ENGLISH 10 REVIEWER (4th Quarter)

PARTS OF A BOOK

Title Page: The title page is usually one of the first pages of a book and
displays the book's title, subtitle (if any), author's name, and often the
publisher's name and location.

Copyright Page: The copyright page provides legal information about the book,
including the copyright date, edition or printing information, ISBN
(International Standard Book Number), publisher's address, and copyright
holder's information.

Table of Contents: The table of contents lists the major sections or chapters of
the book, along with their page numbers. It helps readers navigate the book
and locate specific content.

Foreword/Preface/Introduction: These sections appear at the beginning of

the book and provide introductory information, context, or author's notes. The
foreword is usually written by someone other than the author, while the
preface and introduction are written by the author.

Body/Text: The body of the book contains the main content, which may
consist of chapters, sections, or parts. This is where the author presents the
primary information, narrative, or argument of the book.

Conclusion/Afterword: The conclusion or afterword appears at the end of the

book and provides a summary, final thoughts, or reflections on the content
presented in the body of the book.

Bibliography/References: The bibliography or references section lists the

sources cited or consulted by the author during the research or writing
process. It provides readers with information to locate and further explore the
referenced works.

Index: The index is an alphabetical list of terms, names, and topics mentioned
in the book, along with the corresponding page numbers. It serves as a
reference tool to help readers quickly locate specific information.

Additional parts that may be found in some books include:

Acknowledgments: This section acknowledges individuals or organizations

that have contributed to the book's creation, research, or publication.

Appendices: Appendices contain supplementary material that supports or

elaborates on the main content of the book, such as charts, tables, maps, or
additional data.

Glossary: A glossary provides definitions or explanations of key terms or

specialized vocabulary used in the book.
REFERENCE MATERIALS

Books: Books are written or printed works consisting of pages bound together.
They typically contain substantial and coherent text on a specific subject or a
collection of literary works such as novels, non-fiction, poetry, or reference
materials.

Encyclopedia: An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work that

provides information on a wide range of subjects. It typically covers various
topics alphabetically or thematically, offering concise articles or entries written
by experts in their respective fields.

Websites: Websites are online platforms that contain web pages accessible
through the internet. They can present a wide variety of information, including
text, images, multimedia content, interactive features, and links to other web
pages. Websites can serve as sources of information, entertainment,
communication, or e-commerce.

Almanacs: Almanacs are annual publications that provide a wide range of

factual information, often organized in calendar format. They typically include
data on astronomical events, weather forecasts, tide tables, historical events,
notable anniversaries, statistical data, and other general knowledge.

Atlas: An atlas is a collection of maps or charts that provide geographical,

political, historical, or thematic information. It may also include accompanying
textual information, such as descriptions, statistics, and indexes, to aid in the
understanding and navigation of the maps.

Dictionary: A dictionary is a reference work that provides definitions,

spellings, pronunciations, and often additional information about words and
terms. It may also offer information about their etymology, usage, synonyms,
antonyms, and idiomatic expressions.

Thesaurus: A thesaurus is a reference work that lists words and provides

synonyms and sometimes antonyms for each word. It is used to find alternative
words or expressions with similar or opposite meanings, helping writers and
speakers to enrich their vocabulary and improve their language usage.

Periodicals: Periodicals are publications that are issued at regular intervals,

such as daily, weekly, monthly, or quarterly. They include magazines,
newspapers, journals, and other similar publications. Periodicals cover a wide
range of topics, including news, current events, scholarly research, opinion
pieces, and feature articles.

Other reference materials might include:

Manuals: Instructional or informative books or documents that provide

detailed guidance on how to use or operate a particular device, system, or
process.

Handbooks: Compact reference books that provide concise information,

instructions, or guidelines on a specific subject or field.
Guides: Books or documents that offer assistance, recommendations, or
instructions on a particular topic, location, activity, or process.

Whitepapers: Reports or documents, often published by organizations or

experts, that provide authoritative information, analysis, or proposals on a
specific topic or issue.

Journals: Academic or professional publications that contain scholarly articles,

research papers, and discussions within a specific discipline or field of study.

TYPES OF DEFINITIONS

• Intentional Definition: An intentional definition provides the meaning of

a word or term by explaining its essence or the concept it represents. It
aims to capture the essential qualities or characteristics that define the
concept being defined. Intentional definitions often involve describing the
general category or class to which the term belongs and its
distinguishing features.
- Example: Love is a deep affection or emotional attachment towards
someone or something, often accompanied by a sense of care,
compassion, and romantic or familial bond.

• Extensional Definition: An extensional definition defines a word or term

by listing or enumerating specific examples or instances that fall under
the definition. It focuses on providing concrete and observable instances
of the concept rather than explaining its essence or underlying qualities.
Extensional definitions are commonly used for defining categories or
classes with clear boundaries.
- Example: A bird is a warm-blooded vertebrate animal with feathers,
beak, and wings, such as sparrows, eagles, pigeons, and ostriches.

• Stipulative Definition: A stipulative definition is one that assigns a

specific meaning or definition to a word or term, often for the purpose of
establishing a particular understanding or usage within a specific
context. Stipulative definitions can introduce new or specialized
meanings that may not align with the word's conventional or established
usage. They are commonly used in technical or specialized fields to
establish precise terminology.
- Example: Stipulative Definition of "Widget" (in a specific technical
context): In this software engineering project, we define a widget as a
user interface component that performs a specific function or displays
certain information in a graphical interface.

• Lexical Definition: A lexical definition, also known as a dictionary

definition, provides the meaning of a word or term based on its usage
within a language community. It describes how the term is commonly
understood and used by speakers of the language. Lexical definitions are
 typically derived from the way words are used in everyday language and
are often found in dictionaries.
- Example: exical Definition of "Chair": A chair is a piece of furniture
designed for one person to sit on, typically having a back, seat, and
four legs.

• Functional Definition: A functional definition describes the purpose or

function of a word or term by explaining what it does or how it operates.
In the example provided, the definition highlights the key functions of a
computer, which involve processing data, performing calculations, and
executing instructions.
- Example: A computer is an electronic device that processes data,
performs calculations, and executes instructions to carry out various
tasks and operations.

• Partitive Definition: A partitive definition breaks down a term into its

constituent parts or elements. In the case of a forest, the definition
describes the various components such as trees, plant and animal
species, ecosystem, climate regulation, biodiversity preservation, and
wildlife habitats.
- Example: A forest is a large and dense area of land dominated by
trees, with a variety of plant and animal species, forming an
ecosystem that plays a vital role in regulating climate, preserving
biodiversity, and providing habitats for wildlife.

• Encyclopedic Definition: An encyclopedic definition provides a broader

and comprehensive explanation of a term, often including scientific or
contextual details. In the example, the definition goes beyond a basic
understanding of gravity by mentioning its status as a fundamental
force, its effect on attracting objects with mass, the resultant movement,
and its role in providing weight to physical bodies.
- Example: Gravity is a fundamental force of nature that attracts
objects with mass towards one another, causing them to move toward
each other and giving weight to physical bodies.

• Synonym Definition: A synonym definition provides alternative words or

terms that have similar meanings to the term being defined. In this case,
the definition offers several synonyms for "happy," which are words that
convey a similar emotional state of joy, delight, contentment, or
satisfaction.
- Example: Happy is a synonym for joyful, delighted, content, or
pleased, indicating a positive emotional state of happiness or
satisfaction.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Observational research involves systematically observing and recording

behaviors, events, or phenomena as they occur naturally in their real-life
settings. Researchers typically do not intervene or manipulate variables
in this type of study. Observational research aims to describe and
understand behaviors, gather data on patterns or relationships, and
generate hypotheses for further investigation.

• Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more

variables without manipulating them. It focuses on measuring the degree
of association or correlation between variables to understand how they
vary together. Correlational research helps identify patterns, trends, and
the strength and direction of relationships between variables. However, it
does not establish causality.

• Experimental research involves manipulating one or more variables to

determine the cause-and-effect relationship between them. Researchers
randomly assign participants to different groups: an experimental group
that receives the treatment or intervention and a control group that does
not. Experimental research allows researchers to study the effects of the
manipulated variable(s) on the outcome(s) of interest and make causal
inferences.

• Online research refers to conducting research activities using digital

platforms, primarily the internet. It encompasses various research
methodologies, including surveys, data collection, literature reviews, and
accessing digital databases or resources. Online research provides
convenient and efficient ways to gather information, reach larger and
diverse samples, and conduct studies remotely. However, it also requires
careful consideration of data privacy, reliability of online sources, and
potential biases associated with online platforms.
VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

Internal validity refers to the extent to which a research study provides

accurate and reliable evidence of a causal relationship between variables. It
assesses the degree to which the observed effects in a study can be attributed
to the manipulation of the independent variable(s) rather than other factors. In
other words, internal validity focuses on the soundness of the study's design
and the confidence in making causal claims about the variables under
investigation within the specific study context. Factors that can affect internal
validity include confounding variables, measurement errors, selection biases,
and the control of extraneous variables.

External validity refers to the generalizability or applicability of research

findings beyond the specific context or sample used in the study. It assesses
the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other
populations, settings, or conditions. External validity is concerned with
whether the findings hold true in real-world situations and can be applied to
other individuals, groups, or contexts. Factors that can impact external validity
include sample characteristics, research settings, ecological validity, and the
representativeness of the sample.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

A longitudinal design is a research design that involves collecting data from

the same subjects or participants over an extended period. In a longitudinal
study, researchers typically select a sample of participants and collect data
from them at different intervals, such as months or years apart. This allows for
the examination of individual or group-level changes, the analysis of within-
subject variations, and the assessment of the long-term effects of certain
factors or interventions.

Cross-sectional design is a category of research design that involves collecting

data from different individuals or groups at a single point in time. In cross-
sectional studies, researchers gather information on variables of interest from
different participants who represent different age groups, populations, or
conditions. Cross-sectional designs are often used to capture a snapshot of a
population, assess prevalence rates, and explore relationships between
variables. However, they do not provide information about changes or
developmental trajectories over time.

Descriptive Design: Descriptive design aims to describe and characterize

variables, populations, or phenomena without explaining causal relationships.
Surveys, observations, and content analysis are commonly used in descriptive
research.