Student Book Jim Clarkabi ein cs ite gr ora Fil xen €MED Sapte company robe E0228 schremann cout Edel aed ade mark of dence Listed Tem ci 2009 Ths ian rot published 20 1211100 losaresaazi British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data -kcatakogue retard for tis Book is available From the Brsush bran. ISBN 978.0 435586 59 8 Copyright notice Allright reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any feem oF hy any means (inclding photocopiang oF toning ion any medium by elecwonic means ard whether or not wansiently oF indderualy to some other use ofthis publicabon) vathout the ‘wrfien permission cf the copyright etuher, except in accordance with the prowisions of the Copynght, Gesigns and Patents Act 1988 fr uni the terms ofa cence sued by the Copyright Licarsing Agency, Saffron Hesse, 6-10 Kithy Steet, Landon ECIN ETS (ar, -claco.t. Applications for the copyright owners written permission ‘ghoul be adéresied to the publica Designed by Richard Porstord Typeset ty HL Suis “Cover design ty Creative Monkey ‘Cover photolllusration © Digital Vision Printed in Spin by Graficas Estelle Acknowledgements My thanks to Pete Seymour and the other inernbers ofthe Trara Schack Chemistry Department for ther help in producing my la based photographs. “Theauthor and publisher would like 19 than the Following individuals and organsations for perinision to reproduce photographs: [aft r= night, ¢= cone, t= tp, B= bottom 2th Gustoirmages/Seience Photo brary, 6 NASA; 6h Corbis ‘@ Bettrnann/Corbis 20 Paul A Souders!Corbrs 234i Baron Wola! Stone Getty mages: 23b1 Wiliam Whiteh rstiThe Stock Marker 22be Bemmard EdmaierSclence Photo Library, 24 HP Merten’ The ‘Stork Market; 26 Charles 0 WintersSeience Photo Library, 23 David “Guyon, the BOC Group FLC/Soence Photo Library 414 Fie Prodluction/The Stack Market: {The Hare Stroud Stone, Images 44 John Durham/Scierce Photo Library, 48 Thornas- Eisner and Daniel Anestarnley, Correll University: 50 Ace Photo Agesicy- Sl Geomge Sleinineta/Saence Photo Libvary: Sf Photodisc, Photalink 7 OXeefe, 55 aadrew Larnbert Photography /Science Phote Library Sé Arcitew Lambert Photography. Science Phot Library: Sl Photodisc, Photalink, Kent Krudkon: S7t Sireon Fraser! Scienee Proto Library: be Dighal Vision: 58 Coedelia Molloy! Sciener Photo Likeary: 60% vey 2 Towers: Dr © Archivo Fconigrafios SA/Cocbix 631 Andre Larnber/Lesie Garland Picture Library 66 Charles D, Wanters/Sesance Photo Library: TOM Sande Vanmini/Cosbis 73t Hetirann Corbis, ?4 Pascal Goetcheluck/ Science Photo Library. 98 Andy Ceump/TORWHO/Science Photo Libeary 90 Anciew Lambert Photograrhy/Science Phat Library, S331 Andrew Lambert Photography. Faby Anideew Lambert Photography: 10011 PasokaySexener Photo Library: 100k Gary Retherfovd/Seiene Photo Library 10sbe Claude Nurdsaty and Mane Perennou/Sciance Photo Libeary; 1Z0t| NASA: 1Z0tr Rona Toms/Aace Photo Agency, 12084 Bir Magazine wavy divernet-comn: 722 Andrew Lambert Photography Seience Photo Library: “122b Dire WiersimayScience Photo Library 12 Charles D. winters! Seance Phate Library; 1231 Marin Bane/Sewanee Photo Library ‘Var Tim GrehainiGety: 124 David Aubrey, Science Phata Library 739 Sincla Stammers/Scence Photo Library 139% Geosc-ence Features 140t Leslie Garland/Ledlie Garland Picture Library: “Vale James L Armos/Carbis: 1411 Pau A Souders/Cortis vie] Mana Platt-Evans/Science Photo Library, }41¢2 Aluminium Federation; 141b Alan Kearney/Telegrah Calowr Lbeary/Geity Images: 142 Hine Schnebesli Sonex Photo Litvary. abi Maitilian Stock LtdSciance Photo Library: 156 ER Degsinger/Science Phato Library, 157 AJ Photo/Scienca Photo titvary, 15% Ulrike Welsche/Science Photo Library 6! David R Frazien'Saence Photo Libary, Wat Mike Teylor/Lashe Garland Picture Library, 162 Staton R. Winter/Newsmakers/Camera Prost Digital, '8StAlvey & Towers, 1eSb-Alvey & Towers: lest Stove Dunviel Protography/tmage Bank Getty Images lesb Alvey-& Towers, 171 Naximilian Stock Lud Science Phato Library. 1738 Charles 0: Wintere/Science Photo Library 173b Margaret Burrance/Suence Photo library 176 Craig surest) orb “W5t Arnold Fisher Science Photo Library 173b Roger WoadiCarbis: Ye] Marun dond,Science Photo Library: 183 Amald Fahes/Seience Phat Library: 187 Andrew Lambert Photagraphy/Science Photo. Librayg 188 Stock Prot: 78OIS64; 192 Maran Bond/Science PRo%6 Library 192 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, 210 Paul Deakin, All ceinsining photography: Jin Clack Every effort has heen mage to-eantact copyright holders of matenal reproduced in this Book. Any omissions will be racnfied in subsequent prinungsf notice is gen to the publishers. i The websites used in this book were correct and up to date at the time of publication, itis essential For tutors to proview each webste before using ian class so as to ensere that the URL is sill acrurate, relevant and appropriate. We sugges hat toters fckemark useful ebsites and conder enabling students to acces thern through the school/callege intranet, Dischaimer This Edexcel publication offers high-quality support forthe delivery bf Edineol qulifieabons, Edexcel endorsement does not mean that this rnaterial i esseiial 10 achieve any Edexcel qualification, nar does mean thats is the only suitable material avaiable to suport any Edexcel qualification. No endorsed matenal will be used verbatim in sting any Edescel ‘examination/assessmentand any resource sts produced by Edexcet shall include this and-other appropriate texts, Copies of fal specfieatinns for all Edexcel quaiieations may be found on the Edeacel website, wrwwesiexeeleomParticles Btls LE Tal ecole) Chemisrty pe Ur ere ttre Ceili tatayg About this book Chapter 1: Kinetic Theory and Diffusion Chapter 2: Atomic Structure Chapter 3: Bonding Chapter 4: Structure Chapter 5: Formulae and Equations Chapter 6: Rates of Reaction Chapter 7: Oxygen and Oxides Chapter 8: The Reactivity Series Chapter 9: Acids Chapter 10: Making Salts Chapter 11; Separating and Analysing Chapter 12; The Periodic Table Chapter 13; Electrolysis Chapter 14: Introducing Energy Changes in Reactions Chapter 15; Introducing Reversible Reactions Chapter 16; Manufacturing Chemicals Chapter 17: Metals a9 99 V2 120 125 133 139Contents Organic Chemistry Chemistry Ce Eg PVs) ote ite od Chapter 18: Introducing Organic Chemistry Chapter 19; Alkanes, Alkenes and Alcohols Chapter 20; Useful Products from Crude Oil Chapter 21: Polymers Chapter 22: RAMs and Moles Chapter 23: Calculations from Equations Chapter 24; Electrolysis Calculations Chapter 25: Energy Calculations Chapter 26: Titration Calculations Appendix A: A Guide to Practical Questions ‘Appendix B: The Periodic Table index 187 196 202 209 218 226 2aAbout this book “Ths book has several etre tr help you with GCSE Chern Introduction ch caper hac shortinxdction tobe {ou stat hinting bout the tps and ey row ht in chap nd af chapter checits These se ures he sail in the hepa Thy eo la hap you ts rk testo note beeaue they ore a et of esther toreven Des fed bs check your petition tid out ‘what you nce kn End of Chapter Checklist Margin bows Fale or information They might erp talk pi nce prs a he bok ‘questions | “Thee mest queions ak ete ech cher: These you you uncaarseg of the neal on the shape Sarre them nab be reseaichducsions fu wll ped Ue the Intent and other book estore ten ah eat ste an cover ope fol the shops inthe con coer heeSection A: Particles Everything around you ts made of porticles so small that you cant see them, This chapter looks at the arrangentent of particles in solids, liquids and gases, and the ways lm which the particles can move around. The nature of the different sorts of particles will be explored i Chapters 24 Figure 1.1 Bything yaa ara a sli argas Solids, liquids and gases Figure 1.2 mals concrete, ty cas seytirg! ‘The arrangement of the particles ‘Think abour these fact: 4 You can’t wollk through a brick wall, but you «sin move (with some resistance} through water. Moving through alr bs easy. ats tery ural n that zk wats fc) fclese dense ‘Ran thelicuid, are 0 ots © When you melt most solids their volume increases slightly: Most lguids arefess Sq yan fay mart everything cee se dense than the solid they carne from, oli wal snk he ligue © If yon boil about 5 ern of watt, th 1 Will Hl an average bucket The arrangement of the particles in solid, iquids and gases explains these facts The particles are dean ae spheres but they might be any hope: The packing nthe solid me beeomplety-diferere- what ieimporane that the pattie ae clase 9 together andi rst cases, pul packed When yaudiawa gas keep the puticler wel separated types gre have porilee Figure 1.2 The avangenene of evn w ernest: of mate, about 10 elecular diameters anny lar seach thet Inna Solid, (he particles are lose and often regulary, packed, The only movement tke parties es is vibration. You ain't walk through a brick wall bacstuse the particles have strony (oroes of attraction between them, amd they’ can't mene out of your Wa} Ina liguid, the parties are stll mainly tovebing, but some gaps have appear Liquids are uswally less dense thin the solid because of thie. The forves between the particles are less effective, and the porticles can move. You ean swim through water hevause jou can push the parties aside. Inna gas te particles are much forttrer apart and there are almost no forces of aalinuction between them. It iseusy to move thruuzt a gas because of all the spaces botwoci the particles, ae aeca) Changes of state Solids, liguids and gases are known as the three states.of matter (Changing state between sold snd liquid A you heat a sold. the emergy makes the partichesiny Ht ibrate faster and faster, Evottually. they vibrate fast enough thatthe forves of attraction batween AB Particles are no fonger strong enaugh to hold them tageter. The solkd melts 40 liquid.’ The temperature need to melt the solids obviously its melting point. Figure 1 sing to Boceme.s quid — ar rsaing to enrol If the liquid is cooled aya. the Biquid particles will move arautrd more: and more slowky, Eventually they acc moving stowky enough that the forces-af attraction bootinoct diem Will hokd them inte a solid, The liquid frecaes. The temperalate rnocded for this is obviously the frecsing point. Altzough rey are culled dilferent Chitegs dopenuling om wiley yon 2 melting potnt ad freveing, point are exactly the same temperature, Changing siaie between liquid and gas 2 going “There are two cifferent ways this can happet ~evaporation «ind bailing. Bolling happens when the liquid is heated so strongly that the purticlesare moving fast enough ta break all the forces of attraction in the liquid. The lagu bs, Bubbles of gaseous puriicles are formed throughaut the whole liquid sind rlse #0 the surface. forming at gas. If the gas scaoled, the particles eventually maveslorly ‘enongh that atiracdlons between them hold them as a liquid, The gas condenses Figure 15 Bong become a gas ard cordon fo beam a att sss " Evaporation i diferent, In any liguid of gs, the anerage spec of the particles ‘fan Se mtea tatoo varies with the Lemaperature. Bot at each terapersiure, some particles willbe moving faster, others more slowly fan the vera Soone very fast particles on the suri of tp liquid wil awe enough energy to boreal aut Rares gas— that's evaporation, Vourdon't soe aby bubbling: Hull Just slowly disappears i he liquid is opers tothe ay, IF ILAS in a cla enti, Particles in the gas will abso be sticking boil: tothe liquid surlave again. The articles breaking away and those rejoining the suriaee end upin balance. There will be a roughly constant mimberof particles of 25 over thetop of a liquid in a closed vomtainer,Changing state between solid and ges sublimation A small number of substances have the ubiltiy to changp directly feam solid ta gies, vive vers. without involving amy liquid on the way. This's known as sublimation. ih. ‘Heating ammoniom chloride crystalsin atest tube is a simple example i ‘The white crystals gradually disuppear from the bottom of the test tube and reappear further up. where the tube is cooler. There few chemical neasan for thi which you will ind described on purge 125. Another examples carbon dicaie, At onary pressures, Thege i no such thing as ligula carbo diowide, It turns strakght fom w salle to ais at ~78°C, Soll carbo -lside ks mort asy he ‘nthe photograph, notice the white slid carbon dioxide in the beaker. The white cloud appears because the varbor: dioxide gas produced ts = cold that it causes water vapour in the ait to condense. Carbum diatide gas itself is invisible Figure 1 Heating armani shine Diffusion Diffusion in gases “Suppose someone acctdentally releases some smelly gas the lab — ammonia, ‘perhaps. Within a mainute oF 3, everybody tn the la wil Bebe o smal i, That tent surprising - particles inthe gas ure foe to move around. What does need explaining, thongh, is wry it takes so long. Atroom temperatirs.ammaonia particles travel at gxeaks of about 60m, Ln he tame that 8 takes for the small i reach allcurmersof the Lab, cach ammonia patie may have travelled 30 oF more kilometres! Eacs particle ts bouncingost erilles ir patiskes on wg: Wa Figure 1.94 amma partie bering of a parts ara ent Figure 1.8 Ory te sloning ‘The spreading out of particles in agas or quid is knowaatsdifleston, You vam sy" aa ammonia partickes diffuse through the alt. ‘You can show diffusior in gases very easily using tke apparatus in Figure 1.100, The = ee Jonwer gis Jar contains bromine gas: the top one contains af. he lds are a ‘remored, the brown colour of de bromine diffases upwards until both gas jars re unifarmly brown. The bromine particles and ar particles bounce around at random to ginean evn mbxtute. brome “You can da the same thing with hydrogen anlar, except that you fate to puta lighted splint inal the enel to find oat where the gitses have gone. People often ‘expel that the wery light hyetrogen will all co wpyin the top zassbar: In fa’, your ‘ill got identical explosints from both fats Figur 7.10.domoreaongofsion gsrca) ion wary ifyou dant hme hans to wen symbol equations is cluded heres dat can eel ba tit ter neo ‘ao jar unter srl jr of rang round soko" Figure 1.12 Gamonsrating sfc in hunt Why the inverted corneas around patel? Potazsite. mangenat(MI ean ane ‘compoind and coneins more than ore seit of parce. Noy wl find out mate bout fone compaursc in Chaps 3 and Showing that particles in diflerent gaeses travel at different speeds: This ecporiment roles on tho reaction hotccen ammonta und Hydrogen chlorite Bases to give white slid ammonium chloride: Na)» Hite) NH,CKS) Bits of cotton woo! are souked in conventrated ammonia solution (as source of ammonia gas} and concentrated hydroctloric ack] (as. asource of kydragen clare gas). These are plac inthe ends of wfong sass ato with rubber bums tostop the poisonous gases escaping. oan wool soaked caeon woalsoshed in ‘coneeneraed aremant slucion concentrated hyerochlorte aid vbr ring forms loser ‘he ycirsldone el ered Figure 1.11 nares hat paris amneia and Ajegen che rene a afent ede “The white fing of ammonium chloride takes a little time to form depending ore the length and diameter of the tube), an appears closer to te hydrochloric anid end. I the time it takes for the rinyt0 form, the ammonia particles hae traveled further That's because their speed ishgher. ‘Ammonia particles are lighter than lyydrogen chloride partisles. Light particles une Jester thar healer ies. Diffusion in Fiquids Diffusion throagh a liquid very slow if the liquid is totally stl. For example. tf a small jar of strongly coloured solution (suck as potassium mangamatel VE) solution) tslefttostandin a gas jar of wer. Gan-take days for the colour ta sdifse throughout the whole of the water. This ix because there:ane only small gaps botwnen the liquid particles for othe partelesto difise Ent, Showing that the particles are very stall Suppose you disolve 0.1 of potassiuen manganatelVIE) in [O.cmPof water fo give aadeep purple aulution. Assume that the smallest dropyou can sewig L/10@0cm' ‘The whole solution will be made upol 14.000 drops, So each drop-will wont 1.00001 g of potassium manganater¥ I) Suppose you dilute this down 10) times by taking Lem? of the solution and making i upto [ern with more wafer. Now continue doing this until the valour is too. faint tosce. Perhaps you cam still soe some colaur after you have diluted the solution a total of Exc times, but not after the sixte dilution. By the time of the fith dilution, each deop will only contain a billinth of segramca potassium mangimate(VLl). F you only needed one ‘particle’ of pottssium mangainatel VIO} per drop tn-order to see the colour, the ‘particle can’t weigh mote than a billionth of 3 gram (0,0000001 3). Js this a good answer? Nowhere near it! A potassiom manganatetVIl particle’ actually weighs about (,0000000000000000000026 g In neal. you med huge numbers of particles in each drop in order wo ae the colour.You should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist draw simple diagrams to show the arrangement of the particles in solids liquids and gases / understand thal heating a substance makes the particles vibrate (solid) or move {liquid or gas} faster explain what happens in terms of the particles when a solid is heated until it becomes a gas ¥ understand what is meant by melting, freezing, boiling, condensing and subliming, in terms of the: particles present / Understand the difference betwieen evaporation and boiling understand what is meant by diffusion, and describe an experiment to show that light particles: diffuse faster than heavy ones. explain why diffusion in liquids s slower than in gases, / describe a simple dilution experiment to show that the particles are very small. Questions 1. What name igiven to each of the following changes of state? a) solid to liquid: B) liquid ta solid: ¢) solid to gas:d) gas to solid 2 a) Draw simple diagrams to show the arrangement of toe particles ina solid, a quid and = gas. ) Describe the diference between the mavement af the patiles in Solid and afiquie, ¢} The change of sate from a liquid toa gxs-ean be either ‘evaporation or bailing. Explain the difference between ‘evaporation and boiling, <4) Soeme liquics are ores in sealed battles fora very long Ue — deeadles or mote. Explain wiyy they dont evaporate 3. The questions reer to the substances in the table below. a) Write down the plhyscal states of encti substance at 20°C, by Which substance has the strongest attractions between Is parleles? Explain your ansuaer 6) Which substance hae the weakest atrartions benween its particles? Explain your answer. 4) Which subsiance has the greatest ditanee between its pticlasat 20°C? Explain your answen 2) Why is na boiling point piven for substance C? 2) Which tiquid substane# would evaporate most quickly In the open air at 20°C? Explain your anueres 4 ftefer to Figure 1.11, which shows the diffusion experiment. 1a), Explain why the ring takes a litle time to form. 1) you heat gas wrt effect wil ths have on the movernent of tre particles? ¢)_ In the light af your answer to (b), what difference would you find if you did this experiment autside ona day wien the temperature was 2°C instead of in a wanm lab at 25°C? Explain your answer, 4) Explain vy the ring was formed nearer the hyraclakaric acid ond of the tube ‘Suppose you replaced the cancentatad hydroehtone seid bby enneentratad lydrobromic acid, This releases the gas hhydrogen bromide. Hydrogen bromide alsa reacts with Aninania te Florin a vite cing, 4) Suggest 4 name for the white ring in this ease, Hydrogen bromide particles are about twice as heavy a5 hydrogen chloride particles What effects do you think this would hive On the experiment? Design simple experiment, vig ullproetieal deta, wuhies ‘would let you edmpare the fates at which ovo strongly ‘coloured solutions difused through water. At each stage, think about exetly what problems might arse in eazrying out te ‘experiment, end say leery how you would overcome them.Cnc: Section A: Particles Chapter 2: Atomic Structure Thischapter exploresthe nature of — | Coxier isan ein yout trial to chop it upto sealer sad smaller bits atoms, and how they differ frm Be Ae tbt clement ta element. The 100 or so polit yoru would plc tt into Inu cop ation, Ya elements are the butldng blocks from | —willsmler pecs protons, neurons an elactrons), bu You uk no longer Hae ‘which everything smade~ fram the | “simples substace ke carbon tothe most complex le DNA Al Fleune 27 Whether om moma Figo 22 ftir macos rtsonive decay Cheesy just reabrampis nisin atoms Tor example thot propane Burs it yen, existing carbon, Hyromen snd caygen ios combine in new ways igure @ Gao Ps + BS — a+ 3S ‘evel id the reas that ger ater sx stourdin ps desc bein Chaps eee 16‘The structure of the atom Atoms are made of protons, neutruns and electrons Tie ngetes of som contana rotons a! neon ic Nt epic in de agra, Inve sealed hem som ep 0 the se of pare Tal ue maces wei be no ere ‘hun ee arin ne The elecerane we fund seus avenes ery Pande ns ese. ey 2efound mos oe ene Seoewherein se sinded eave, (A ium ator Fig 26 The scene nate Viewwally all she mass ofthe atom is concentrated in the nucleus because the clevtrons wight hac ating The masses and charaes ane measured relative io each other bacaie the acta ‘alyos are mrediby snall.Tor example, woul ake shout {609,0, 00,000 000,0002,000,000 presons to weigh Ig Atomic number and mass number Theriumbet of protons in an atoms fala ts atomle number or pevton rnamber, Eich of the 100 orsodilferent elements has a diferent rember of Protons. For example (fan stom has eight protons t must be sn onygen tom, ‘Atornic number = number of protons The mans number (sometimes knot the nticlean nuumber} soints the total ishalehinesuiaeaeetiaeriei rercen == one. st 59 sccieasies_ ot Cc —e-27 ‘This particular anon of cobalt contains 27 protons. To make she toa auimber af “protons an neutrons up: 59, there must alse be 32 newtrons. | salto even owmsyhave come scoss hagas of theatom nich the eierore are dave rvng om aries ther He pans roped te in Tete meen Te urgosaibie to know eat the sloctanvameraunginanatam, Alyowsan tes ary tae a partial ergy and tha: they are He toe ound in ceva regionof pace at some parcuks canee ‘ham the nuieus Elect wth itleren energesare und ac dere dase, frm the cc Chapter 2: ‘rth ow eters ent nepal youusiee CO: youre king sboutbonChapter 2: cso cocoeray abo tance Rerember tat he rember af protons theta rae colon Isotopes ‘The number of neutrons iam atom can vary alighih For ample thee are tree kinds of carbon atom, called vatbon-1 2, carbon-13 and canbort-14, They all have ive same number of protons (because al carom atoms hue 6 protons — As tombs rombes), but the number of meatrons wanes. These different atoms of carbom ae salled Eeotopes, "ee Figure 2.7 Theil the the cope fcr Tsotopes ain atoms at ave ve ste atom nn The but dtfeemt amass names coaTesame noimber of ratons, but diffe muah’ of neutrons “The fact that they have varying numbers of neurons males no-dference \whutsoever ao their chemical reactions. The chemical properties ure powered by themurmber and arrangement of the electrons and. as you will se short that is ‘ential fr al three steps A radioactive isotope. reorgarissinto a more stable form. The radiation giver of hy carbon-14 ts vse in carbon dating, The nuclei of the sarton-12 and carbon-13 isotapes are perfectly stable; ane so these aren't rs pon-L isradometive. Is macleus is usta LF you are intersted you soul dean Entei seareh on "rin shroud to Hind ct how earhom dating wens soe! te deter its ape, sel why there isl costoersy shot The electrons Counting the number of electrons in an atom tons ae ctetricallyneutsl and the postvenessof the proms balanced by te negatveness of theebscttons. In a neutral atom, lens hak Number of electrons = number of protons: 8 rus ao Sif anrasyger tion tatomke name has 8 protons ft must abso lcteoes ff achloetne atom (atoms ruber = 17)Taas 17 peotons. have 17 electrons, hat he ey es Tbe You will se wren this is Enewing theatre number You can end that feo the PerkAvaric amber andthe Peri Tale Chee 12 (ge 98 dati dea th Atoms are arranged In the Perkodle Table in order of increasing atomk:number. ase Seat unpooss, ‘You wil ind «fll version of the Periodic Tuble on page 225, Ment Perillc Tables elas aici mac expend in Chap he tio numbers against each symbol—be careflto choose the right ome. The 22anpape76 state mnonber wil abways be the ser nawaber. The oaher umber wil be either the mass: numbvr of the most common kotope ofthe element, oF Hw relate ator ‘mas ofthe eiient. The Table wil tll yea which, You uses Periodic Table to find ont the stoic sumber of am element ahd therefore how many protons and clastroms there aren omms, ‘The arrangement of the electrons The clotroms are found st considerable distances from the nucleus a series of levels led energy levels or shells, Eich eneray'fev cats only hold cen number of elestrons. Low energy levels are always lle before higher anes, The dean shows the sueram verbs B29GGOGS wisicn —sormsnesseperr il wih Pimmime wees lw) of wectonsthat each ney level an kd phe Tech evel can engand hoi aca of intense ‘Belecoors, but ss a poblem beyond pepeiie: 29 GG090F sconieat cnyromtarseeurms Gest 2 Frecieal ——onlyrasm er Deere (rot ee) (RIED) Fin 9 Te tomo ney eof er Chapter 2: Hows to work out the arrangement of the Aectrons We will use chlorine sm example. © Took up the atomic mumble Perind Tle. (8 ya have a liotse- make ‘ure you dore? use the wrong number, The tonic number Wily tw tho smaller one.) The Povo Tale lls ou that corn’ ota monber ts 17. Theis tells ou the sumber of peotons. and here the murmber of letrons The snumbee of electrons aqua tote mumtber of protons Thene are 7 protons, and so 17 electrons bv nextel chlréve atom (9 Arrange the dectrons in eves aways illiag up an inner (lower eneray lew telore ye go to an outer one, Remember that the ist level can take 2 elotrons ‘he sevond one van take 8, andthe third one (for the simple vases you will meet) aso takes 8 Thave wil eormgel 2 inthe it fea, 8. the sem Tee a 7 nthe ie ee, ‘hfs wrttervas 2, 8, 7 Wen yo ne se whos check Zo ae sare tha the clethons add mp 19 the right number tis ose, 37Cnc: ‘The frst.20 elements the Perioe Table 9 Top ou soi op sroup HO Dontjustaecep gure 210! Use the ae oe Par eee ee ee Be ret on p22 ard wo tach tee eecrrc src a Yrs eto maaan oder H He ‘nae ic enore eficu) Check your anewers: Z 3 vie you hae os Li | Be B N|O]|F |Ne a _| or a3 zs | a6 | a7 | 28 Na | Mg al P| /s\|'et)|ar ai | 283 3a3 jaas | 206 [aay | 3 K | ca 28 . 10 more slemenes Flew 210" iran rane fe st 2 ames ne Fe Tadke Vertical columns in the Fert Table ane calle groups. Groups contain elements ‘wih similar properties. Their simullarity depends om the fat tht (apart rom helium elements inthe same group have the same number of elestums in their ater loves, These are the elotrons which normally et krvolvidl when the ferment bond to other tangs. There are ro important generalisations you cam make The number of elotn sroupe 1-7 ys ithe ater Keel ‘he sameas the group rurnber for Thal pattera extends sll don the Periodic Table foe these groups Serf you know hat barium is group 2, you know ihe 2 electrons in it nite level laine (grap 7) tas 7 electrons init outer level, Leal grou} has cloctrons in its ovier level, Working out wea san the inet levels fe much more cull, The simple patterns we hae dosribed don't work beyond silken The elements inareup 0 Jue, oils has 2), iw Selectrons in thet outer levels (apart from ‘ies fl vel et jeu) These are often thought of as being toll levels. ‘This i true for helium amd neon, caer tteaughioafighelevel alchemy | but not for the-clements From argon downwards. For excimple, he thin! energy your ve yourself el pales level will eventually contain 18 electrons ‘ae group (elements are kena ste mabe ase becuse theyre an ‘completly unreactive in Eat te te atthe tp ofthe group therm heli ta i done react with nething: This lack of reactivity es assuated wth thei sevtruniestructunss— often described ts noble ga structures, Dranving dlagrams of electronic wrrangements The clectrns in the various energy levels ean Be shown by drawing cece with lotsor crosses on tem showing the electrons, It doesn't matter whether you drt dlotsor cross, Hoydrogen b some elaarn stealiue as tw dn ho ts levelo @ Few 291 Eton angen ef degen Melom The helium ele-trons ace sometimes shun pat (here sal sometimes as ‘ono separate electrons on opposite sides ofthe circle ier form i acceptable “The next four atoms are draw ie ths Drawing ccs ae des cmp at @) (@) @) VS Zid er rasaugs vwotkoutexcely how andeeson smavng ince level Fig 282 Gaston anangomens ef hu, bapa, rm aden Tre clectrons in the second energy Tove are dra sgly up so a msiemun of 4 ‘AMler al par hem up as necessary It makes them mush sie to count, More lenportanty 1 gives a much Fetter peture of the availabilty ofthe oactrons in dhe stone for honing purposes. This explored in CBupicr 2 Chapter 2: ‘Te atom in the Periodic Table rom stun tos argon fil the hind level in ects the same wy nd potassium and calciura start to til the ours hve. Potassium snd cafehun wl ook Me Pune 2-18 ©é s ) \ Ves) Se) Se Figure 194 Cesc apangonents of polesn and cleYou should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist state the relative masses and charges of protons, neutrons and electrons understand what is meant by atomic (proton) number ane mass number explain the existence of iotopes / ‘soe that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and that the electrons are found inca series ‘of energy levels / ‘worlrout the arrangement ofthe eleetrans inthe first 20 elements in the Periodic Table know that foretements in groups 1-7, the number of electrons in-the outer level is the samme as the ‘group number ‘know that noble gases have full (or temporarily ful) outer levels. Questions You wil need to use the Period Tab Gn page 226, 1 lucene stam: have & mass numb of 19. 4) Use the Periodic Table to fing the atomic number of Auorine, 1) xptain what mass number mans 6) ite down the number sf protons, nevironsand: electrons a Hucrne atom 4) Ors 3 diagraen to shou the arrangement of letrons in the fugnne stom, 2. Work out the numbers of protons, neutrons and electra in each ofthe flowing toms 56, 93 235, ne 8) hb oD 3 Chlorine has two topes, chlorine 35 and rine 37, a) Yat wre soropes? 1b) ne down ve rmbers of protons nevtrons anc electrons the fsa atopes 2) Wie down the artangerent ofthe alctonsin auch of the two topes 4 Draw diagrams to how the rangement of the electrons in ‘a sub) sis) sli, 5 Find cach of the ollousng elements in the Periodic Table and larite dein the number of electrons in their ter enegy level a) arene, sb) bromine Be) tin, Sn d) xenon Xe. at 16 The questions eter 1 the elecronie stares batow, Bot wong some of exe ate unfarilor ta you. All ofthese are ‘he dactonicstvetues of neta stom Aad 8288 © 28,1817 © 2818 158 £2882 F 28 1832,184 fa) Which ofthese atoms ar in group 4 ofthe Periodic Table? {) Which of these structures epresents carbon? ) Which of thera structures represen an element in group 7 the Periodic Table? sf) Which of these structures represent able gees? @) lame element E {How may protons does elamant F have? Name the slement. 9) Bement G has one more electron than element, Dewar slagram 19 show haw the electrons are aranged in an aka at GAT tae (eww tial This chapter looks at what happens when atoms cambine togethor ~ “whether ita small groupe or into very fasge ones. xs eR Figure. Theale esum andere Figure 3.2 (use ha cory fen ‘Seong tbe compos due conde al) open fe a element dagen on oxen, cy ‘Sodium i dangerously reavtve metal, 1 store under oll to prevent i reacting with alt or water. Chlorine ia very Poisonous, reactive gos. ‘But sal, sodium chloride. s safe to cat in small quanitics. Combining the elements to make alt obviously changes ther significantly: Ammisture of trogen and oxygen gus would explxke viokenty if you Tl Highted mated 0 i, Dropping light mats inc ware (a compound of drogen aa oxygen} dosn't cause literally Earth-shat ering cposion, Reacting the somonts to makes compound has apain made a huge difrenset9 ‘hem. Covalent bonding ‘What is a covalent bond? In any bond, paritlos are eld togater by electrical attractions hetwwun someting ‘postive charg aed someting negstvely uarge. nat cowalenat bond, patra -loctrons is slur tien ipo atome, Fac of tke positively large ucla is aitfracted to the sxme negatively chargal pal of elevtrons. ‘Aca Ein Figure 2.3 are held together by his shared attraction, ruses Ate rule 82 sersees es Sesweieds erro pe the decren pr 2 st of the spe arene ek eta GCSE cach stam na ean bard 3 & ‘pple ene cco he shad pt t ‘flecons Tat orem hee ia be the shared pu of electrons ‘ue Goh deeb may core fomn Me {ene tee ech ator) sarreame igre 24 in bd ChapterChapter 3: Figure 44 ot -sra fe agen H cl 3 i Figure 25 Cove banding in epee, Warring? ALGCSE eae equesyak bottoms ning ttre ge ‘rues This nonerms! Avo! sng bot inthis Covalent bonding in a hysirogen molecule Covalest bonds are fen shown using ‘dos-and-crusses dggrums. Although the electrons ane drawn as dats or as crosses there is absolutely ro liferenee betwen them i fealty. The sot and the ers spy show tut the elevtrons have some From two dierent azors. You could equally wal use awo different coloared cis. or ‘ovo diferent coloured roses Bont yore nucle in Eigure 3.4 are strongly attracted tothe shared par of lectroms The covalent bond beter fey hydrogen atoms wery strong: Hydrogen atoms ‘therefore go around in pairs calle hydzygen molecule, witli the symbol H, Molecules comtairia vertain tive number of atoms whict are joined tagether by cervaken bondls. Hytrogen molecules are sid to be dlatonaie because they contain tbroatloms, her sorts of molovale may have ws many as thoosanek of atonns ioined topetne. Why docs hydenge fori moles? Whenever a bond is formed (of whatever tnd), energy is release. and that makes the things involved more stable than they wore before. The more bands am atom simon, the more energy ss elewsad and the more stable the system bowomes. Inthe case of Irdrogen. each Hyco stom hs ol ne elestron to Soar. si smanly fora eme covalent bond, The t, molecule i all muck morestable than hwo spurte hydrogen atoms, Covalent bonding in a hydrogen chloride molecule ‘ae chlorine aoe as ome urtprod electron in ts outer ene, which i can share with the hyirogsn ator to praca coven bar Notcetn Figure 3.5 that only the electrons in he outer energy Te of the chlorine reused in boning. inthe examples you will meet at GESE the mer elstrons newer get ual In fact. the inner eloctoms are often left out of boraling dagrams But be careful! In an exam. only eave out the inner electrons ifthe question tll ‘Theseniicance of moble pas siructures in cowatent bonding, {you lnok atthe arrangement of electrons around the «ilorine som the covalently bonded! moleule o€ HCL (Figure 3,5) you wil se zh te stracture is aw 2.88, That isthe sane sear argon atom. Sint bydrogen tow Tas 2 electrons ans outer level ~ the sae as Belin Does that moart that the hyeragen has tured into helhum. and the chlorine has furnad into argon? No —the umber of protons in each nucleus hast’t chum snd if isthe number of protons that defines wht am atom AC GCSE, formation of covalent bones producing noble ga structures quite ‘common. When atoms bond covsenily: they ten preluce over electric structures te same as noble gases in other words with four para electrons ior fonmpar inthe case af hydrogen). Thane are, homer ot of examples where fleet numbers of paisare formed. producing, structuresthat are quite unk rable pases,Covalent bonding in a chlorine molecule Each clirinelas one unpaired electron In ks outer energy level, These ure shared between the nwoto gia chlorine molecule, CI, Covalent bonding in methane, ammonia and water “i see See SES Figure 1.7 The aston sei afcaion, mtg a ng tre ine, the carbon utorn hus four unpeired eleizons, Each of these forms Can how Shrine wilt Deco fom inception. Meany as (H) formula, terior oni asthe ie tonsa ca on fr - oc CG gS alge ate Cu (ec) Wy Inwals. ther awivo upuralevmesonihoasensimvhiicntond ALE) REY ‘vith hydrogen atoms to give 10. (XY) oH Chapter 3: Fige 28 buon \/ ee 39 Aeron Fite 310 ie Covalent bonding in a slightly more complicated molecule = ethane hari bas the formula CH, The bonding killa to metus (Figure 3) excent that there tu carbon-carbos oncalet home aswel as the carbort-draca bones, vo (w) G CKChapter 3: tthureand ethene are mga compounds ial yu wil finde ee ato he Seceon Dots took You em ok ath fares yy ttl - eve one ‘fron eter in tenamecan mace Here. for asamp. ethane ad eee ae solely cree compounds Multiple covalent bonding Covalent bonding in an oxygen molecule - double bonding When atomistond cova they tnd todo wi arwuy hat forme the masimarn umber of bonds That aks the tal oleae more sable Figure 2.124 shouts that fnming a single covalent tod between the two oxsgem. stom sill eacas un puted elvtrons. IF hese areshared as well as ns Figure 2.1.2), a more stable motecule ts formes Fig 32 pgen eco with) sit cid ed 8) ha les Covalent double bonding in carbon dioxide, CO, ‘Twodouble bors ate formed between the urban and the two onysens (Figure 3.13) This uses up all the unpaired dectrons The double bond in ethene, C,H, Exhune frat ethane om page 15, excep that I nly has two loge toons attached to cach sarbon ato, Fiewe 24 uthone The triple bond in a nitrogen molecule Taetriple bond fom thesharingo thece pats of lavtrons Between therwonitonen toms is vor strong and mead aot of eneray to break. Nitrogen gas consis of nlsroent mele horde! Mets. "That is why ts rlttely uneeatheWays of representing covalent bonds Apart from full dots and-crosses diagrams, covalent molecules cat ako be shows Inother ways, kn models ach link between the atoms resents covalent bond — ‘pair of shed elevtrons, * 8 * eo cHcAOH cH °, Fire 206 Macs of) ano ethene and) ye On pape, we often skp dotsand-roses diagrams hy lewving.ut the inne jdoctrons, You might lame out the etc as wll, ad nomi The oloetrons ‘ho outer energy loves, (yon enight draw’ each covalent bond! as straight Wine jotning tne atoms, Each line means a pair of shared electrons. In dlagrams of this sor, somotimss you drawe the non-boneling pats of electrons inthe outer level (culled ome pats) sometime ‘you leave them out Allahe diagrams in Eigure 7.17 show he cena honing in amenonis, Nil, showingshelenepsir. omit helene. gu 397 Carlo bong in meni Ionic (electrovalent) bonding in coin ih chr sn bi tn th i attacadrothe samectatron pu ‘tat emits it appenstht oneof the ators tet othe ton par tmush mere tong han the other on," ecron pai then ple ery lose to that stom, an aay rom tower ‘Ate lewtconesiofie elecron Ic Bhi tied anes elec ecomes pone charged becomes metal charged Sis porate electro i ‘ath lettre pulled conard Bs eof me bod Fig 89 Penta agai: ong In Faure 3.19 atom A hus. effet, ver its elocteom ti atomn Ir you ind tea conticing dons omy slbou 'a0much far nam The mparant "ung ate mcm ha you ean re ‘Sere cheaper era raced ‘wr have been ohne. ore ha, a diagram any he aw tee na ators presto shuedekenars » a coment hood You may ome seo the our vanaoone acm aes {hen dong yar caurse, bur sey el laa I oxpsned sine A3B pirat eecrone ave hom ech) Fe 298 A onan ona In figare 118.0 has cone postely a ey postin changed protons but one Brea charged beau hs ies anes rept econ CorerChapter 3: Thsisasingtisaon reality you dont Isic suum howe aka se hlorine moles, Bafa re eeion taser can happen, eetgy hs tobe supplied nek the chine mates tot deltas Yu do ek, ae ‘a hess chore wo gett are Taveletrivally charged particle are called fom. An ir san tom Cor rou of atoms) which carries an elostrical veargs other poste ot negative © A posttw ion iscalled a cation. 6A newton cle an anion. Tonte bonding ishonting i which there has been a tamsr of ec trons on one tom fo seother to pode fons. The substace s eld together by som alectical arraetbnes batioun positive aid negative ions, onic bonding in sodium chloride ANY © )} Tine single elearon inthe outer energy level ofthe sodium has been transfered to the chlorine. The sodium chloride ik! together by the strong. attraction between the sodium ion and the lore lon. (Notice that its clled a ehlorkde lon, not ‘ilorine ton.) Aye SS Figure 20 fr boning nar conde Overall. «lt of ener is giver out when this process happer— main due fo the ‘energy released when the strong banding betwoen the ions et up, You cam dau dots-smel crosses diagrams to shu tone Boning but rele ‘quicker, and tals up ane loss space, to write elactromie structures the fe 28.1 or 28,7 Na 287% Nav [zal dd 237 "ct past Figure 321 rote nay of erg nc ang sot hoe onic bonding in magnesium oxide Mg 202 Mg al 0 26 <" "OF [28F Figure 222d: boring magne cise In this ease 0 elactrons ane aranstarred from The magraesuim 0 the oxygen ‘The two electrons in the outer enengy lewl af the magnesium are relatively easy 0 reno, andthe expen na enough spave in tsouter level to reveve them. More ‘energy given out thi tne, main due tote very. wry srongatirations betwose, the 2+ snl 2—lons—the higher the numberof charg. the stronger the attractions.“The significance of noble gas structures in ionic bonding Is you look atthe struchires ofthe ens formed in Figures 3.21 und 7.22, each of tem has. noble sas structure: 2.8 themeon structure. oF 2.8.8 (ke argon structure) You might therefore say tha omslase or gain elevtroms so that they Achieve « noble ga structure. Ths sue of the elements in Groups T and 2 of the Periods Table (orming 1+ and 2+ tons) ard fr those i Group ane 7 when they form 2-and 1—tons, asim all sheseexamples e's But there tre lot of commen for at don't awe noble gas iructures, Fe (, Z. Ag? and Ph areal ions thst you will some across rings GUSE ‘course although you won't Ie to write their elevirocstrvcttes, Not oneof ‘hem hus noble gus strusture, Other examples of fonic bonding, lore hands are usualy force yi small numbers of ele troms net be transferred typically 1 or 2. hr occasionally 5.1m cases where la fons produced would ae, sa. + change the situation israel as sine as tight appear at es sigh Urhiui Muoetde uo ay er Fae pa Fig 324 eri in i “The liluen stom bias one electron i is outer nergy lve lat asl lot, ad ‘he uote bas ace to rece one, Lilatum Hucetde sek! togethor by the sons actions beta liam and Hyori tons Cleo chloride a 2am. co pase 2882+" Beal a 287" cr fear gu 3.250 bog nao ns he eau bs ray level that are-eatively easy to sive cra, buat each clorine atom only has room in its outer level to take one of ‘hows You need two cherie for every one-caleum, Fhe formula for calcium -chlorideis hetefore CaC1, There will bewery strong atractions holding the ons together became of the 24 change on the calsiom ims vc elovtroms in ts Potastumoxtle K 28a K peasy © 26 —SeoF pray kK 2eai/ kK esr er 3.2 bdo tate ie This time the oxyae has rom for two ectrons in its outer Level, but each potassium cam only supply one. Potassiuen exe's orrmala i therelore KO, Figure 4.23 Ao Fe =a oe ale seamen! Chapter 3:Chapter 3: Figure 27 Nats ae i a Rae nag eels ‘Warring Vinen they some ow ‘heey frame such stu Imequitons sadent whokmow about reac bonding rretnes worry whecet ‘hey shld wate Ns Nat ouate Iearazame =a Thinking about the ‘truce ce awiok, thenumbet of lectene esc lanes the quire cf posive Change. Theta ara whole et mo ‘dene Metallic bonding Most metals sre hand and hiss hgh melting points, Ths sues hat the forces halng tk particles in the meta together ane ery strong it Tara te Fighte 3.28 shows nha happens wchon sodlinen atoms ond 103 solid mata. The outer elewtron-on each sodiven soe becomes Trew me ‘inughout the whole structure, The electron sae sak oe elocallved. These sdovtrons ame no Tonge at fom oF yr of sos. Tnstead, you ‘sinthink of them as Bowing aroured throughout the whole rnetal, ud to pticubse 1 sodium tion les it outer electron, that eaves bend a sxdium ion. The ltration of eal postive ion to the deloalled elestrons hokds the structure together Metallic honing sometimes described st stray of pits ons ina ‘mea of lectrons Qasono ag god oo go Pa OQ rps to shag Figure 28 Sun aca ei ag enced eto In the case of sodium, only one clectton per stone is deloxalised leaving tons wile ‘only one postixe chargeon them, The ions dan't pack very eile ester. The effect of the bonding in sodium is quite weak, as metals go. wich is ‘why sodium i fan sof. with atow melting pott fora meat By comtrast muignesium has tivo outer elocicos, bobo whi he ‘se, leaving Behind ions that carey a charge of 24. also ricks more efficiently Theresa much stromger tration betmen the more negative sea ad the doubly charged tors, md sa the toneling is stranger an he melting poi sreater Metals such as iron hare-even more outer eeviroms to delacalie, so the boneling is stronger sil ‘You.can find out mace about metallic structures in Chapter 4Intermolecular forces 1,0. 4 molecule with strong, solent bonds between the hydrogen ame oxygen. In uid water or ie. there must dso be trations belween one molecule and it neighbours = allicrwise they wouldn't stick together te: make a guid or solid ‘You will nemember that water. “These forces of attraction fetweet separcte molevuls are cle intermolecular Trees or Intermolecular :ttractions. Tuy see 2 loc wvakor Nua covalent or tome hones, asd vary in strona fron subs ‘to substance For example, te intermolecular Forces between byte molecules, H,. are yey, sexy weak. You hawefocuol hyurouen fo-252°C before the molecules ee traveling sloity enough forthe imtcrinolocular attractions tobe able to hold ther togethie as igh ert componind i soli that docs’ mel uti strong, By contrast, str aoa cx 185°C. The fatermolectla er ses between spar molevtiles must be Intermolecular forcesarise fom slight leteival distortions in molecules, In Figure 3.20, Sisroad at delta’ So 8+ inroads ‘deta plus 8is used termesn ‘Aiglnl’ so8+ mens slit postive You can soe teat the slightly postive end of one molecule attracts the lighily negative ond of amefgshouring mokoule. Heating will snp enooh eneray to break these mtermolecula ameactions ard canie the substance to either melt or bo a none = Flew 320 aera foxes In meting, some but not all of the intermolecular foroes are broken, In boing, ae trations are totaly disrupted and dhe molecules become few so move around lets very tenportart that you realise that acting or boling a substance maxcot rmolgculs breaks itermolocular farses not covalent bands, Whee you bol tes you get stearn not «i mixture of hydrogen and iy gen atoms, The wes attractions between one molevtle and its neighbours ae broken. bet not the covalent bonds within the molecule. Figure 2.27 teat he micro, tors tere Pode A hintathow these ditorns ars wer alec: ven hse on pie 26 Chapter 3: Ifyou bo a tespoonf of water (about Ser") th orm ofa average Dace, nuh sem ye proce 0 Tucks Tat shons now spread x he var maeules became nce you hie broken hennerYou should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist explain what is meant by a covalent bond and a molecule / draw dots-and-crosses diagrams for simple covalent molecules explain what is meant by an ionic bond of explain the formation of simple ionic compounds of describe how atoms are bound together in a metal explain what is meant by intermolecular forces, Questions You wil need to use the Periodic Table on page 726. 1 a) Vehatis meant by a covalent Bord? Haw dacs this bond hold two atoms tagather? b) Draw dots-and-crosses diagrams to show the covalent banding in: (i) methane, CH, (i) Iyéragen sulphide, H 5: {i phosphine, PH. fy) sliean terachfandle. SiC). 2 Dia dots-and-crases dagrams to shew the covalent tondingitva) ethane, C,H, 6) iene 4 «ethanol CH EHH You valid Sous of ethene ond etnoton page 19, wie might help you a) What is meant by () an ion (i) an ionic bona? ) In each of the following cates, write dow the electronic structures of the orginal atoms and then explain fin ‘words oF diagrams) what happens when: 10) sodium bonds with ehorine to make sodium ehlarida; {) fish Bonds with cueygen to make lieu exide: (i) magnesium bones wath Muerte mike magnesium fcr. 4 a} A solid metal is often described as having ‘an accay of paste ine ia tea of electri. Write des the electronic sucture ofa magnesium stam and use it to ‘eyplain what this phrase means, £) Metallic bands are mot fully broken until the metal has first melted and then toiled, The boiling points of sodium, ‘magnesium and aluminium are 890°C, 1110°C and 2470°C, respectively. What does this suggest about the strengtis ofthe metalic bands in these three elernerts? } Find these three metals in the Perlodic Table, and suggest ‘ubyy the Bolling points shou this sitters i) Assuming that an electric current is simply a flow of ‘electrons, suggest why all these elements are good conductors of tecricity, “Te table beknw gives details ofthe boiling temperatures of some substances made up of covalent molecules. Arrange ‘these substances in increasing order ofthe strength oftheir intermolecular attractions {Bont pane Fyou dont recaps oreo he rams The peewee coil ‘as well havo bean labeled A.B, C, DL ‘Boron and aluminium ane both in Group 3 ofthe Periodic: ‘Table. Bath form compounds with fluorine (BF, and AIF.) {Unusually for elements found in the same group of the Periodic Table, their compounds are bonded differently. BF, is ‘covalent, woraas AIF, isa straightforward ionic compound. 19), Oraw a diagram to shour the cowslant bending in BF. 1) Beplin, using. dagramsor ethane, tho arigin ofthe ionic bonding in AF, «)_ BF, isdescribed asan electron -efcient compound. What a you thinlethat might mean?The photographs show some substances with quite different physical properties = including hhardness, melting point and solubility This chapter explores same of the reasons for these differences, based an the banding in the substances. ‘assumes that you are already {familiar with the topic of bonding in Chapter 3. Figured Some ample makes Figure 4.2 tary austen fxr boca ima ste eat ear Figure. feet abs crysralin, bates easly 2 form water Figure 4.3 Dlamnd (a farm of carbon amas crpaalin, and the hans sceuning sane Giant structures ‘You can divide substances into two quiteifferent types ~ glant structures and molecular structarres, You will remember that malocules are made up of fixed numbers of atoins, joined together by covalent bonds, The number of atoms ber emaecul| usually f thousands in the case of big molecules such as aks ontras giant structures contain huge numbers of either atomsor ions arrange in some regutar way. but the number of purticlas fom’ fae. Examples ivill abe this ciGoes Giant metallic structures Remember thot metals consist of a regular array of positive ions ina ‘sea of clectroms’. The metal is held togctlier by the attractions between the positive ians land the delocalised electrons, ‘The simple physical properties of metals Metals tend ta bv strong, with lal ret and Bolling pl attractions involved, i. bovsuse oF the power Metals cmduct electricity. This tsbevause the delocised cl throughout thestructure. Imagine what happens if a pleceof metal is attached to stronis are Fee to move Wyaucorrpare Figure 6 with a mar cite of metalhe boning in Capes 3 an electrical power source age 20}, pou wil find thatthe iors are ttanged dileremy Signe 46 chon the staggered rons typical of ffcierthy packed tie posite bans elec electrons electron pulled fo this rome sector fow slong ‘end by Gre postive ‘he ire ror Che negate terial of he per erin of the poe source and then tow soUrce 1 replce Grose se slong the re dig env In te tal Figite A Hon etal ene elcriy Metals are good émdctors of hut. This i agule ve to the anoiblle, deloelised ‘electrons. If you heat one end of a plece of metal, he energy ts picked up hy the ‘eloctrons. As the ploctrons moxe around! in the metal, 2ho heat enorgy is transferred aroughout the structure. The workability of metals sismall forcy, i willstretcl and them return to its Jescvibed as being ekwstie i metals subjected jus criginal shape whem tbe force is released, The metal is But if a large Force is applied, the particles slide over ewsl other and stay in their ‘near positions. pps more / ono mew posers 0, ee Figure 7 Sage fe app wo a metal Metals Figure 5 tt beg ae mt rs Uusvally easy to shape bocause their regular packing rakes 1 simple For alms taslide-over eats other: Metals ake said 10 bé malleable and sluctile, Mallets means that it if easily beaten inte shape. Ductile means thai it f-easity pled out into wees,Alloys Motals can bo made harder by slaying them with other metals, Am alloy is a mixture of metuls-— for example. brass is a misture of copper and 2 teva allo, he different mats hare: slghtly differectty sted atoms. This breaks wy theregular arnmgement and makes it more dificult for the layers to side Figure 4.9 aon in lay The diagram shows how aising atoms af only stightly diferent sies disrupts the regular packing, and makes it much more diMih far partieles to slide aver wach other when a force i applied. This tends to make alloys harder than the individual metals that make thera up Int some cases alloys have Unexpected properties, For example, solder a alloy of fin andl lead — melts at a lower temperature than cither of tie metals Indivielully: lis low melting point, «ind the fact that it fsa good conductor of electricity. make it Useful for joining components tr electrical circus, Daher common ullays include bronsé (a mixture of copper and tin), stainless steel (an alloy of tron with chromium amd nickel}, and tke misture ef copper and nisl eupronickel) which is used to make silver’ coins. “You cam reat more about alloys in Chapter 17. Giant ionic structures An ion is un atom or groupof atoms that carries an electrical charge = ether positive or negative, f you smren't sure about tonic bonding, you should read pager 17-19 in Chapter 1 before you gp.on. All onic compounds consist of hinge bitioss of penstive nal neato tons pated together in a regular way A Batthee tea regular array of particles. The lattice is bel tugether by the strong attractions betwver the positively amd negatively charged ions The structure of kodiusm chloride lbva diagram, the ions are Usually draw in at “explode!” view, Figure 4.11 shows howe they actually occupy the space. Figure 22 An ixplade ww of tan conde Figure 410 4 bri prope a Figure 411 A model of a prof adr) Monde ast, Warnieg! The lines inthis diagram are noe ‘souaient bens There are jut have to help shou the an angement.f the ions. These jr jared by ine: ars touchang each other Compare he diagram we she meen Figae 11Ce Figete 12 The shop of the sd chloride cape rfexts the atrrgement of Forthe wr of hewanbal 8 seepage 2 Chapeer 3 Only tons joined by lines in Bigure 4.12 are actully touching. Each socio ian bs fouchedl by 6 chloride ins, In turn.each clloride on is touched by 6 sodiura ions. ‘You have to remember that this structure repeats itself over vast numbers of fons, “The structure of mangnesium oxide Magestim oxide, MgO. contin magreesium toms, Mae", and ox tons, C,H kas exavtly Hip game stracturest sodiven chloe, ‘The only diferenee is that the magnesium onide lattice i nel together by stronger forces of attraction, Thisis bevause in magnesium oxide, 2+ ions are aftracting 2— tons. In sodiure clare, the attractions are wealer becapse they areonly between, L+ und 1-ions, The simple physical properties of ionic substances Tomte-camyrauncs fave high raeltua point’ and balling points hecowse oF te strong forees holding the lattices topctler. Magnestum oxide has much higher melting and boiling points than sorkum chloride bovause the attractive forees are much stronger, lanie campaunls tend to be crstaline, This reflects the regular arramgement of torts inthe lattice, Sometimes the ursstals aretoo small tobe seen except under powerful microscopes. Magnesium oxide, for example, is abways scen as white powder bovuse the individual crystails are too small ta bescen with the abel eve. Iowie-erystars tel to be Brie, This is becsmise any small distortion of a crystal will, boring toms with the same charge alongside exch nile, Like charges repel and so thee crystal spins nself apart. palo acca “with che same charge + & Figures. 14 dnc ota tnd to be Brine Tome Subst the electron ted to be soluble yaiter. Alihoug water is covalent moll, he bonds are attracted towards the oxygen end of the Bond. Th imalkes the uxywen slighidy megutive, Irkéawes the hydrogen slightly short of electrons, and therefore slighaly-pastitve ad: ee trey on he 7 orgs onthe fmgger stern “ee yr sar Figure 4.15 cectnea!dtrtion naar elev ecanse of thicelectrical distortion, water is described ast polar molecule. ‘There are quite strong attractions between the polar water molecules and tke tems inthe lattes‘The slightly positive hytronens inthe water molecules cluster coud the megptive ions. and the slightly negative yer srw attracted to the postive tons, Figure 26 wie moc ich are play, pul sho erpstal apart ‘The water molecules then literally pull the sodium chloride erystal apart, Magnesium oxide isn’t soluble in water because the attractions between the water molecules and the fons aren't strong enough to break the very powerful ianke ‘ponds termwen magnesium snd oxi tons. Ionic anmpviends tend to inoue m org ulead Organic solvents contain moleciles which have much lesselectrical distnttion than there isin water ~ their molecules are less polar, There i't enough attraction between these molecules and the ions in the crystal tobreak the strong forces holding the itive together The electrical behaviour of lorie sulstanees Tonic compoundsdan't conduct eletricity when they ace solid. because tley @om't contain any mobile electrons. They do, omever, conduct elevtrivity when they milt, cif they are dissolved in water. This happens because the fans then become frce ta move areal. How this enables the cormpound tocamdict cletr ‘explained in Chapter 13 Giant covalent structures Diamond Diamond isa form af pute carbon, “Each carbon atom has four unpalred electrons in its ooter energy level (shell, and it uses these to foren four covalent bonels. In diamond. each carbon bonds strongly forfour other carbor: atoms ina tetrahedral arrangement. Figure 4.17 shows ‘enough of the structure to sev what itis happening. Figure 4.17 The structs af mond ‘Ghganic sole nts include alcoho! fethanal) ns hydrocarbons seh 3s those found 49 petro. If youre imevested these. could esplore the orgarvc chemistry section cofthas book (Section O} ‘Atetghedron ts at ungur-based pyran Ta tevahedkalamangetnen one ator at thesentre ef the ietiatedion, and dhe ores ‘rc attactoe wae a he out comes Look ‘caretlly a the top te auorsin Figae 417 tosee whats lacks Me. ou wl find other silo oranges ats daysar, In Figure 417, sure carbon ators seer to bbe fermingonty so bends forever one Fond) bus th not relly the caw, "We anv oniy shown ga ela of the whale ‘euetize The crverure continues in thre sdinersions ancsach ofthe ators drawn hero wil be atached to Four others. Each ffthe lines in sagan represents Sear owe Ect‘This is avesyonsy simvcure to dia aang, _Rsyoupracise i, You should br ableto produce 3 restonahie crechin 30 ceca. Ce fei ditcule t find a way of drain roe hone aye of grplte tha ins thatean be done quilyand acurately ian eau lees much ender tnawaid the problern by aie op ef eye aed th stdin dhe layers separately Label ary agiam sare to expla what yu ave dong, ad sh the gape betwen the ens atabout 25 tenes the disance benween the tammsin your yer Figure .19 Robbing Bayes of raphe af 00 4° hiss a plant covalent structure ~ it continues on and on in three dimensions. Iris nots molecule, because the number of atoms joined up im rei diamond fx completely vartable~ depending, on the sie of the crystal. Molecules alwys contin fixed monbers of atoms joined by covalent bonds. Draw this structure in stages, as shown in Figure 4.18. * rh Oh Figure .18 How to daw the sewctae of amen Dimond is very hurd, with o very igh ting ond boli pint, Tess berause of the very strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds which extend throughout the whok: crystal three dimensions, Saw blades cam be tipped with diamonds in high-speed ctting tools used on stone andl concrete Diomond doesnt conduct etecotcty, All the electrons in the eater kevels of the varbon atoms ore tightly hekd in covalent bonds between the atoms. None ane Ire to mowe around, Diamiad des dinwhve an wuter or inom obher valve. This sagan because of the powerful covalent bonds between the carbon atoms. if the diamond dissolved, these bonds would hme to be broken, Graphite Graphite is lap a formof carbon, but the atoms are arranged differcety— although still asa plant structure. Graphite has a layer structure. rather like a pack of cards, Ima pack of eares, each cand is strong but tite individual cards are exsity separated. The sameigarve in graphite. torn 3 ayer of grontite Figure 4.70 How to daw the smite of grapine (Graphite sv soft onaterit with a slony foe. Atthough the forces bokding the aroma together in each Inyer are very strong, the attractions between the layers are:much weaker: LayersWy tomakett harderyisused in pencils. Wher you write witha pencil. yau are leaving «trail of graphite layers behind on the paper. Pure graphite fs ap slippery eed asa dry lubricant foe excacnple. powdered sRraptite is used to lubric:te locks, “Graphite tmived with ¢ ‘Tomett or io break Graphite has @ hig melting and baiting point ond ts insoluble trary salve dissolve geaplelte, you don't just hue to break the layers apart — you lt up the whole structure, including the covalent bonds. That needs very amounts of energy because the bonds are so-sirong. CGnaphiteis Jee dome than dimond becstuse the kayers in graphite are relatively far apart, The distance between the graphite livers is mee than twice Ue distant tweet atoms in act layer, lina sense, a graphite crystal contains alot of wasted space, whict ist there tna diamond urysta, Graphite conducts electricity, you look back’ al Figure 4.20, you will see that jarbon ato is joined tw only three otf. Each carbon atom tes dhroe of iis electrons to form these simple covalent bonds, The fourth elevtron in the outer layer of each stom is free te move around throughout the whole of the layer. The movement of these elecirons.allows the graphite to vonduct electricity Simple molecular structures [Romennbor thi maloeules corte tixodl numbers of of atrct poms joined by strong rolecule andits neighbours ant bonds, ane igure 4,22. a + Strong emalent bands jn Seago” samen V8 8.8 iecmctmnterane Seon In doess't take wery much f nil itp inecahar ea Tew melting pont ray to Wreck the relatively weak Mitermodecultr nds fend ta be ase Bani a sods wich attractions, Molecular substances tond to be insoluble tm wot nafs they nee wath For their size, water molecules ve stronger intermolecular attractions between hem than you might expect, In ordot for w substance to dissolve, these altructions hotwestr water malgcillss have to be braker so that the dissolving molecules cars Hit between them, Any’ new attractions between water molsctles and the covalent molecules are not usally big enough to make up for this, (nthe other hand, ape, the inter mole allay swbatonces ve often salute tv organ solvents. In tas oliractions erween the tae difler! types of molacasle are ‘much the sume as in the pure substances. Molecular substamrces dor’ condact electricity, becausc the molecules don’t have any aaverall clerical change and there are no clevirons mobile enoagh to mone from molecule to molecule Figure s.21 Thre grape eect fer ther mei rm ted fo pou tat glow ea hot Figure 4.25 Mysogen gas arent ote Ca