowledge that enables human beings to understand their environments and then opetate on the basis of that awareness. Can you think of any examples? ) The individual is active, constructive and planful. ‘The third .characteristic of the cognitive approach views the individual as being active, constructive and planful rather than as being a passive recipient of environmental stimulation, “This differs from’ the behaviorists’ who ‘usually view individuals minds as blank slates which are filled during experiences through the Ly process of leaming, ‘The cognitive theorist, therefore, assumes that any complete theory of human cognition must include analysis of the plans or strategies people use for thinking, remembering, understanding and producing of language.Activity 2 1... Describe with an example in each case the three characteristics Gh of the cognitive approach 2. How does the cognitive approach explain behavior? 1.7 Emergenée’of Cognitive Science prin tcanicn In the preceding sections we have talked about the nature, Bistory and characteristics of cognitive psychology More recently there has emerged a multidisciplinary field called cognitive science. It isa _field that attempts to integrate research findings from psychology, philosophy, linguistics and computer science (artificial intelligence ). It also takes into consideration work from Physiology. “Cognitive Science” came into’ existence in.1976 when the Journal of Cognitive Science’ was publi ‘The field of cognitive psychology and cognitive e main difference is, however, that cognitive science science, however, overlap. makes greater use of methods such as computer simiulation of cognitive processes and’ logical analysis which are not dominant methods in the rest of psychology...» Computer science Fig 12 The domain of cognitive seiénce 9 2 Em es a‘Activity 2 1... Identify two applications of cognitive science in Kenya = Gh 2, What contribution does Psychology make to cognitive science? 1,8 Information Processing Teoty of Cognitive Paychology:....j ‘We had earlier said that information: procecsing is a major theory, in. cognitiv psychology. Let us discuss this theoty further inthis section tn order for us to use inféretion that is available to us we must receive it, proce: ‘understand and then use it whenever necessary. Information processing theory can b used to explain what happens when we encounter information in our environment Iti the most important theoretical foundation of. cognitive “Psychology. - - Informatio: processing theory assumes that information processing system consists of. thre functionally distinct kinds. of memory systems. ‘These systems are: i). Sensory register (memory) #2 a ‘This is the first memory system. This memory holds sensory information in their r: form for only a fraction of a second. It registers large amount of information using ¢ five sensor systems (visual, auditory, ttle, gutatory and olfactory) information st here iri form of imagery. ae fi) Short term memory (working memory) i “This is the second memory stricture dnd has Timited capacity. It is the point when we aware of information and are able to use it. That is why itis called the working mem« ‘The information stays in this system for a few seconds or for as Jong, as we are usin: ‘This is usually made possible through rehearsal 10iit) Long term memory This is the last part of memory. It is the part of memory Which holds all the information jn our experiences that range from a few minutes to several years. It therefore has large capacity and long duration. This part of our merhoty is the basis for all the experiences we have gone through during out life time. ‘The three forms of memory play. significant roles in information processing activities ‘This is” because during information processing activities, we register the stimuli and process them to be aware of their chapacteristcs. The stimuli can then bé shored and may be retrieved for use if necessazy. Can youthink of such situations? Tatext Question ‘What are the three:components of memory systems 1.9 Models of Information Processing ‘The following models of information processing have been advanced by psychologists. 1.9.4 Traditional (Simple) Information Processing Model This model proposes that we-register information in, three memory stores. Information can be retrieved from the long term memory to be used in the short term memory RETRIEVAL SHORT TERM LONG TERM Sh aremony, yf MEMORY many Leon relent tn means BEF Vong er t0d y . Forget RagegBriefly retains information ily holds information Can” retain information for ; ASR picked by sensory organs in consetoushess:or awareness long periods of time inay take place (forgetting-may-take-place-here)-. (forgetting may @ Explain the above model of infotination processing using an ordinary | Gh activity you may be engaged in. | 24.9.2 Advanced Model of Information Processing ‘This isa much more complex model which introduces the role of attention and pattern recognition in information processing, FORGETTING FORGETTING SENSORY || = eecisteRs ah” STIMULI VISUAL : “ “SHORT AUDITORY sacl ccoen ma goa Oy re oo TERM e TACTILE ' ONSE;,. >| MEMORY. OLFACTORY “+ RESP wn te - GUSTATORY co STORAGE | | ATTENTION Long TERM PATTERN emo, RECOGNITION, eee eee eee $ ect Fig 1.2 Advanced model of information processing 1.10 Characteristics of the Structural Components of.the Information Processing Models. ‘The. three components of, information processing models have the following characteristies:—~: fom ‘ ity (how much information it i) The first characteristic concerns each systems cay can hold at any one time), Some systems hold more information than others, BE} Soe BoseEE IE DFT a ii) The second characteristic concemis the form’ of representation in each system. Information or representation of stimulus undergoes changes as it is {ransfetred from one memory system to‘another- iit) The third charactetistic concems the cause of forgetting from each of the memory systems. The three systems will be discussed in detail in Lecture’Four on Memory. $ : 4.11 Control Systems in Information Processing Models Jnformation processing theories assurhe that theté-are-control: systems: that-govern. or control the flow of information” within ‘the information” processing system. One prominént contro! system (. Reheaisal involves overt or covert repetition of an item suich as a word or @ Rehearsal is necessary when an individual wants to put more information into memory. Other control: system include the following: i) Strategies for solving problems. ts i) Strategies for understanding speech. iii) Strategies for producing speech. For example when an individual is engaged in a conversation, he'or'she may tise'control processes for understanding and producing sentences. Generally, information processing systems receive information, represent information with symbols and then manipulate these representations. This is a process known as thinking (reasoning and problem solving will be covered in Lectures Five ahd Six), ‘Activity ; 2 1. Explain the main features of the information processing theories. ‘ i | 2. With an example explain the concept control systems. 14c 1.12 Summary Cognitive Psychology is a branch of Psychology that studies cognitive processes and their effects on behavior . In this lecture, you were introduced to. the concept of cognitive Psychology and why it is important to leam about it, You leamed about the history of modem Cognitive. Psychology, You also learned the characteristics that differentiate cognitive approach from the behaviorist approach in explaining human nature. You also Jeamed that cognitive Psychology has. continued to contribute to other disciplines such as cognitive science, Finslly, you leamed about information processing as the most important theoretical foundation of cognitive Psychology. You learned that cognitive Psychology focuses on how an individual registers information from the external environment, how that information is processed to enable an individual become, aware of them and how the individual responds on the basis of this information, I hope you were able to understand the basic concepts in cognitive psychology, References Anderson J.R; (1985) Cognitive Psychology and its Implications, New York, W.H Freeman and Company, Baron, R.A (2001) Psycholo; . Needham Heights, M.A Allyn and Bacon,‘Activity 1, Which part of the nervous system has most neurons? 2, Describe the structure of q neuroa 3. What is the function of a neuron? “: Bee 4, What determines whether neural impulses will pass from one neuron to another”, Death of Neurons Neurons are living cells that die but unfortunately they are not replaced. Neurons can die of old age, injury or disease. However, since we normally have more neurons than » we need, the effect of loss of neurons do not emerge immediately. Neighbouring neurons take over the function of the dead ones. However with time the pool of neurons may be depleted if many of them dic. As a result of this depletion, the ability to engage in stimulus — response: activitiés or behaviours including ‘cognitive * Processes such a5 memory or reasoning. may deteriorate, Have you heard that people might be paralysed or los: inemory. or speech if they have brain damage due to accidents or strokes? wv . In text Question i. Explain the causes oftdeath of neurons. co u Ey."Types of Netirons ‘Although neurons share the sane features (such sa cell body, dendrites and axons), and the, same basic functional features such as the capacity to conduct or transmit information) there are other differences among them. Neurons differ in their role in transinitting information throughout the nervous system. The following classification of teurons is based:on how they function. i) Sensory netirons ~'These ard located in the peripheral neryous system and their function is ‘to carry seisory informtation from the peripheral nervous systen (Le, skin and muscles)to'the central nervous system ie (spinal cord and brain). The sensory rieurons are of two types: 4) The bipolar neuron where\axons and dendrites.are coimected to ~~ the eet body: oe ‘ b) ‘The unipolar netiron where the “axon and: dendrites are connected indirectly via the little “neck’*to the cell body. “*: ii) Motor neuréng - ‘these neurons “aie ‘found in the’ peripheral nervous system, and their function is to camry motor information ‘from the u central nervous system to the peripheral: nervous’ system (muscles, glands and organs of the body). e # : i) Inter neurons — These siewéons are"lodited” predoiniianty i, the ‘entire nervous system. They are réferred to'as interneurons because they link or corinect the sensory neuron to the motor neuron thereby integrating their functions, Whereas sensory neurons will: énablé us have sensory information ie (See a snake) motor neurons will enable us engage in motor activities (je kill the snaké or run away from it). “The'centtal nervous system (ie the brain) wil determine how motor responses are made as a result of sensory informatior: 22Tatext Questions 1. Explain the functions of different types of neurons. 2,, Differentiate between sensory and motor information ‘Neural Transmission. ‘Neurons are like batteries with both positive and negative electric charges (ions). When a neuron is not firing (i.e. not stimulated) the inside is predominantly negative and has a resting potential. It has about - 70m, When the neuron is stimulated, the inside becomes predominantly positive while the outside is negative, This happens because sodium ions: which are negative will enter the neuron, This means that the neural impulse has been generated and the neuron has an action pétential (Je is depolarized), The neuron that stimulated has +40mv.. Afler the neuron has generated an impulse due to stimulation, the impulse will travel down the axon until it reaches the synaptic knob where it borders the dendrites, of other neurons: The gap between the dentrite and the axon is called a synapse. ‘The impulse may cross thiS gap, due to excitatory newrotransinitters, This is explained in the next section. ad Synaptic Transmission ‘Neural impulses or messages will cross the synapse or gap between the neurons withthe help of chemical substances known as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters which are stored int th synaptic, vesicles that are in, the synaptic knobs will be released in the synapse in response to the presynaptic impulse ie impulse in the neuron before the _ synapse. The neurotransmitters will attach themselves to the post synaptic membrane (i. ‘the membrane of the neuron after the mapse). Synaptic. transmission can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on whether the neurotransmitter is excitatory’ or inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitfer tends to change the structure of the postsynaptic membrane to enable the post synaptic neuron generate an impulse, This enables a neural impulse from the presynaptic neuron to cross the synapse 23 cD eSL 4 i “hh i | Neurolransmitier ‘| molecule i sad: " Neural i impulse {| | Synaptic ‘Sonie niurol “fit he lock” sites membrane Dendrite continue being transtuitted by the postsynaptic neuron, However, if the inewrotransmitter’ is inhibitory it Will change the postsynaptic’ membrane in such a way that it makes it difficult for the, post synaptic neuron to gener te an impulse. ‘ft means that a neural impulse from presynaptic neuron will not cross the synapse to be transmitted by the post ‘synaptic neuron, Whether we respond to a stimulus or not will therefore depend on whether tiie transmission has been excitatory or inhibitory. 24 =‘What ate neurotransmitters? 2. What is synaptic.transmission? “3. “Differentiate -betweenrinhibitory ~and..-excitatory neural The Nervous System and Cognition As you have learned in Lecture One, cognition is a process of understanding or becoming aware of our environment. This means that the various features of the environment must. _ be perceived.” Pérception involves” the” physiological process’ of ‘sensation’ in: which the individual takes in or senses the stimuli in the environment using the following sensory systems,Eyes ~sight _- visual sensation Bars —hearing — auditory sensation Nose — smell — olfactory sensation. ‘Torigue ~ taste ~ Gustatory sensation. ‘Skin — touch’ - cutaneous sensation ‘he above sensory systems are each supplied with souctires known as sensory receptors The ‘sensor receptors enable individuals to pick or régister’ information from the cavironment in their raw formaThe receptors ate known as exteroceptors because they give us information about steal enviomen Exacta aia wept by sensory receptors and then passed on to the Central Nervous System (CNS) by sensory nerve cells also known as afferent neurons. = Bach sense organ transforms the raw information unto eléetrochemical or neural impulses through a process known as transduction. The inlfoiniation is then passed from neuron to neuron in the form of electrochemical impulses, ‘The ‘neural impulses are passed through the nerves until they reach the brain where specific-impulses are processed by the relevant structures of the brain. The brain will the send information to the relevant parts of the body to respond. For example, when you see something that you appreciate (ie money) your brain will instruct your hand to pick it” ‘Activity, " 1, State the different types of sensory system 2. What is transduction?2,5, _ ‘The Nervous System and Sensory Information Information that the brain processes must be pickéd from the environment and sent to the brain through sensory neitrons. In this section you will learn about sensory receptors of each sensory organ and the nerves that take the impulses to the brain, Remember nesves are made up of neurons You will also learn about the part of the brain that processes specific sensory information, The sensory systems that we Are going to talk about are: 2.5.1 Visual Sensation ‘Visual information comes to thé sensory’ organ (the eye) in form of light rays. The rays- are then transformed into electrochemical impulses by sensory receptors known as rods and cones. The rods and cones-are visual receptor cells found in the retina at the back of the eye. Neural impulses transformed from the light rays pass to the visual cortex in the , occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain. Neural impulses ate taken to the visual cortex through the optic nerve. The’ visual cortex processes and interprets, visual, information for the individual. 1o ynderstand and respond to, For example, when you see an,gnemy the visual informetion will be taken to the brain which will décide whether you run or fight. ifs oP : Auditory Sensation Auditory information’ travels in.the air in form of solnd waves. The sound waves are picked from the efiviconment and-passed through the outer ‘and middle-ears until they reach the inner ear, Both the outer ear and the middle ear must insure’ that the sound Waves continue to viptate wii] they reach the inner ear. It is the organ of,corti Jovated in the cochlear in the inner éar, That acts asthe sensory Teceptor, This is mag, possible because thé eardrum (tympanic membrane) in the ouier ear and the three bones (ossicles) in the middle éar engure that sound waves vibrate until they reach then organ of corti, It ere arsoapreces ie 0 cleottochemical impulses. The neural impulses are then poral lobe. The temporal lobe is located at the sides he auditory cortex through the auditory nerve. auiditory cortex to enable the individual transduces sound waves int taken to the auditory cortex in the ten of the brain. Neural impulses are taken to ‘The auditory information is then processed. by ‘ou hear souind it is processed by the understand it and respond to it, For example, when y‘ brain and. then you respond depénding on the type of sound (pleasurable or not pleasarable). : ' : * + Olfactory Sensation nformation travels ii the air in form of chemical molecules. Thesé molecules Olfactory it from_ the air through : the nostrils where’ they’ come in contact ‘with are, picked chemoreceptors. These ‘After the chemical subst inhces have been transduced into neural ifipulses they are taken when you smell sométhing the informatiba is sent to the brain which detérmines how yor jeadt to it. If the smell is pleasant you will be empy but if it is not you will not be happy. Gustatory Sensation Gustatory information is received by the tongue in chemical form. The microv li whic rao de hair like substances. located On the tongue act as receptors. Neural impulse transduced by the chemoreceptors (niicrovilli) are then passed to the somatoscnso: cortex through the vagus nerve. Remémber the somatosensory cortex is located in t parietal lobe.’The individual will respond {0 the gustatoty information after it has ber processed by the somatosonsoty cdrtex. For example, when you taste food you m: continue to eat because you find it nice. The. brain will have processed this informati for you: 28 2Skin Sensation ‘The skin is able to receive different sensory stimuli because it has different receptors for specific stimuli, These receptors are-able to respond to different sensory stimuli because the. skin has the following nerve of the differences in. their threshold. of. sen: endings that act as the sensory receptors: Touch -.-....Meissneis iorgusclo Deep pressure ~Pacinian corpuscles Cold -- Krause end bulbs ‘Warththe.- Ruffini endings... Pain” -'-Free ‘Nervé endings: ‘The above nerve endings-generate neural information for specific skin sensations which are then sent to the somatosensory cortex for interpretation and response. Can you think of a stimulus for each of the above sensory systems and how you would respond to it? A ‘Activity 1, State different sensory systems 2, Identify the sensory receptors in each of the five sensory organs 3. Explain the various parts of the brain that process information from each of the five sensory organs. ‘After sensory. information has been processed, the individual is instructed to react or respond to it through the relevant nervous system. This is made possible because motor or efferent neurons carry motor information from the central nervous system to the glands fand muselés. In certain situations sensory information is taken to,the parts of the brain that. ay activale. he function. of certain, specific hormones to initiate a behavior. For example the hypothalamus: may: be aotivated to release certain chemicals, known a3 releasing factors which will act on the pituitary gland to release a range of hormones ‘ 29 pewhich in turn act on various organs of the body to reledse their own hormones. A major gland that the hypothalamus sends chemicals tp activate and then release hormones is the pituitary gland. ‘These actions may result in a variety of behaviors that include sexual behaviors or stress management. : Jn text-Question 1. Why is the hypothalamus important in our body? 2. What does the pituitary gland do? : wal iy GOs Aras Oe In ‘the case of the autonomic nervous system activities, the interpretation of sensory information may detetmine the kind of motor ‘activities for the individual.to undertake. For example a stimulus such as a snake may be cognitively analysed,and then perceived as dangerous The sympathetic division of the Autonomic Nervous System may be activated to energize the body so that the person. cati either run or Kill the snake. This ‘means that those parts of the brain that play a role in emotional experiences, for instance, ‘the septum for fear and amygdala for tage or aggression may be activated. If there is need 46 use memory the hippocampus will be activated to enable the individual memorize the experience ér recall past experience related to the current stimuli That is why we run our past experience will tell us that they are dangerous. away from snakes be: ‘The nervous system is therefore the basis for information processinig theory of cognition. ‘This imeans that sensory organs must pick the information from the environment. This information is changed into electrochemical impulses ~ hich are then transported to the Central Nervous System (brain) for processing and interpre.'on (vercention), After perception the individual will respond, The role of attention determines the kinds of stimuli to be processed. Usually we will process information that we have attended to dué to their significance to us or our personal interest in them, 30{Activity 1. Explain the role of the Nervous System in cognition 2, What is the role of memory in information processing activities? 3. State at least two behaviours that may be determined by the activities of the nervous syster 2.6 Summary In this lecture you haye leamed that the nervous system is the basis for the transmission of information in the individual. You leamed that this is made possible. by the action of the neuron (nerve cell) that -initiates and transmits this information. The peripheral nervous system receivés information ftom the environment and takes it to the Central “Nervous System. It is the Central Nervous System (brain) which enables the individual to become aware of information from the environment. The Central Nervous System in turn enables ops behaviors or actions to be initiated i the functions ofthe peter! near Serr ews —LECTURE THREE «SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Lecture Outline - 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Objectives 3.3 Sensation as a physiological process 3.4 Classification and characteristics ofseisoey systems 3,5 The concept of perception 3.6 Printiples of perception 3.7 Summary aes “lecture you will learn more about the sensation as.a physiological process. You! ‘will lea about the various sensory organs and how they receive and process information from the environment; ‘This lecture will also introduce you to the concept of perception and the principles that govern how we perceive. The role of attention in perception will be discussed, Finally, you will Iearn the concept of pattern recognition and its role in perception. 323.2 Objective At the end of this lecture you should be able to Define sensation and perception 2, Explain the relationship between attention and perception 3. ‘Explain the physiology of sensation 4, . Discuss factors that affect perception 5. Describe the principles of perception, » ~ -6., Explain how pattern recognition influence perception, 3.3 Sensation as a Physiological Process, During the course of our, experiences, we come across several environmental stimuli which are registered using the sensory organs. The sensory organs receive information in their raw form. ‘The information is then changed to electro chemical or neural impulses through a process known as transduction’ Remember this was discussed in lecture two, Sensation is therefore a psychological process: by which an organism's sense organs respond to @ stimulus, A stimulus is a souree of physical exergy that produees fesponse in a sense organ, ‘There are three kinds of receptors that help in the registration of sensory information or a stimuli. These receptors are: i) Intereceptors — These are receptors that are inside the body and they tell the organism-about-its-internal environment. They-enable-the individual to-be aware of such conditions as sugar and oxygen levels in the blood, il) _ Propriocepters ~ These are categorized in two kinds as follows; AyeeB3-20a) Kinaesthetic receptors ~ These receptors sense movements of the ‘body (limbs, joints and muscles). b) Vestibular receptors — These receptors respond to gravity and the movements of the head. They are thetefore weful for the organisms to maintain their balance. iii) Exteroceptors ~ These teceptots tell us about the external environment using the sensory systems of taste (gustatory); touch (cutaneous), hearing (auditory), seeing (visual), and smell (olfactory). Exteroceptors are the most significant to the organism because they makés it awafe of the’ external environnient where most sensory stimuli originate from. Each of the sensory organs that are responsible for registration. of various. sensory stimuli are supplied with sensory receptors; that receive sensory stimuli in their-raw forms. For example, the eyes receive visual stimuli of various features and colours. “However, these sensory stimuli or. energy (i.e light rays). must be transformed into electrochemical impulses so that they are passed to the brain for further analysis and interpretation Activity f | 1... Define sensation 2. Why is sensation a physiological process 3.. State the five sensory systems 4, Describe the three types of receptors. 3.3.1 The Absolute Threshold : 5 ‘An absolute threshold is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to bbe detected by the sensory organs. Galanter (1962) gives examples of the following absolute thresholds. : 34i | | _ (@) Inreporting that stinwulus'is present when itis not Sight: a candle flame can be seen 30 miles away ona dark, clear night. y Hearing: the ticking of a watch can be heard 20 feet away under quiet conditions. Taste: sugar can be discerned when one teaspoon is dissolved in 2 gallons of water. Smell: perfume can be detected when one drop is present in a three room apartment. : - Touch: a bee's, wing, fal ma distance of 1 centimeter can be felt ona ° cheek. Such thresholds enable our sensory organis to detect‘a variety of sensory stimulation, The above absolute thresholds’ are éstimated fo occir under ideal conditions. In real life situation, however, we must achfeve"the absoliite thiesiold in the presence of several other stimuli Le noise that isnt pat of the sound thie individual ts trying'to achieve, 3.3.2 Signal Detection Theory Psychologists state that the ability to detect and identify a stimulus is not just a function of the properties of the particular stimulus but it is also, affected by psychological factors relating to the person making the judgment. Signal detection theory has been proposed to ‘explain thé role of psychological factors in our ability to detect stimuli (Swets, 1992). The theory proposes that when attempting to' detect a stimulus observers may make one of the following two errors: : (b) In reporting that a stimulus is not present when it actually is,” ‘ mM Causes of sucht errors may inclute factors suchas observer expectations and motivation. 35——————————————— 3.3.3 Just Noticeable Differences. Many times we try to compare two or more stimisli (objects) with each other. This js also referred to as just Noticeable Difference which is the ‘The stimulus value that constitutes a difference in threshold smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. pends on the initial intensity of the stimulus. This is the just noticeable difference de tively dim during late afternoon but quite bright at reason why the, oon appears tel axe night. 0% one” we . “3.3.4 Weber’s law ‘Weber's law states that the just noticeable difference js a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus. Therefore, jfaone kg increase in a 100kg weight produces cable difference, it would take a 10kg weight increase to produce just noticeable difference if the initial weight were 1000kg. Similarly, the just noticeable difference just notic 1 changes in Joudness between sounds is larger for sounds that até initially nds that are initially soft (low). It can be used to explain why the * distinguishing Joud than for sour ringing phone is more likely to startle us when we are in 2 quiet room than when we are ina room that is already noisy. 3.3. Sensory Adaption eR ee . Sensory adaption is the adjusttnent ‘in senisory capadity following. prolonged exposure tc sfixmuli, Adaptation occurs as people get used to the stimulas ‘and change their frame o reference, (Asa resuit they tend not to Fespond fo the stimulus in the way they did earlier One example of adaptation is thet for an individual who repeatedly hears a loud noise, begin to sound softer after a while. This apparent decline in sensitivity to senso: 5 due to the inability of the sensory ‘nerve endings (receptors) to constantly fi woul stimuli is or conduct messages to the brain. Since these.receptors are most responsive to chang in stimulation, constant stimulation.is not effective in producing a reaction. Adaptati has been found to oceur with all senses. 36‘Ketivity Explain using examples the following concepts, i) Absolute threshold ii) Signal detection theory iii). Just noticeable difference si iv) Sensory adaptation i 5 Classification and characteristies of Sensory Systems “There are five sensory systems that enable the individiel to have external experience. ‘These are: 3.4.1 Visual Sensation jsual sensation. It receives light rays through the comea, @ that allows light to pass through. Light then passes ‘The eye is the.organ of yi transparent protective window through the pupil; a dark hole in th ‘The size of the pupil opening depends on the centre of the iris, the coloured part of the eye. amount of light in the environment. The dimmer the surrounding the more the pupil opens to allow more light to enter. Once light passes through the pupil it enters the lens which acts to bend or refract the light rays so that they can be properly focused on the retina’at the rear of the eye. The lens responds to light: by changing its thickness or curvature through @ process refered to as accommodation, The light will then be refracted to fall on the retina brain. The where it ig converted into electrochemical impulses to be processed by the retina contains: two kinds’ of; light-sensitive receptor cells. These-are cones, Cons ate primatily: responsible for, colour perception while rods are related to The optic nerve the rods..and vision in dimly, lit situations and ‘are not sensitive to colour. 37“etivity pxplain using examples the following concepts ’) Absolute threshold ii) Signal detection theory iii) Just noticeable difference iv) Sensory adaptation Classification and characteristics of Sensory Systems: “There are five sensory systems that enable the individual to have external extperiencé: iB ‘These ar 3.41 Visual Sensation The eye is the organ of visual sensation. It receives light rays thtough the cornea, a iransparent projective window that allows light to pass-through. Light then paises s, the coloured part of the eye. through the pupil, a dark hole in the centre of the i ‘The size of the pupil opening dspends on the amount of light in the environment, The dimmor the surrounding the more the pupil opens to allow more light to enter. Once light passes through the pupil it enters the lens, which acts to bend or refract:the that they can be properly facuised on the retina at the rear of the eye. ‘The light rays ens responds to light by changing its thickness or curvature through a process referred to as accommodation. ‘The light will then be refracted to’ fall on the retina ‘where it is converted into electrochemical impulses to be processed by the brain. The retina contains two kinds of light-sensitive receptor cells,’ ‘These are the rods and cones. Cones are primarily responsible for colour perception while rods are related to ‘The optic nerve vision in dimly lit situations and are not sensitive to colour. a7, recor staat cna wincaciodccefundamental tastes than others. For example, the tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweetness while only the sides of the tongue are very sensitive to sour tastes and the rear is sensitive to bitter tastes. Different taste areas have different neural routes to the taste centres in the brain. Smell, temperature, texture ot even appearance of food may have an impact in our taste sensation. ‘Tactile Sensation ‘The skin sensation is made of sensation’ of touchy’ pressure; temperature and pain. “They all play critical roles in the survival of the organism because they make it aware of potentiat danger to its body. Most of these Ssenises receive stimulation through tierve receptor cells located at various depths through out the skin, although they are not evenly distributed, ‘That is why some parts of the body are more sensitive than others. ‘These sensations also have different thresholds that is why differént stimuli result in different sensations. Each of the sensory systems has its own sensory receptors and neural route fo the brain where information is processed for the organism to perceive. i) Desoribe the five sensoiy Systems” ii) State the receptor cells it each of the Sensory organs iii) - Explain how a human being can use cach of the sensory systems to survive. 3.5 Perception Perception is the end product of sensation. It is the stage a! which stimuli that have been sensed are understood. In other ‘words, it is the point at which tsi: individual has sensed and interpreted the sensed stimuli so that he or she is aware of them. It is therefore the process of interpretation ‘of the stimulus characteristics that have been sensed, The stimulus characteristics may include sound, texture, size, shape, colour ete. 393.6 Principles of Perception ‘As we have said before, perception is the awareness of the environment, It tends to be governed by the following principles; 3.6.1 Principle of selectivity This principle proposes that the individual. will be able to perceive only the stimuli to which he or she pays attention, ‘This is mainly because usually there are too many stimuli for the brain to process at once, So only the most important or significant stimuli will be attended to and processed for perception.- Perception is, therefore, selectively determined by attention. However, attention itself mey be determined by the. following factors: i). Stimulus characteristics Various stimuli have characteristics that may draw our attention to them, These . characteristics include colour, loudness, structure, shape and size of the stimuli. For example, an individual is more likely to respond or attend to a inore colourful, louder or bigger stimulus than the ones. with. the opposite, features: ‘That is why advertisements use attractive colours tp attrac. the attention of customers, ii) Personal factors A part from the stimulus characteristics the personal factors of the perceiver also plays a role in determing how stimuli are perceived. These factors include: 4) Emotions Objects thet éceompaiy or involve pleasant emotions are perceived more’ easily then those that ‘accompany’ unpleasant emotional experiences. People tend to avoid remembering sad experiences such as deaths of loved ones. This is mainly through a 40 Soop o eei i i . i process known as repression. Remember you learned about repression in CYP 101 : | introduction to psychology. u + +b) ‘State of the Individual Whig head & il ‘The condition of the individual may affect his or her ability to sense or perceive stimuli in the environment, For example, a sick or hungry person may not be able to sense and péiceive stimuli in his or her environment in much the same way as healthy and satisfied person would. The state of anxiety. also determines’ the level of awareness. Perception is best achieved at the optimum level of anxiety. Both very indetmine our ability to perceive stimuli low and very high levels of anxiety tend to ut in our environment. Perception (Awareness) Low Low Anxiety” High Fig 3. Relationship between perception and anxiety. ©) Interest anThe Individual is more likely to perceive a stimulus in which he or she has interest or set. An individual can easily perceive a house along a road that he or she is travelling if he or she is interested or set for it. For example, if we are given directions about a place, we may become more interested and attentive and are therefore more likely to become aware of these'places. i - Activity =| 2 1, What is the relationship between sensation and perception?. Gi l 2. -Desciibe thie factors that determine the principles of selectivity, 3.6.2 Principle of Organization The principle of organization states that we tend to organize various constituent parts of an object or situation and perceive them as. wholes or units rather than as parts, ‘The organization is based on the following gestalt laws of orgenization: oo i) Proximity Soe / Elements that are closer together are grouped together, As a result,.we may seé the ' | dots and lines below as pairs of dots and lines and not is separate lines or dots, Ifyou | om were to%sce two people walking near each other for some distance, you might * conclude that they are together. or knovm to each other even if it may not be the case 2 oy stay mas pe 00, 00. 00 . oS a2,@ Pairs oflines | __ (WY Pairs of dots Figure 3.2 Representation of the ptinciple of proximity * ii). Closure Closed figure are more easily percsived than open ones so We tend to clo incomplete figures to give them approptiate meaning. We ignore the breaks in t figures and focus or concentrate. on the.over-all form. Experience is important enable us conclude that the figures below are a triangle and a square. (@) Triangle _ Square sudhicwy: tae Figure 3.3 Representation of the principle of closure. tea iti) Similarity Elements that are similar in appearance are grouped together and seen as belonging the same pattern. As a result of similarity we may see X and O in (a) using verti format while in (b) we see them in horizontal format. - xOxoK 200% xoxox 0000 43XOXOX XXX XOXOX__0000 XOXOX XXX @® © Figure 3.4 Representation of the principle of similarity. iv) Simplicity In general sense the overriding gestalt. principle is one of simplicity. When we observe a patteth We perceive it in the miost basic, straightforward manner that we can: ' Fot-exaniple;:most of tis See the figure below'as a square with lines on two sides rather then-as-the-block latter W on-top-of the letter M. If we have a choice in interpretation we generally opt forthe simpler one, In text question Explain the principles of perception 4.7 Role of Attention in Perception 4‘Attention tends to determine how much effort we put in an activity, Researchers have found that attention plays important role in how individuals perceive the environment. ‘Two categories of theories of attention have been proposed by psychologists. These are 3.7.1 Selection Theories of Attention. The selection theories of attention propose that due to the limited capacity of the brain to altend to all the stimuli in the environment, attention is given to the most important or significant ones which are then setised and perceived. ‘The significance is determined by the stimulus characteristics and personal factors discussed earlier in the lecture. Two selection theories of attention will be explained in this section. They are: () Broadbent's Single Filter Theory ‘This is one of the fitst information processing theories of human cognition. It has the following five features: ‘Allinformation that reach the individuals sense organs stay briefly in the sensory mentiory or sensory register. ~ Information then reaches senisory filter which blocks out certain input channels while allowjng.others that have been attended to passes through, - Information that have been and attended to is processed thrdugh a limited capacit channel which is assumed to have access to the individual's long term miemory. The fimited capacity channel is also known as the short term memory or working inemory. i - Information in the limited capacity channel is also assumed to have access to a response system that enables the individual to produce responses. Long term memory has only information that has been attended to and processed for perception. Perception however, takes.place in the short term memory. Information force the long term memory cab be transferred to the short term memory through retrieval. 45& dulance Qtlenahsa = Feouclisin tm Tle Level 2ome pacperty Limited =| Capacity Channel Long Term Memory Sensory Register |} Sensory Filter (Memory Stimuli 43.2 Factor 4 Response Fig,3.6 Broadbent Single Filter Theory of Attention, * (Gi) Treismah’s Attenuation Theory ’of Attention This is a modified version of Broadbents single filter theory. It was proposed by a psychologist called Treisman, The theory assumes that there is an attemuator system that determines how much of the information that comes to the individual’s ‘sensory system can pass through for further processing and perception. Attenuation works like a water tap or radio switch which can be used to determine the amount of stimuli that can pass through. It assumes that, unlike in Broadbend’s theory, an individual is able to process more than one stimuli at once with the most important one given priority. This is the basis for explaining the “cocktail” phenomena where in cocktail part an individual. may be able to.process stimuli-from more than one source for - example he or she may be able to register a neighbours conversation while he or she is talking to another person. “Ulehin deenanio—modhua’ = bresisdgeadrn " ee eam obaat lity emi} exwatching) haloting conversation 2, hubby Sensory ee ~ strc’ > freaer pore Term Long term a Memory | Memory Lp eed”a oe a oe type of processing does not require Response Fig 3.7. Treisman’s attenuation model of attention 3.7.2 Capacity Models of Attention ‘These theories of attention propose that attention will be determined by the level c demand a task has on the individual, The more demanding a task is the more atten is given to it. The following two theories have been proposed to explaiti capacity models of attention. (@ Controlled Processing Theory ; This theory proposes that there is a limit on the amount of processing to be done ai ee time. Two ot more processing can be done but only one after another that is webequentilly. It states thatthe initial process can help in the outeome of the next g situation. Controlled e of a process. This is the type of processing in a problem so! min re a ont) processing can lead to permanent changes in the long term memory, especially, wi we earning is taking place. Searching for information in the long term memory ot rehearsal of information are examples of controlled processing, In an examination, the capacity of attention may be completely devoted to the examination and any o! unnecessary stimuli ate not attended to. 3 _e 5 (ii) Automatic Processing Theory ceess to the working memory. Automat e a “ focessing is parallel and effortless and should not interfere with other ongoing ie Monshasig automatic processing or controlled processing activities, In automatic. processiny a once an activity has been initiated, it continues to completion with the individual \ ae _ having no control. Unlike controlled processing, automatic processing cannot be a7terminated or modified at any point once started. Automatic processing does not lead to permanent changes in the Long Term Memory. Examples of automatic processing include driving while talking fo a passenger, typing while falling to another person. ‘There are many other activities that have been programmed into our mental state and we therefore engage in them automatically without active cognitive or controlled processing. wotratrily o cagntnie power dha madehig ingo bom strat cain felneers, pron memory eg na team veion _Mereived tm poral pestiuus’ unit che, 3.8attorn Recognition Terainge, ‘yest pert unit oh mucie, varaporant Patter recognition isthe basis on which we make meaning ofthe visual stimuli in our environment, According to Eysenck (1984), pattern recognition involves assigning meening to visual input by identifying the objects in the Visual field. For example, in an office we may see different objects énd assign meaning to'them’as tables, chairs, . ‘books, or pens. The following theories have been proposed to explain the process of pattern “ reeognition. 3.8.1 Template Matching Hypothesis This theory proposes that the memory system stores a large number of constructs or internal representations known as templates. The individual therefore compares any incoming visual information or stimulus with these miniature copies of previously presented patterns or objects. The templates represent relatively permanent information acquired during our life time, ‘The template matching hypothesis seenis ‘unable fo explain how we recognize even slightly unfamiliar patterns. 3 A AA xe all recogmiaad asthe totter A burt nd} & Tbh doeond allow per variation -@ in jatfers unless there aro templates ber Vewadien . 3.8.2 Phototype Theories ~fretotyia Ka concept Q overage KAIes 9 partieulor cuby ~ can by feud = thas oud He world in 110 48 e9 Conger A ey 9 pact tyne eonen pu 9, es noe Q arall onimat & sony ~ feotolyiu. matching untide Jemplat ir 6 Pps mete ear im eh Sa tg a J a7 Tnstead of proposing that we store a template for each individual pattern this th: propoies that ve tend to store 2 smaller isnber of prototypes. Phototypes are « forms representing the basic elements of a set of stimuli. Whereas template thec treat each stimulis as a separate entity, prototype theories maintain that similar between related stimuli play important part in pattern recognition whereby each ” stimulus is a member of a category of stimuli and shares certain basic features v ‘ther bjembec$ of the'eategory. Pholotype theories, however, filo say how pa fected by the context as well as the stimulus itself. It does no what properties are shared by a category of stimuli ie the features shared by dif types of chairs, books or phones <. aneied pa aE eX 3.8.3, Feature Detective Theory Seg This theory proposes that each stimulus pattem can be thought of as a configu < & - gf elements or features. For example, letters of the alphabets consist of combina us ‘of about twelve basic features such as straight vertical lines, horizontal lines, ol So? gp eames te, For example a letter B may bave the following features a vertical str line and two curves ie \ _. and sq [aD the leon A is made up of the following eases / Fg" Recognition of any stimulus therelore involves first ofall perceiving the small os io se or features of the stimulus and then integrating them into a meaningful unit or « 2x 3,9 Bottom-up and top-down processes “Most perceptual psychologists see object perception as.d form of problem solv provides clues that are analyzed usi which sensory information from the ob) > & , concepts already in the person’s head. They therefore suggest that the mental yes Proeisiry ~ shorter way a tenity. sn a trp, anolyarne HH, elaawiny egnelisrors a or Fawiny ae a" "Dy 3.9.1, Bottom-up Processes, Prowssing - involves the brah, body ¢ e wha a Spe bbe! yoo 9¢1 | emohend vu 2 CreMn > pers} comes TMPreapanae irsths. body re eges Se jOnel B H tata, nose amily choeolal. hot saures requis et Pe grtmaa, kesd tian» owty Lomphine debi NAMM IMIN! 4 bund em mn “3 eg nian ¢ ve gr (lis Mom ui naoensses chard & The bad € ed Ele de‘These are also known as data-driven processes and they register and integrate the. sensory informittion: For example, a pencil may be characterized by a point, colour, parallel fines that form most of its contour and several other features. Bottom-up processes must ty to bring these features together enabling an individual to see the object, the pencil, as a whole. ; , noes’ a AS Se entereas oan neg gle = yo brain, thangs how mica to be opened chocolate tex exase BOS gh [O'3°3.9.2. Top-down Processes 9 hid tave Ie apper: J avonder Jind i te, Thus Veade Bo EE oo piemehory Lamp ambteh caous) and Tn a bie, reipense yl ig 8 toed 7 reaching cc Cinegtetdheodd vote smik, aam veachnes oud a 15 ME ot IThese are alsd:known as concept-driven processes. They use pre-existing knowledge an a4 to interpret the sensory information, Inthe oase of pencil described above, the naclPS is aiyidual should use pre existing knowledge of the object and the expectations about ‘which objects'ate likely to be present. A preliminary atalysis 6f the features will be \ made so that.a hypothesis is, made that the objeot before the individual is &’pencil 1 Most perceptual processes, therefore, involve the combination of both the bottom-up it and top-down processes to make a stimulus meaningful, Seothe figuies 3,9 and 3.10 ; below.” ; ° ety . — s Neat Use knowledge and expectations to |’ | Compare organized features ch Top-down generale a hypottiesis about the to knowledge of thé object to processes object test thé hypothesis, - in J a Bottom-up | Register stimulus features Organize’ features in a way. that Processes : TE | pennits testing the hypothesis 50Creatine % boom wpe sao0ebssirg = bottom up puenss ry occun guieely $e mi ioeas6¢s" al) goinp “on qd once: ako tm Ao aaparate Re Aly pp fle Sie Hf fower The pases To 1094 rom athe ‘body ond end in The brain. ~ Ht aAk mort pom lias folwiny bow! spout we thine Anse ous bo° UP ngeryons + elie up ances ens mace preguenty s decision xe Made cog ru Drochioe roe Bo He enviar ‘Mental processes Perceptual organization (synthesis of features) Fig 3.10 Stages of Sensory and Perceptual processing 513.10 Summary Human beings and other organisms. are always experiencing a variety of stimuli in their environment. These stimuli tend to be sensed using various sensory systems, Sensation involves the registration of sensory. stimuli and translating them into electrochemical impulses, ‘These impulses are then taken to the brain to be processed and understood, "This resulls in a process known as perception, Perception is a psychological provess which ig enibled through characteristics of the stimulus and the stat of the “individual, This is achieved through the process of seleotvity. Pereeption, is also achieved through the principle of organization "whe fituent. parts ate. perdeiyed ‘ai. wholes rather than parts. ‘sttaioh plage a ery inmpotanl ole bi how we Beresive’ tau in ‘our environment. Both controlled and automatic processing explain the role. of attention on how people perceive their environment. The * lecture introduced you pattern recognition as a process throigh we make meat of visual stimuliLECTURE FOUR MEMORY Elaborative Rehearsal 59Long term memory | Loss of information ¢ time Short term or working memory Sensory memories sight {iconic}, sound {echolc), touch; taste, smell. loss of information within about'15 to 25 sec. Loss of ‘nfoutlioh within I'seo: = if there is no. rehearsal Fig 4.3. Three-stage jnodelof memory. : ‘Kotivity Ce 7 mae 1, Describe the characteristics of long-term memory it memory 1: Bxplain the three stage model o 4.1, Retrieval ; ¢ and fepredents ways of recovering:o ay of remembering and transfesring i ongstexm memory 10 the Short Term Memory. ‘The following:are som vt locating information Retrieval takes many. form’ which has been stored. It is @ ‘way information from the — @ of the forms of = 4 retrieval. 4.7.1. Recognition : familiar sething or somebody strikes us @§ form of remembering whereby s0 item, = This is a without our being able,to name’ or identify. the object or the person. ‘Usually the vn otherwise unfamiliar environment. This ject oF person being revognized appeats 18% ss the form of remembering involved in multiple ~choice tests. ‘The arswers from such tests are chosen from among several alternatives with 69 the help of retrieval cues. Retrieval memecues are normally stored together with information during both formal and informal experiences. This.is also the case when you see someone who looks familiar to you when you are ina strange or unfamiliar environment ie. another town. 4.7.2 Recall ‘This type of retrieval is a more stringent form of remembering and usually involves. The active searching of our memory stores. In the process of recall the individual reproduces something learned, of experienced sometitnes earlier, and often the retrieval cues are not available or are very sparse. This is the kind of remembering “that we use in answering essay questions. This may also be the ease in trying to remember the nate of 4 place.or-a petsom you have just met: In Text question What-are retrieval cues? ; 48.Theories of Forgetting ten ah ‘There are may situations when you may have forgotten céttain expetiencé that you ‘went through. Forgetting takes place when we are unable to remember past experiences. This could-’ be becauise we are either unable to access the material to. be retrieved or the niaterial is not available in the memory stores. The following theories have been proposed to explain forgetting from the different memory stores. 4.8.1" Trace Decay This is the loss of information from memoty through non-use. ‘The theory proposes ‘hat when the material is learned or experienced a methory trace or engram (an actual 7 61physical change in the brain) occurs, In decay, it is assumed that the trace simply fades way, with, nothing left behind because of,passage of time. This type of forgetting takes place primarily in the sensory registers but can also be experienced in the short-term or working memory and the long ferm memory. 4.8.2 Displacement This type of forgetting is mainly in the short term memory where the capacity is limited. Due to the limited capacity new information may displace old information in the short term.memory. This is because old information has weaker traces due to passage_of time. Information that has drawn our attention will also displace the ones in the short term memory especially. if: we are not attending to.them, 4°83’ “hiterference According to this theory, forgetting takes place because different information tends to interfere with each other thereby preventing recell. There are two types of interference. a) Retroactive interference (inhibition). In this type of forgetting, interference works backwards. The experience of new information interferes with the recall of old or earlier information, For example in a ine hour experience, what we experience in the last 20 minutes may interfere with the recall of what'was experienced in the beginning. ss oe x a Wd % . Xo >. bo b) Proactive Interference i FN In proactive interference, forgetting works forwards. The experience of “old BES L.ce information interferes With the reeall of new information, For example, in a one hour a wd. . a he experience what we experience in the first 20 minutes may interfere.with the recall of ‘what Was experienced towards the end, Qe SN “gu Ki . Both retroactive.and proactive. inteyfereiice. take place mainly in the sensory memory or | sensory registers and short term oF working memory. : - 484 Retrieval Failure a ore es os oa | nc