Chapter 1

1.
Properties of fluids
© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Introduction and basic concepts
• Continuum. Fluid particle
• Forces in fluids
• SI units

1.1 Introduction and basic concepts
• Fluid mechanics is the science that studies

fluids in motion or at rest and their interactions
with solid bodies or other fluids
• A fluid is a substance that, subjected to
external forces which are constant over time
(but not reducible to compressive forces),
constantly deforms or flows, as long as these
forces remain applied

• This property is called fluidity, a notion that
opposes the fluid to the deformable solid
• The deformable solid, under the same
conditions, reaches a state of fixed
deformation, where internal stresses have
developed, which balance the action of
external forces
• The lack of rigidity makes the fluid unfit to
resist to a shear stress, regardless how small
– A shear stress is generated through the action of
a tangential force on a surface
• From a macroscopic perspective, a fluid is a

deformable system without proper form
• Fluids are substances in liquid or gaseous
phase
• From a mechanical perspective, a gas is
more compressible than a liquid (the variations
in density, caused by a given variation in
pressure, are much greater for gases)

• For certain classes of flows, the density
variations are so low that the fluid can be
considered incompressible
• Liquids and gases are governed by the
same laws of fluid mechanics
• From a microscopic perspective, a fluid is
characterized by the absence of order and
the existence of molecular chaos, unlike
solids

a) Solid state
Ordered network
of molecules / atoms
b) Liqiude state c) Gazeous state

Dense and disordered Diluted and very agitated
collection of molecules collection of molecules
Fig. 1 Idealized representation of

the three states of matter
• In a gas, the particles have little interaction

and the interatomic distances are large (which
explains their compressibility)
• In a liquid, the molecules are nearly in
contact (which explains why they are quasi
incompressible)
• Fluids are substances that can flow and take
the form of the vessel that contains them

• Liquids are virtually incompressible (constant
density). They occupy well-defined volumes
and have free surfaces, while a given mass of
gas expands to occupy all parts of the vessel
containing it (Fig.2).
Free surface
Gas
Liquid
Fig.2
1.1.1 Continuum. Fluid particle
• At the macroscopic scale, the fluid is

considered to be a continuous medium
• In a continuous medium, the physical
properties vary continuously from one point to
another and it is not necessary to follow each
molecule
• The fluid is composed of particles that
comprise a large number of molecules, and
occupy an extremely small volume compared
to the macroscopic scale
• In fluid mechanics we ignore the molecular

structure and study the phenomena at the
macroscopic scale, the characteristic scale
of fluid particles
• A fluid particle is defined as a fluid
element of volume V , arbitrary shape,
and size ~𝑎 = V 1/3 (Fig.3)

Fluid domain
Fluid
particle
Microscopic scale
Macroscopic scale
Fig.3 Fluid model – continuos medium

• The size of the fluid particle should be (Fig.3) :
– Very small compared to scales of characteristic flow
length L (width of a channel, radius of a tube)
– Very large compared to the mean free path l of the
molecules
• Fluid particles completely fill, without voids or gaps,
the space available to them
• There are no holes between them and the entire fluid
domain looks like a continuous, homogeneous matter
• It is agreed that all physical quantities associated with
the fluid are equal with their values in the center of
mass of V
• A particle does not correspond to a given set

of molecules
• There is a continual exchange of molecules
over time between neighboring particles
• This process is at the origin of molecular
diffusion of physical quantities, such as
momentum, temperature

• The fluid particle represents an infinitesimal

domain on the scale of the continuum
• Its volume V is located at the boundary
between micro and macroscopic scales
• The concept of a continuous medium presents
the huge advantage of allowing
– The differential calculus and
– The integral calculus

Conclusions
• The concept of compressibility makes it possible to
distinguish between liquids and gases
• The mobility of fluids is put into evidenced by the fact
they adopt the shape of the vessel that contains them,
or they flow
• The deformation may or may not be accompanied by
resistance. If there is resistance, we have a viscous fluid
(real fluid); otherwise, it is a perfect fluid (ideal fluid)
• The fluid is considered to be a continuous material
body, very deformable, without rigidity and which can
flow
• In this course we will only study incompressible
fluids
1.1.2 Forces in fluids
• A domain D ’ is delimited inside a larger fluid
domain D (Fig. 4a, b) and studied with respect
to an inertial Cartesian coordinate system
• The flow of the fluid domain initially at rest can
result from the action of two types of external
forces (Fig. 4c)
– Mass/Body forces – due to the action of
external fields on the mass of the fluid, such as
those of gravity, magnetic, electric fields etc
– Surface forces - exerted by the fluid outside the
surface S through direct contact on the fluid
inside S (Fig. 4 b)
Fig.4 Forces in fluids

• The external body forces are proportional to the
mass Δ 𝑚 of the fluid element ΔV :
∆𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑓Ԧ 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ∆𝑚 = 𝑓Ԧ 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 𝜌∆V (1)
where 𝑓Ԧ is the the body force acting on a unit of
mass or the unit mass force, 𝑟Ԧ - the position vector
of the centroid of the fluid particle with respect to
the origin of the reference frame and t the time
• If the only mass force is the force of gravity (weight
force), then 𝑓Ԧ = 𝑔Ԧ where 𝑔Ԧ is the gravitational
acceleration

• External surface forces are

proportional to the contact area of the
surface upon which they act
– They are also called contact forces
– They can be considered as the forces that
must be applied on S if we detach the fluid
which is outside S (Fig. 4b), but we keep
the previous conditions (of rest or motion)

• Let S be a surface element, with the surface
area element 𝐴, belonging to the surface S,
and P a point belonging to S
• The system of surface forces acting on S is
reduced in P to a resultant force ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆 and a
resultant moment ∆𝑀
• If the dimensions of S are very small, we can
assume that the effect of ∆𝑀 is negligible
compared to the effect of ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆

• If the surface forces are continuously distributed

over S, the surface force is proportional to the
area A of the S and ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆 → 0 when ∆𝑆 → 𝑃 so
that the following limit exists:
∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆 𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑆
𝑇𝑛 = lim = (2)
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
where 𝑇𝑛 is the stress or unit force acting on the

surface element S of area 𝐴 in point P (Fig.5)

𝑛
𝑇𝑛
𝜎Ԧ
𝑛
𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝑆 𝜏Ԧ P
𝑡Ԧ
𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝑛 S
𝑡Ԧ 𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝑡 𝑑𝐴
𝑇−𝑛
P
Fig.5
• The stress 𝑇𝑛 is a function of 𝑟Ԧ (the position of
the elementary surface), 𝑛 (the normal to
surface) and the time t
• By convention, the unit vector 𝑛 of the normal
is always considered to be positively oriented
towards the outside of the surface (outward –
directed)
• For the notation used, the index 𝑛 shows the
direction and orientation of the normal to the
surface
• In accordance with the principle of action

and reaction, when we keep the fluid outside
the closed surface S and we detach the fluid
inside S, on S acts, in this case, the force
−∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆 , and for the two stresses there is the
relation
𝑇𝑛 = −𝑇−𝑛 (3)

• For a flowing fluid, the local surface force
∆𝐹Ԧ𝑆 acting on the surface S at any point P,
is inclined with respect to this surface and
can be decomposed into two forces, one
of which is normal, ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑛 , and the other
∆𝐹Ԧ𝑡 , is tangent to the surface
• The force ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑛 is a pressure force and ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑡
friction force

• In fluid mechanics, body forces and surface
forces are usually considered as unit forces
• Body forces are divided by mass, while surface
forces are divided by area
• The stress decomposes into :
– Normal stress 𝜎Ԧ and
– Shear stress 𝜏Ԧ

1.1.3 SI units
• An internationally agreed version of the metric system
• In fluid mechanics, the SI unit system has four basic
or primary units
Quantity Unit Symbol Dimension
Length meter m L
Mass kilogram kg M
Time second s T
Temperature kelvin K Θ
• Based on primary units, all other units, known as

derived or secondary units, are established
1.1.3 SI units
Derived quantity Unit Dimension
Acceleration m/s2 LT-2
Density kg/m3 ML-3
Energy J (joule), Nm, kgm2/s2 ML2T-2
Force N (newton), kgm/s2 MLT-2
Specific weight N/m3 ML-2T-2
Pressure Pa (pascal), N/m2 ML-1T-2
Power W (watt), Nm/s, kgm2/s3 ML2T-3
Dynamic viscosity Pas, Ns/m2, kg/(ms) ML-1T-1
Velocity m/s L-1T-1

1.2. Properties of fluids
The properties of fluids treated in this course are
• Pressure • Viscosity
• Temperature • Surface tension
• Density • Capilarity
• Specific weight • Flow regimes
• Equation of state • Cavitation

1.2.1 Pressure
• According to relation (2), in a fluid at rest, the
stress or the unit force acting on point 𝑃 within
surface 𝑆 is given by 𝑇𝑛 = −𝑝𝑛 (𝑝 ≥ 0) where
𝑑𝐹𝑠
𝑝= (4)
𝑑𝐴
• Pressure p is defined as the ratio between the
intensity of an elemental force acting normal to
an elemental surface area
• In general, pressure can vary both in space
and time, 𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) being a time-varying
scalar field
1.2.1 Pressure
• In a fluid at rest, the surface force is normal to the
surface on which it acts
– If it would have a component in the plane tangent
to the surface, it would produce the movement of
the particles, which contradicts the hypothesis of
rest
• Similarly, experiments show that on a solid body in
contact with a fluid at rest always act compressive
forces
• In a fluid at rest, the intensity of the stress or the unit
effort at any point in the fluid does not depend on the
orientation of the surface passing through that point
1.2.1 Pressure
Fig.6
• Consider a fluid element having the shape of a right

circular cylinder. On the fluid particle (Fig.6) act:
– The stresses 𝑇1 = −𝑝1 𝑛1 and 𝑇2 = −𝑝2 𝑛2 normal to
∆𝐴1 and ∆𝐴2 . Due to symmetry, on the side surface
the stresses cancel each other out
Ԧ V = 𝜌𝑓∆𝐴
– The body force ∆𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑓𝜌∆ Ԧ 1𝑙
1.2.1 Pressure
• The condition of rest results from the
relationship:
𝑇1 ∆𝐴1 − 𝑇2 ∆𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑓𝑥 𝜌𝑙∆𝐴1 = 0
• We observe that ΔA2 cosα = ΔA1 and we
admit that l → 0, therefore T1 = T2 or p1 = p2
• Since the slope of ΔA2 is not specified, the
result is valid for any value of the angle .
Therefore, the pressure is independent of
the slope of the surface used to define it
• We call 𝑝 the static pressure in point 𝑃
1.2.1 Pressure
• In SI, the unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa):
– 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. We also use the units of
measurement presented in the following table
Name Symbol Conversion to SI units
bar bar 105 Pa
standard atmosphere At 1,01325105 Pa
millimeter of water mmH2O 9,80665 Pa
millimeter of mercury mmHg 1,333222102 Pa

1/760 At
technical atmosphere at, kgf/cm2 9,80665104 Pa

1.2.1 Pressure
pabs pr
[Pa] [Pa] Pressure scales • Absolute pressure is relative to the
A zero pressure in the empty, air-free
space of the universe. This reference
Local atmosphere
pAabs > 0 pAr > 0 Relative (gauge) pressure is the ideal or absolute
pressure = 0 vacuum
pat
0 • Atmospheric pressure is not
B pBr < 0
Absolute constant, but its variations are
zero
pBabs > 0
reference
relatively small compared to
0 pressures used in industry
pabs = pr + pat
• This is why the value of the standard
• The pressure on Earth is called (absolute) atmospheric pressure, set
atmospheric pressure, 𝑝𝑎𝑡 at 101325 Pa at sea level at 15 ° C,
• Pressure can be expressed is used
− With respect to an absolute zero
• The relative pressure or gauge
reference (absolute vacuum)
pressure is the difference between
− Relative to the local atmospheric
the absolute pressure and the local
pressure (𝑝𝑎𝑡 ), as gauge pressure
atmospheric pressure
or relative pressure
– If pr < 0 it is also called vacuum pressure
– If pr > 0 it is also called high pressure
1.2.2 Temperature
• The temperature of a fluid is
conventionally determined relative to a
reference temperature - the triple point of
water, where solid, liquid and vapor
coexist
• The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin
(symbol K), defined as the fraction
1 / 273,16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water,
noted 273,16 K
1.2.2 Temperature
• The temperature in degrees
T [K]  [˚C] Celsius is also used (°C)
A • 1°C represents 1/100 of the
TA > 0
A> 0
interval defined by the melting
Celsius
scale temperature of ice (273.15 K),
273,16
273,15
0 B B < 0 denoted 0 ° C and that of boiling
TB > 0 Kelvin
scale water, denoted 100 ° C, the same
0 determined at pressure of 1At
𝑇 =  + 273,15
𝜃 = 𝑇 − 273,15 (5)
• A temperature difference can be expressed either in
kelvins or in degrees Celsius
1.2.3 Density
• For an elementary volume of fluid ΔV, of mass Δ𝑚,
the density of the fluid is defined as
m
 = lim (6)
V →0 V
• If the fluid is homogeneous:
m
= (7)
V
• Generally, the density of a fluid, depends on
temperature and pressure
– For most gases, their density is proportional to pressure
and inversely proportional to temperature
– Liquids are almost incompressible, and the variation of their
density with pressure is practically negligible
1.2.3 Density
1 000 1.3
995 1.3
990
1.2
985
980 1.2
 eau (kg/m3)
 air (kg/m3)
975 1.1
Eau
Water
970 1.1
ρwater
965 Air 1.0

960
955 1.0
950 0.9
0 20 40 60 80 100
Température (°C)
Temperature
Fig.7 Variation of water and air density with temperature

at standard atmospheric pressure
1.2.3 Density
• If the density changes significantly due to
moderate changes in pressure or
temperature, the fluid is compressible
– Case of gases and vapors
• If changes in pressure and temperature
produce very small changes in density, the
fluid is incompressible
– Case of liquids (for most practical situations)
• The effect of temperature on the density of
liquids cannot be ignored, as liquids expand
and contract when temperature changes
1.2.4 Specific weight
• The specific weight of a fluid is defined as the
ratio between the weight and the volume of
this fluid:
G mg
= = = g (8)
V V
where g = 9,81 m/s2 is the gravitational
acceleration
• For water, having a density of 1000 kg/m3, the
specific weight is of 9810 N/m3

1.2.5 Equation of state
• It is found experimentally that the thermodynamic
equilibrium state of a fluid can be defined using
two of the quantities that characterize it, called
state variables
• A relation that gives another characteristic quantity
of the equilibrium state of the fluid as a function of
the state parameters is called equation of state
• The equation of state of a fluid can be expressed
as
𝑓 𝑝, V , 𝑇 = 0 (9)
where V is the volume of the studied fluid
1.2.5 State equation and compressibility
• A change of density may be achieved both by a

change of pressure and by a change of
temperature
• Compressibility of a fluide
– Ability of a fluid to experience significant variations
in density when a small pressure variation, or
temperature difference, is applied
– Characterized by two coefficients:
➢ The isothermal compressibility coefficient 𝛽 expressed in
Pa-1
➢ The isobaric thermal expansion coefficient 𝛼, which is
expressed in K-1
Isothermal compressibility coefficient
• Experimentally it is found that if a volumeV of fluid is
subjected to a pressure variation Δp, and the
temperature T remains constant, the relative volume
variation ΔV is proportional to the pressure variation:
∆V
= −𝛽∆𝑝 (10)
V
• For an isothermal transformation, the fluid evolves
from the initial state ( p0, V 0, T0 ) to the final state
( p, V , T0 ), and the final volume is given by
V = V0 1 − 𝛽 𝑝 − 𝑝0 (11)
Isobaric thermal expansion coefficient
• Experimentally, it is observed that if a volumeV of
fluid is subjected to a temperature variation ΔT,
and the pressure p remains constant, the relative
volume variation ΔV is proportional to the
temperature variation:
∆V
= 𝛼∆𝑇 (12)
V
• For an isobaric transformation, the fluid evolves from
the initial state ( p0, V 0, T0 ) to the final state ( p0,V , T )
and the final volume is given by:
V = V0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 (13)
• Liquids are almost incompressible
𝛽 ≈ 510-10 Pa-1 for water
𝛽 ≈ 10-5 Pa-1 for air
• Another form of the law of isothermal
compressibility is obtained by differentiating the
mass of fluid m = ρV ( which remains constant)
𝑑V 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑V + V 𝑑𝜌 = 0 → = − , so that
V 𝜌
1 𝑑𝜌 1 𝑑V
𝛽= =− (14)
𝜌 𝑑𝑝 V 𝑑𝑝

Bulk modulus of elasticity
• The reciprocal of the isothermal compressibility
coefficient, is called bulk modulus of elasticity
1
𝜀= (15)
𝛽
𝑑𝜌
• The fluids for which ≅ 0 or 𝛽 ≈ 0 , can be
𝑑𝑝
considered incompressible and thus having constant
density (ρ = const)
• However, the compressibility of a liquid cannot be
neglected in cases related to the propagation of
pressure waves
• In a fluid of density 𝜌 and bulk modulus 𝜀, the

wave celerity 𝑐 is given by Newton's formula:
𝜀 𝑑𝑝 1
𝑐= = = (16)
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝜌
• If the liquid would be incompressible, = 0,
𝑑𝑝
and thus 𝑐 → ∞ . The velocity would be infinite,
meaning an instantaneous propagation of
pressure waves, which contravenes physical
reality
1.2.6 Viscosity
• Fluids oppose resistance to forces acting to
produce the relative movement of adjacent layers
– Viscosity is the fluid property responsible for this
resistance
– Viscosity is a quantitative measure of the resistance of a
fluid, due to internal friction, which it opposes to the flow
– Corresponds to the frictional resistances that oppose the
relative movement of molecules, when the fluid is set in
motion
– Relative motion between layers requires the application of
shearing forces (parallel to the surfaces over which they
act). Therefore, the resisting forces must be in exactly the
opposite direction to the applied shear forces and they
too are parallel to the surfaces
1.2.6 Viscosity
Newton's experiment
𝑦
𝐹Ԧ
𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝑙
𝑣 = 𝑣2 = 𝑉
𝐶 𝐷
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑑v
𝑑𝜑 −𝜏
𝜏
Fig.8
𝐵 𝑥 Fig.8
𝑣 = 𝑣1 = 0
• Consider two large parallel plates (width very much

larger than length) separated by a distance 𝛿, immersed
in a liquid. The lower plate is held fixed, while the upper
one is moved by applying a constant parallel force 𝐹Ԧ
1.2.6 Viscosity
• It is observed that the upper plate moves at a

constant velocity 𝑉
• The liquid in contact with the upper plate adheres
to it and moves with the same velocity as the
plate, and the shear stress 𝜏 acting on this fluid
𝐹
layer is 𝜏 = , where 𝐴 is the contact area
𝐴
between the plate and the liquid
• The fluid layer deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress
• The liquid in contact with the lower plate adheres
to it and remains at rest
1.2.6 Viscosity
• The experiment shows that the force required to move
the upper plate is given by
𝑣2 −𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝐹= 𝜂𝐴 = 𝜂𝐴 (17)
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦
• The physical quantities from figure 8 and relation (17)
represent
– ∆𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 - relative velocity between the mobile
upper plate and the lower one which is fixed
– 𝜂 - dynamic viscosity coefficient
– 𝐴 - contact area between the plate and the liquid
– ∆𝑦 = 𝛿 - the distance between the two plates

1.2.6 Viscosity
• The shear stress exerted by the movable plate on the
upper surface of the layer of liquid to which it adheres is
𝐹 ∆𝑣
𝜏= = 𝜂 (18)
𝐴 ∆𝑦
• If the flow is laminar and steady, the liquid velocity
profile has a linear variation between 0 and 𝑉 and is
given by
𝑦
𝑣= 𝑉 (19)
𝛿
and the velocity gradient by
𝑑𝑣 𝑉
= (20)
𝑑𝑦 𝛿
where 𝑦 is the vertical distance from the lower plate
1.2.6 Viscosity
• Over an infinitesimal time interval 𝑑𝑡, the sides of
fluid particles along a vertical line BC rotate with an
infinitesimal angle 𝑑𝜑 while the upper plate moves an
infinitesimal distance 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡. The angular
deformation/ shear strain can be written as
𝑑𝑙 𝑉𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝜑 ≅ tan𝑑𝜑 = = = 𝑑𝑡 (21)
𝛿 𝛿 𝑑𝑦
• Or, rearranging
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑣
= (22)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
• Relation (22) shows that the shear strain rate of a
fluid element is equal with the velocity gradient
1.2.6 Viscosity
• If we admit that the expression of the shear stress
remains valid when Δ𝑦 → 0 and also between two
neighboring liquid layers in relative motion, we obtain
Newton's hypothesis
𝐹 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜑
𝜏= = 𝜂 = 𝜂 (23)
𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
• The fluids that respect Newton's hypothesis (relation
23), for which the strain rate is linearly proportional to
the shear stress are called Newtonian fluids and the
others non-Newtonian
– The most common fluids, such as water and air are part of
Newtonian fluids
– Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian
fluids
1.2.6 Viscosity
• Units for dynamic viscosity η

kg
– In SI - Pas or
m∙s
– In CGS – Poise (P) : 1 P = 0,1 Pas
• We also use the kinematic viscosity, defined by
𝜂
𝜈= (24)
𝜌
• Units for the kinematic viscosity ν
– In SI - m2/s
– In CGS - stokes (St): 1 St = 10-4 m2/s
• The viscosity of fluids strongly depends on their
temperature (Fig.9)

1.2.6 Viscosity
1.8E-03 2.3E-05
1.6E-03 2.2E-05
1.4E-03 2.1E-05
1.2E-03 2.0E-05
 water (Pa·s)
____ Water
 air (Pa·s)
1.0E-03 ____ Air 1.9E-05
8.0E-04 1.8E-05
6.0E-04 1.7E-05
4.0E-04 1.6E-05
2.0E-04 1.5E-05
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)
Fig.9
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvDJyhYSJv8&ab_channel=TheEfficientEngineer
1.2.7 Surface tension - capillarity
• The forces which act on a molecule immersed in a
liquid at rest cancel each other out, while the resultant
𝑅 of the forces which act on a molecule placed in the
vicinity of the free surface is not zero and it is directed
towards the interior of the liquid (Fig. 10)
Air molecules
Free surface
Intermolecular forces
at the free surface
𝑅≠0
Fig.10
Intermolecular forces
inside the liquid
Water molecules 𝑅=0

• The combined effect of all resulting non-zero 𝑅 forces
produces the liquid surface compression
• The cohesive forces tangent to the free surface give rise
to tensions
• A curved interface shows a pressure difference across
this surface, pressure being smaller on the convex side
• Consider, for example, a droplet of liquid in air, an air (or
other gas) bubble
• We imagine a rectilinear cut of length l made at the free
surface S
• To keep the edges of the cut in contact, it is necessary to
exert on each edge a force 𝐹Ԧ𝑠𝑡 in the plane tangent to S
and perpendicular to the cut (Fig. 11)

st
st Fig.11
• The magnitude of the surface tension force 𝐹𝑠𝑡 is

independent of the cut orientation and is the same
regardless the cut location and is given by
𝐹𝑠𝑡
𝜎= 25
𝑙
• Surface tension is a property of liquids and it manifests
itself only at liquid–liquid or liquid– gas interfaces
Jurin’s law
• The rise and fall of a liquid in a capillary tube are
caused by surface tension and are influenced by
the relative magnitudes of the cohesive forces of
the liquid and those of adhesion to the walls of
the vessel that contains it
• Liquids rise in the tubes they wet (the adhesion is
greater than the cohesion) and descend in the
tubes they do not wet (the cohesion is greater
than the adhesion). The connection angle 𝜃 can
be acute or obtuse (Fig. 12)
Water Mercury
a) The liquid wets the wall b) The liquid does not wet the wall
Fig.12
Jurin’s law
• We consider the equilibrium
between the resulting force
created by the surface tension
σ, applied at any point of the
contour of the meniscus and
the weight of the liquid raised
above the free surface of the
liquid (Fig. 13) Fig.13

• By neglecting the weight of the liquid above the
plane tangent to the meniscus, we obtain Jurin’s
law:
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= (26)
𝜌𝑔𝑟
where r is the inside radius of the tube, h the
capillary rise, 𝜎 the surface tension, 𝜌 the density
of the liquid and g the acceleration of gravity
• For tubes with a diameter greater than 12 mm, the
capillary effects are negligible
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=h41NgpuTLZ8&ab_channel=Science
Sketch
1.2.8 Cavitation. Vapor pressure
• All liquids vaporize because at their free surface there
is a continual movement of molecules out of the liquid
• The vapor pressure of a liquid is the point at which
equilibrium pressure is reached, in a closed container,
between molecules leaving the liquid and going into
the gaseous phase and molecules leaving the
gaseous phase and entering the liquid phase
• As the temperature of a liquid increases its vapor
pressure also increases
• This property is important because in liquid-flow
systems liquid pressure can drop below the vapor
pressure at some locations, thus resulting unplanned
vaporization
• The phase diagram for water depicts on a
single graph the sublimation curve, the melting
curve and the vapor pressure curve (Fig. 14)
Ice Water
(solid) (liquid)
Water vapor
(gas)
Triple point
Fig.14
• It is possible to evaporate the water, without
varying its temperature, by lowering the pressure
below the vapor pressure
• If the pressure of a liquid decreases below the
value of the vaporization pressure 𝑝𝑣 at constant
temperature, inside the liquid there is a tendency
to form cavities filled with gas
• Cavitation is the phenomenon of the appearance
and development of these cavities
• Cavitation is also linked to the phenomenon of gas
absorption in liquids with which they are in contact
• It is assumed that air bubbles are contained in the
cracks of solid particles (impurities) found in liquids
used in industry
• If pressure drops below the vapor pressure value, the
bubbles develop through the evaporation of the
surrounding liquid, become spherical and encompass
the solid particles that have sheltered them
• In a flowing liquid, the bubbles (cavities) thus formed
travel with the fluid and, when they arrive in a location
of higher pressure, they are destroyed by implosion
• If implosion occurs in the vicinity of solid walls, the
walls are destroyed very quickly (sometimes in a few
hours)
• Cavitation can also occur in hydraulic machines
• This phenomenon leads to a significant
reduction in the efficiency of the hydraulic
machine and the deterioration of its parts
subjected to the action of cavitation
• The design of hydraulic installations and
hydraulic machines must avoid cavitation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dd6AlyOnfc&ab_channel=
MountainStatesEngineeringandControls

1.2.9 Flow regimes
• The Reynolds experiment allows to determine
the flow regimes of a real fluid in circular
glass tubes
• A fine nozzle connected to a small reservoir
of a liquid dye discharges a colored filament
into the inlet of the glass tube through which
flows water (Fig. 15)
Fig.15
1.2.9 Flow regimes
• Laminar flow. If the water velocity remains
low, the filament of dye flows through the tube
without mixing with the water, and often so
steadily as almost seems stationary (Fig. 15 a)
• Turbulent flow. As water velocity increases,
starting from a certain distance from the inlet,
the filament of dye begins to oscillate
(transition), and if the water velocity increases
even more, a strong mixture of the dye with
flowing water is observed (Fig.15 b, c)

1.2.9 Flow regimes
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is

determined by the critical value of a
dimensionless parameter, called the Reynolds
number and given by
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = (27)
𝜈 𝜂
where 𝜌 is the fluid density, 𝑉 the mean
velocity, 𝐷 the diameter of the tube, 𝜂 and 𝜈
the dynamic and the kinematic viscosities of
the fluid respectively
1.2.9 Flow regimes
• Using several tube diameters and different

fluids (therefore viscosities), physicist Osborne
Reynolds showed that the laminar flow was
always observed when the Reynolds number
was less than 2300 (𝑅𝑒 < 2300)
• The Reynolds number quantifies in fact the set
of flow characteristics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OzAx1bPGD4&ab_channel
=abliziotis11

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© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Fluid mechanics is the science that studies

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• From a macroscopic perspective, a fluid is a

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

b) Liqiude state c) Gazeous state

Fig. 1 Idealized representation of

• In a gas, the particles have little interaction

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• At the macroscopic scale, the fluid is

• In fluid mechanics we ignore the molecular

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

Fig.3 Fluid model – continuos medium

• A particle does not correspond to a given set

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• The fluid particle represents an infinitesimal

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

Fig.4 Forces in fluids

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• External surface forces are

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• If the surface forces are continuously distributed

where 𝑇𝑛 is the stress or unit force acting on the

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• In accordance with the principle of action

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Based on primary units, all other units, known as

Acceleration m/s2 LT-2

Density kg/m3 ML-3

Energy J (joule), Nm, kgm2/s2 ML2T-2

Force N (newton), kgm/s2 MLT-2

Specific weight N/m3 ML-2T-2

Pressure Pa (pascal), N/m2 ML-1T-2

Power W (watt), Nm/s, kgm2/s3 ML2T-3

Dynamic viscosity Pas, Ns/m2, kg/(ms) ML-1T-1

Velocity m/s L-1T-1

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Consider a fluid element having the shape of a right

bar bar 105 Pa

standard atmosphere At 1,01325105 Pa

millimeter of water mmH2O 9,80665 Pa

millimeter of mercury mmHg 1,333222102 Pa

technical atmosphere at, kgf/cm2 9,80665104 Pa

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

965 Air 1.0

Fig.7 Variation of water and air density with temperature

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• A change of density may be achieved both by a

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• In a fluid of density 𝜌 and bulk modulus 𝜀, the

• Consider two large parallel plates (width very much

• It is observed that the upper plate moves at a

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

• Units for dynamic viscosity η

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics

© Cristina S. Ionescu - Fluid mechanics