Joule Cell Subambient Cooling of Water: Toward Real- World Applications of Daytime Radiative Cooling Radiative Cooling Performance Weather Effect Dongliang Zhao, Ablimit Ail, Yao Zhai, .., Gang Tan, Xiaobo Yin, Ronggui Yang gendumyo.edi(G.T) obo yin colorado eu KY.) rongguiyang@colrado.0du (RY) HIGHLIGHTS 10,6°C subambient cooling of water around noon under direct sunlight 6 0. 00 3 i 2 00 * oe eee ‘Wooraoora etd oo 601 017 O91eS rime ‘The effect of weather conditions on the performance of radiative sky cooling kWscale radiative sky cooling system to demonstrate scalability of the technology Radiative sky cooling of large thermal mass water to 10.6°C below the ambient temperature is demonstrated around noon under direct sunlight by using polymer based low-cost radiative cooling metamaterial Subambient cool-water production at various constant temperatures is experimentally demonstrated. The parasitic effects of differant weather conditions (local wind speed, precipitable ‘water, and cloud cover) on the performance of sky radiative cooling have been investigated, which is rtical for developing operation strategies for real-world applications tps "0016 04628 0008 ig)Joule Cell Subambient Cooling of Water: Toward Real-World Applications of Daytime Radiative Cooling Dongliang Zhao,’ Ablimit Aili,” Yao Zhai,’ Jiatao Lu,! Dillon Kidd,’ Gang Tan,’* Xiaobo Yin,!'3* and Ronggui Yang’ 3" SUMMARY Real-world applications of radiative sky cooling require thoughtful design of the system, along with clear understanding of weather effects on system perfor: mance. This work explores application of radiative sky cooling based upon a low-cost radiative cooling metamatarial that can be scalably manufactured. A radiative cooled-cold collection (RadiCold) module is developed to cool water to 10.6°C below ambient at noon under stationary conditions. The effects of different weather conditions (wind speed, precipitable water, and cloud cover) on the performance of radiative cooling have been investigated. A Kilowatt (kWyscale RadiCold system with 13.5 m radiative cooling surface area is then built and demonstrated to provide a maximum cooling power of 1,296 W at night, and an average cooling power of 607 W at noon (12-2 pum.) under 952 Wim? average solar irradiance at 26.5 Uth-m*) volumetric flow rate. A building integrated RadiCold system is proposed to provide continuous day-and-night cooling. INTRODUCTION By emitting infrared thermal radiation that is transporent through the atmospheric ‘transmission window with characteristic wavelength at 8-13 ym to the cold uni- verse, radiative sky cooling can cool an object on the earth by sencling excessive heat to outer space without the need for electricity. This is significantly different from other cooling technologies that dump the waste heat into the surroundings and is truly appealing “without costing the earth." Numerous studies have been carried out on nighttime radiative cooling in the past fow decades.” * Very recently, owing tothe progress in nanophotonics and metamaterials, daytime radi ative cooling to subambient temperatures have been demonstrated, which has revived interest and attracted further research.’~"® However, due to the intrinsic low energy density of radiative cooling (generally with a cooling flux in the order fof 100 Wim? at ambient temperature), most of the recent works have been restricted to the demonstration ofits potential by showing a temperature drop from the ambient temperature under the sun, but only for a small thermal mass. By eliminating the thermal loss through a delicate vacuum with an extremely smell thermal mass, an average temperature drop of as much as 37°C has been achieved.” Howev to have practical impact, objects with large thermal mass need to be cooled down to target temperatures according to the application's need when utilizing radiative cooling, In real-world applications, the effectiveness of radiative cooling can be affected by both operating strategies and weather con- ditions.”” Weather effects such as local wind speed, precipitable water (humidity), Context & Seal Radiative sky cooling dumps ‘excessive heat to the low. temperature sky through infrared thermal radiation. Recent advances in materials have led to the breakthrough in daytime radiative cooling, with subambient temperatures ‘achieved, In this work, we demonstrate forthe fst time the cooling of water (with large thermal mass) to 10.6°C below ambient aroundnoon under direct sunlight. The effects of differant ‘operating temperatures and ‘weather conditions (local wind speed, precipitable water, and cloud cover on the performance ‘of radiative ky cooling have been investigoted, which ae essential for real-world applications. A KW.seale radiative sky cooling system with 13.5 m? radiative surface area has boon built to demonstrate scalability of the technology. As cooling demand increases dramatically inthe 21st century, this work paves the way for promoting radiative sky cooling for energy saving, water saving, and more efficent power ‘generation in the near future. a date 31415 dry 1.290208 ree 4Joule Cell = and cloud cover can play important roles on the radiative cooling performance and ‘thus should be thoroughly investigated. ‘The applications of radiative sky cooling can be either via @ passive way by simply attaching a radiative cooling material to an object that needs to be cooled (e.g. cool roof" and soler cell applications”, or in an active way by producing cooled heat transfer fluid (e.g., water) that can be coupled to other thermel sys ‘tems(e.g,, building air conditioner’® or power plant condensers”). Passive applica tions of radiative cooling have the advantage of system simplicity, but suffer from possibly excessive cooling when cooling is not needed, especially during winter or uring the night. Active radiative cooling systems that generate cold heat transfor fiuids can be better controlled through circulation, and thus are more feasible for ‘those applications whereby cooling power needs to be regulated, and potentially with greater efficiency gains. However, cooling of a heat transfer fuid poses a chal: lenge due to the low energy density of radiative cooling along with significant para site thermal loss. By using @ commercially available polyester film that has high reflectance in the visible part of solar spectrum and near-blackbody emittance in the infrared spectrum on top of a silver reflective surface, Goldstein et al. built a circulated water-cooling system and showed a temperature drop between 3°C and 5°C under a water flow rate of 0.2 L/(min-m fr a total panel surface area of 0.74 mé, after @ successful demonstration of subambient cooling of air during the day using nanophotonic material.” Very recently we reported a glass-polymer hybrid metematerial thin film thet can generate 93 Wim? radiative cooling power at noon under direct sunlight, and an average of 110 Wim radiative cooling power for three consecutive days.” This "designer metamateria” consists ofa transparent polymer overthe whole solarspec ‘trum, encapsulating randomly distributed silicon dioxide (SiO) microspheres. The metamaterials extremely emissive across the entire atmospheric transmission win dow fnrared wavelength 8-13 ym) due to phonon-enhonced Frahich resonances ofthe embedded microspheres. n this work, by applying the glass-polymer hybrid metamatrial, we develop a radiative cooled-cold collection (RadiCold) module Here we demonstrate thatwater con be cooled o 10.6°C below amibientat noon un der the stationary conditions. The effects of radiative surface temperatures and ‘weather conditions including wind speed, precipitable water, and cloud cover, on the cooling power ofthe RadiCold module have been studied and validated with a theoretical model. Moreover, we demonstrated two operating strategies for different application scenarios, controlled intermittent flow for producing water vith constant subambient temperatures and continuous flow for maximizing cooling energy generation, respectively. We aso demonstrated 72-hr continuous operation of a KW-scale (13.5 radiative surface area) RadiCold system consisting of multiple RadiCold modules. The system can be potentially integrated with buildings to pro vide continuous day-and-night cooling. As cooling and airconditioning demand ~ wilincrease dramaticalyinthe? st century, ourworkon studying the effectsofoper-_(Deptinaneh Mecha Enanectng ating strategies and weather conditions onthe radiative cooling performance canbe shevrw wctews snd metretes essential for developing real-world applications ofthis appealing technology foren- Emsam ef Wyo Lame ergy saving, weer saving, and more efficient power generation inthe near future."” WY E21, USA “Matis Sconce and Engnering Pagan RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ue of Coeds ede So HA Sbambint Cooling of Water Radiative Cong Power erat Suse peaneea e ssnbo ynteainado ods CY), Figure 1A shows @ schematic cross-section ofthe RadiCold water-cooling module, It tcrityangdesioradou RY) consists ofa 10-mm-thick flat panel water container in the center, and 5.1-cm-thick _hosi/o\cra/0.1016j joule 2018 10008, 112 Joule 3, 111-123, aruary 14,2019Joule a e paren) Wer ene me Convaction (a PE tim ‘Gondueton (Pont) ® 2. intared: far spect: High miss Fagnreteciy PY Figure 1. The RadiCold Module and RadiCold Metafin (A) Schematic haveing the thickness of each ayer and het transfer procesres of the RadiCold ‘module under the sun. 15-m-thick polyethylene (PE) fim hown a old yellow line placed {15mm sbova the RadiColdmetatim o reduce convective thermal los tothe ambiant. The madle haw a5 -em thick palysacyanurate rigid foam iaulstion Board at the out ides and th bottom, Pai the infrared radiation powar density ror the RagiCald mati, Pais the absorbed stmarphericradaton pawer deraty onthe RadiCald metafm. Pay ithe absorbed iradiation power density an the RadiCold metal. Prnseon ithe convective and conducive hoot fuses berwoon the RaciCald module and ambien in [B)Sehemate ofthe blyer RaciCold mtatm on tp ofthe polyearbonate water contain (se not to sale, [Cy Photograph ofthe ol-toell(R2R produced RadiCold metaliln without (lt) and wth ight iver layer polyisocyanurate board insulation at the four sides and the bottom, while the meta ‘material thin flm (hereafter named RadiCold metafilm) with a nominal thickness of 50 ym is laminated on the tap surface of the water container using a 90-um-thick layer of pressure-sensitive adhesive. A 15-mm-thick air gap is created on top of ‘the RadiCold metafilm by using a 15-m-thick polyethylene (PE) film to reduce the convective thermal loss. Total radiative surface area of the module is 0.34 m? (0158 x 0.58 m), The water container, with multiple flat channels channel cross-sec- tion 20 x 9 mm) arranged in parallel inside, has a total volume of 2.72 L The water container is made of commercially available polycarbonate material with a wall thickness of 0.5 mm. Here plycarbonate is used due to its long-term durability for outdoor applications.”° The low cost of polycarbonate paneling is indeed very appealing for large-scale deployment of radiative cooling systems inthe future. Fig Lures 1B and 1C show a schematic and a photograph ofthe rollto-roll (R2R) manuf: tured RadiCold metafilm.” It consists of a 50-um-thick polymer-glass bead hybrid rganic-inorganic film formed by the R2R extrusion, and a 200-nm-thick silver thin film deposited by R2R physical vapor deposition. The RadiCold metafilm has an average emissivity of 0.86 within the atmospheric transmission window (8-13 wm ‘wavelength, and a solar reflectivity of 0.95 over the wavelength of 0.3-25 um (Gee the blue cure in Figure 28) Cell Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 16,2019 oyAbsortvityemissivity (uj) a2uepesn wnsisods ze 7 | 7 | —_~ we o : alot 4 2 ee 8 7 wef 7 fe “Time (nm) Radicold Surface Temperature (C) Figure 2. Comparative Tests Showing RasiCold Module Performance (A) Photograph of four water modula built for 2 comparative study onthe rootop ofthe Engineering Cente at Univesity of Colorado Boule, (8) Measured wavelength dependent emissity af the RadiCold metal sue curv), ser ellow curve}, and polycarbonate water container red curve) over = wavelength from 0.31025 4m, The AMT-S colar spoctum is plotted for veualtion, [Cl Mesure water temperatures in he four modules along withthe ambient air omperaurecring the daytime in August 2017 Water temperate inside the Radi Cold module be solid curve} stays well below he ambvent ack cure) thoughout the day, with an average temperature diference of (0) Measured water temperatures nthe four modules alongwith the ambient ai temperature during 2 night a August 2017, With the RaciCold rota, water as coled down 9 11°C below ambi [F) Comparcon of experimentally messured net radiative caaling poner (hello dot) wth the modeling results (curves) under cea sky cancion forthe RadiCold module, wth measured 74 t010.7-mm pracptable wate at night and 2.5 to 17.0-mm precipitable water during the day. Her 700Wimn® direct oar radiance on tha RadiGold metafim i aeeumed for daytime performance madeling, The eror bar inthe reported cooling power ia bated on the propagation of instrument uncertainty ‘The energy balance of the RadiCold module is given by ST = Pras ~ Par — Par — a Score so) ST. a (Equation 1 here ¢ and m are heat capacity and mass, and A is the radiative surface area exposed to the sun and the sky. The subscripts w and p denote water and polycar bbonate water container, respectively ‘The net cooling power, which equals the rate of cold generation in water and poly carbonate container (left-hand side of Equation 1), can be expressed by the four terms that denote the detailed heat transfer processes at the righthand side of Equation 1, as shown in Figure 1A. The thermal resistance for heat conduction across the 0.5-mm-thick polycarbonate wal (0.0074 K/W) and thermal resistance for natural convection across the 9-mm-thick water layer (~0.03 KAW) are ‘much smaller than the thermal resistance for radiation on the module surface (0.62 KM). The ratio of thermal resistance for natural convection across the water layer to the thermal resistance for radiation on the module surface is 0.05, suggest ing that water temperature inside the RadiCold module should be relatively uni form. Also, water temperature is assumed to be the same as the polycarbonate 114 Joule 3, 119-123, daruary 14,2019Joule ‘water container due to the low thermal conduction resistance across the wall Detailed modeling of the transient heat transfer processes is available in Supple mental information 1 Four identical water modules were fabricated for the comparative study (see Fig Lure 2A), All water modules were placed on the rooftop with a 15° tilt angle to the north, which allows easy filing of water and reduces incident solar irradiation on their ‘op surfaces, ll modules are wrapped by highly reflective silver films except the top surfaces. The shading between the modules is not a concern due to its flat shape (68 x 68 x 8 em)and being installed at the same height and orientation (Figure 2A). “The top surfaces of the four modules are atthe same level and are in close proximity, “hich makes the effect of wind on the four modules identical. Local wind speed and relative humidity are recorded by 8 weather station (Ambient Weather WS-1002- WIFI observerl, which is installed at the same height but 2 m away from the water modules. The temperatures of water in the modules and the ambient air were measured by precalibrated K-type thermocouples (0.3°C accuracy). The thermocou: ples that measure temperatures of the water modules are submerged in the water inside the polycarbonate water container. The thermocouples that measure temper- atures of ambient air were placed at sun-shieldad locations where aircan freely pass by. Before the comparative test, another test was carried out to show thatthe four water modules are truly identical by using the same surface material (ve., RaciCold ‘metaflm). The thermocouple-measured ambient temperature is also compared with the weather station-measured ambient temperature to demonstrate the accuracy of measurement, See Supplemental Information 2 for thermocouple locations and measurement detail ‘The top surfaces of the four water modules were then covered with materials of different optical and thermal properties for the comparative study. These modules are a RadiCold module as described above, a reflective module, a well-nsulated mod: Ue, and a bare module, respectively. The RadiCold module is covered with the RadiCold metaflm that is solarreflectve and infared-emissive, The bare module has no additional surface material on top of the polycarbonate vater container, and the polycarbonate materials directly exposed to the sun and the sky, which represents ‘hose materials that are solar-absorptive and infrarad-emissve (e.g, regular shingle roof). The reflective module is covered by low-emissivty/absorptvity silver that is highly reflective in the solar spectrum, which represents those materials that reduce surface temperature through reflacion (eg, reflective cool roofs). The well-nsulated module is covered with a 2.5-cr-thick polyisocyanurate insulation board on the top. surface, which results in nether solar absorption nor racative cooling tothe sky, rep: resenting an insulated confined space (e.g, wellinsulated building atid. Figure 28 shows the spectral absorptivty/emissivity of RadiCold metafilm along with a silver film ona polymer (reflective module), both RAR manufactured in-house, and a polycarbonate water container (bare module). Here a UV-visible near-infrared spec- ‘rophotometer is used to measure the solar reflectivity (0.3-2.5 ym) and a Fourier ‘transform infrared spectrometer is used to measure the emissivity at infrared regions (25-25 ym), respectively. Figure 2C gives the measured average water tempera "utes inside the four modules when exposed to the clear sky, along with the ambient air temperature, in Boulder, Colorado, as one of the typical tests in August/ September 2017. For comparison, initial water temperatures were controlled to be identical for all the modules. After the test started at 11 a.m., it was observed that the water temperature of the RadiCold module experienced a drop at the beginning from 11 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. after which the water temperature was kept Cell Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 16,2019 usJoule Cell = at about 10.6°C below the ambient ar between 12:30 pm. and 3 pm. even under the highest direct solar radiance of 710 Wim?. The temperature clarence be: ‘svean ambient air and water increased further after 3 pm. due to the decline of the olariraciance. Forthe reflective module, although the majority ofthe solar ira dance was reflected, the water temperature still went up and was the second highest among the four modules. Waterin the welh insulated madule was aso heated up and reached a temperature slighty higher than ambient air inthe afternoon. In contrast, ‘ator in the bare module was heated up very quickly inthe morning due to the ab sorption of solar irradiance, even though polycarbonate isa broadband emitter in the infrared ragion (2.5-25 ym). Figure 2D shows the results ofthe radiative cooling ‘test during nighttime by using the same four modules. Baforethe experiment begin, all modules were covered with 2.5-cm-thick thermal insulation boards to prohibit radiative cooling effect. The insulation boards were removed and the experiment started at midhight and the temperature of water in the Radiold module dropped down to approximately 11°C below the ambient temperature. The bare module where the polycarbonate material has 2 high broadband infrared emissivity (see redeurvein Figure 28) cooled down water tothe second lowest, bout 10.5°C below the ambient. This comparison between a selective radiative cooling surface {RadiCold module) and a broadband radiative cooling surface (bare module) ind cates that lower temperature can be achieved by using a wavelength-selectiveraci- ative surface, although the rte of temperature drop could be sight higher atthe beginning fr the broadband radiative cooling surface. The radiative cooling effect observed forthe reflective module was negligible due to the low emissivity ofthe silver surface. The temperature of the wellinsulated module stayed highest ‘throughout the test. The performance ofthe RadiCold module over 72 continuous hours is given in Supplemental Information 3 ‘The cooling power of radiative cooling tothe skyis@ function of radiative surface temperature. A series of exporiments at different surface temperatures of RadiCold module were conducted under the clear sky conditions during both daytime and nighttime (2 Supplemental Information 4 forthe measurement method). The pre Gipitablo water, which indicates the humidity level oe Equation 2, was between 7.4 and 10.7 mm for nighttime tests and 12.5 and 17.0 mm for daytime tests. Figure 26 shows the net radiative cooling power, which equals the net cooling power when Pooprcond = 0 (68 Equation 1), 38 function of RaciCeld metafim surface temper. ature. Alltests were conducted under the condition thatthe RadiCold metafl sur face temperature is clase to the ambient sic temperature to eliminate the thermal loss othe ambient. Figure E shows that RadiCold modules ata higher surface tem perature have a higher net radiative cooling power for both daytime and nighttime [At night, when RadiCold metafilm temperature is increased from ~1°C to 205°C, the net radiative cooling power increases from 61.2 to 101.4 Wim, Essentially, over 100 Wim? net radiative cooling power can be expected with the RadiCold motafln for a temperature higher than 20°C when precipitable water is lower than 10mm. Daytime experiments were all performed around noon witha direct s0- laciradiance on the RadiCold metafilm between 680 and 730 W/m. When RadiCold mmetafl temperature increased from 10.9°C to 31.9°C, net radiative cooling power increased from 39.7°C to 79.0 Wim, Also shown in Figure 2€ isthe calculated net radiative cooling power from the model (descrived in Supplemental Informa Lion 1), which agrees wel ith the measurement results. Weather Effects on Radiative Cooling Radiative cooling performance in real-world applications, including both the subam: bent temperature drop and the net cooling power, are strongly affected by the 116 Joule 3, 111-123, January 14,2019‘ : g t 2 g ic : BE i | ‘ioe (hm) Tine (hmm) Figure 3. Effect of Local Wind Speed on Radiative Cooling Performance (AIA spicalraciatve coating ertshowing the elect af wind. To better show the elec of wind, PE fin snot used on top ofthe RadiCold metatin, Othe influencing factors (eg precinitable wate, ambient temperature) aerelsvey stable ding the test, Temperatiresaf ambient ir (ack short deshed curve) and water red slid curve) ate plotted. The predicted transient water temperature (olve dashed curvel in RachCold module matches wall wth the messured data (8) Precipitable water oli ed cure) and wind peed (lack dos) change during tho testperiod weather conditions. For example, the absorbed power density of atmospheric radi ation (Pyyn) is affected by precipitable water (humidity) and cloud cover, the ab- sorbed power density of solar irradiance (P.su) is affected by both solar irradiation and cloud cover, and convection and condition heat fuxes (Prone scond are affected by both the local wind speed and the temperature difference between RaciCold module surface and the ambient sr, Here we present the study of the weather effects tn the radiative cooling performance of RadiCold metafilms arising from wind and precipitable water. Cloud cover has a very complicated impact on the atmospheric radiation due to the diferent types of clouds (e.g, crus, stratus), different height of clouds, different constitution ofclouds, and the constantly changing cloud behaviors over time and space. Recognizing the importance of cloud impact on a radiative cooling system for real-world operations, we present some preliminary results in Supplemental Information 5 and 6 showing that the decrease in radiative cooling po- ‘wor could be proportional tothe increase of cloud cover both at night and during the day, when compared with clear sky. Local wind speed affects convective heat transfer between the RadiCold metafilm surface and the ambient air. The effect of wind on the RadiCold module canbe either beneficial or detrimental, depending on the temperature difference between RadiCold module and ambient air. For subambient radiative cooling applications, winctinduced thermal loss should be suppressed. Figure 3 gives a typical cooling test of RadiCold module whereby the wind effect is obvious. The test was conducted atnight under clear sky conditions to avoid the impact of solariradiance and clouds, ‘The ambient air temperature (between 9°C and 12°C) and precipitable water (be tween 4.5 and 6 mm) are relatively stable during the test period (highlighted in gray), a8 shown in Figure 3B. Figure 3A shows that maximum subambient cooling ‘temperature difference between water and ambient air decreased from 7.0°C to 43°C (without a PE film on top of the RadiCold module}, due to the change of wind speed since it is much smaller at the beginning of the test compared with ‘that at the end. The evaluation of convective heat transfer coefficient between RadiCold module and ambient air is given in Supplemental Information 1 and the validation is provided in Supplemental Information 7. Humidity affects the radiative cooling performance as it affects the atmospheric emissivity, and thus the absorbed atmospheric radiation (Pz). It is usually Cell Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 16,2019 7Relative Humidity (%) 20 40 60 80 Ambient temperature 15=1.5°C . 4 oF Nighttime (Modeling) “= = “Daytime (Modeling, 700 Wim? direct solar radiance) © Nighttime (Experimental) 1D Daytime (Experimental) 5 10 15 20 25 Precipitable Water (mm) Effet of Precptable Water (Humidity) on Net Radiative Cooling Power under Clear Sky Conditions| Modeling and experimental results ae plated a curves and dot, respectively: Daytime and righttime modeling results are plated in sl yelon and dashed blue color. Al taste were Conducted at eatively stable RaciCald matatim temperatures (ambient ait temperatures of 15°C + 15°C wih dear sy conditions All daytime tests were conducted around noon wih det rola ieraianes onthe RasiCald matatim petason 680 3nd 730 iim, The daytime maeing results (dashed yellow eure) szeure 700 Wr” cect ala ieradiance onthe RadiCald mettim, The errorbarin the reported cooling power and precptable water represents the propagation of instrument uncertainty. Te evar barn ambient temperature represents ac fon embient temperature change during the measurement petiod quantified as precipitable water (PW), whichis defined asthe depth of waterin a col Lumn ofthe atmosphere fal the waterin that column were precipitated.as rain.” The inerease in precipitable water results in an increased Pym and thus a reduced net radiative cooling power. The precipitable water (in milimeters) at an altitude of around 1,400 m ("mile high ety," Boulder, Colorado) for clear sky conditions can be calculated from experimentally measured relative humidity (RH) and ambient ‘temperature (Tana using the equation (Equation 2) where Prin isthe ambient pressure, Pa Figure 4 shows the effect of precipitable water on radiative cooling under the clear sky conditions. The net radiative cooling power is measured in the same way as in Figure 2E to rule out the impact af convective thermal loss to the ambient. When pre- cipitable water changed from 7.4 to 17.1 mmat night, the net radiative cooling po- wer dropped from 89.2 to 84.2 Wim’, and when precipitable water changed from 198 Joule 2,119-123, anuary 16,2019 Cellg e 3 : Reese eee oseeeeeaee “Time (nm) ‘Sub-Ambient Temperature Drop °C) Figure 5. Cook Water Production to Target Temperatures during the Day [Al Two identical RadiCold modules wore tested smultaneousy with diferent target temperatures °C red urs nd 26°C roan cre), respectively Inet water temperatures are coreoiad to be close to ambient air temperature lack curve) |B) Modeling ruts show cool- mater producto rate oa function ofthe targeted subambiant temperature drop at thee diferent ambient tempersturs. Solar kradiance is kept at 70 W/m? nd wind speed i constant at 1 mv 4.1 t0 13.9 mm during the day, net radiative cooling power dropped from 54.1 10 47.2 Win?, The modeling results show that net radiative cooling power decreases with the increase in precipitable water in a logarithmic relationship, which means that the rate of decrease is faster when precipitable water is smaller. Subambient Cool Water Production at Constant Temperatures Stationary tests as described above demonstrated the capability to generate sub- ambient cool water using radiative cooling for both daytime and nightime. Practical use ofraciative cooling could involve both controlled intermitent flow forproducing ‘water with constant subambient temperatures and continuous flow for maximizing cooling energy generation. Here, we ist demonstrate subambient cool-water pro: duction at target temperatures. Two identical RadiCold modules were tested simul taneously with different target temperatures in the daytime, 24°C (module 1) and 26°C (module 2), respectively. In real-world applications, the target temperature can be determined by the specific application scenarios. Temperature ofthe supply ‘water to the RaciCold module tracks ambient ar temperature, which mimics those scenariosin which supply water is fist cooled by an air-cooled heat exchanger, usu ally wth a temperature slightly higher than the ambient. Water was stationary in the ‘modules for most of the time during the test. Once the water temperature in the ‘module reached the target temperature, the module was drained and refilled, Since water stays stationary (ie, controlled intermittent flow) in each module for most of the cooling time, to obtain continuous production of cool water in real-world appli cations, many modules can be connected into a system” and operated with a con tol strategy (see Supplemental Information 8). Compared with continuous flow of water, this operation strategy can also save electricity for pumping the water. Figure 5A shows that between 10:10 aim. and 17:30 prm., both modules can cool water dow to the specified target temperatures for multiple times (.e., multiple drain and refill. The rate of temperature drop at each time just after water refiling isthe greatest dus tothe highest water temperature and smallest subambient tor perature difference. The results show thatthe RadiCold module can produce decent amountof 24°C wateron a day thathas maximum diractsolar irradiance of700 W/m? and maximum ambient air temperature of 32°C. The total cool-water production was 32.1 Lm (equivalent water flow rate 4.4 Uthem?) for targeted temperature of 24°C Cell Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 16,2019 0Tie nm) Temperature °C) cooling Power wim’) apeyesecassé Ti (hm) Time (hm) Figure 6. Radiative Cooling Test on 2 kW.Scale RadiCald Syrtom (AN The KW/seale RaciCold system. ke consist of tan modules wit a total radiative surface area of 135 m7 (8) Scar ieadiance. The weather on July ¥ and July 2 are mostly lear, whe resent on the afternoon of uly 3 (Chine ack clid cree) nd cunt (blue dathod cur) water temperatures. Before entering the RadiCalaayetm, inet water went through an si-ccoledhest exchanger 9 tracked the ambient temperature [D) The maximum coaling power at night during thes three days in 98 Win? and the average cooling power at noon time (12-2 p.m) 45 Wn? on July teed cloude are inmedule 1 and 64.1 Ln? (equivalent water flow rate 8.7 Liem?) for targeted tem perature of 26°C in module 2. The average net cooling power was 31.9 Wim? for module 1 in comparison with 41.8 Wim’ for module 2, which was kept ata higher target temperatura. The difarance indicates that for subambiant radiative cooling of water, the net cooling powerisa function ofboth subambient temperature difer enceand the radiative surface temperature. larger subambient temperature dif ence results ina larger thermal loss to the ambient and, therefore, a smaller net cooling power. On the other hand, a smaller tomperature difference might not generate sufcient useful cooling utility for practical applications. There is appar ently a need to strategize the operation to balance the net cooling power and the subambient temperature, which are dependent upon each other, Figure SB shows cool-water production rate as a function ofthe targeted subambient temperature drop at three different ambient temperatures. Higher ambient temperature and smaller targeted temperature drop resul in higher cooling water production rate. KEW.Scale RadiCold System toward Real-World Applications ‘To demonstrate the scalability of radiative cooling, we built a Kilowatt (W)-scale RadiCold system using our RadiCole metafilm on the roof of CU Engineering Centar in Boulder, Colorado. The system consists of ten modules, each has sufaca area 1.35 m?, giving a total radiative cooling surface area of 13.5 (Figure 4A). Three consecutive days of tests were carried out on July 1-3, 2018, Figure 6B shows that Continuously high solar irradiance was observed on July 1 and July 2, while scattered 120 Joule 3, 111-123, aruary 14,2019 CellJoule clouds on the aftemoon of July 3 brought in lower solar iradiance. As mentioned earlier, active use of radiative cooling could involve cool-water production with a continuous flow. Water volumetric flow rate was 26.5 Lith=m?) during the test. Inlet and outlet water temperatures of the RediCold system were monitored and are plotted in Figure 6C. The inlet water temperature tracks ambient temperature throughout the test, Net cooling power is calculated from the inlevoutlet tempera ture difference by using the equation q = SaF, where Ais 13.5 m?. Figure 6D shows that the net cooling power per square meter fluctuates between 40 and 100 Wim? during the 3-day period. Maximum net cooling power at night is 96 Win? (1,296 Wfor the 13.5 m system) when the water was cooled to 3.1°C subambient fon average, and the average cooling power at noon (12-2 p.m, is 45 Wim? (607 W forthe system) under an average of 952 Wim? solar iradiance on July 1 Under scattered cloud conditions on the afternoon of July 3, the system generated 50-60 Wim? cooling power. RadiCold System to Provide Continuous Day-and-Night Cooling for Buildings ‘As shown in Figure 6, the outlet water temperature of the RadiCold system operated under continuous-flow conditions changes significantly between day and night. The cooled water can be used to directly cool the condenser to improve the efficiency ofan air conditioner during the day. However, considering that there could be limited or even no cooling demand from buildings at night, this operation strategy limits the effectiveness of the radiative cooling system. We address this challenge by introducing scheduled operations and a cold storage unit (see Fig lure 6A on the right-hand side of the RaciCold modules) to maximize the use of the RadiCold system. A building-integrated RadiCold system is proposed to sepa rate the use of daytime and nighttime radiative cooling (Figure $13A). During the day, the subambient temperature heat transfer fluid generated, as demonstrated in Figure 6C,is used to directly coo the condenser, while at night, the RadiCold sys ‘tem stores the cooling energy ina storage unit, which is retrieved during the day to reduce the cooling load on the air conditioner. The systom efficiency can be signi icantly enhanced with day-and-night continuous cooling (see Supplemental informa tion 10). ‘A modeling too! based on EnergyPlus"® and MATLAB has been developed for the evaluation of electricity saving for cooling a 5,000 m? floor area commercial office building" by employing the building integrated RadiCold system (Supplemental in formation 10). The system is designed with a radiative surface area of 810.m® (about half ofthe building roof area), corresponding to an area ratio of 1:6.2 (radiative cool ing surface area to building total floor area). Annual performance of the RadiCold system has been evalusted for three different locations in the United States (Phoenix, Houston, and Miami) using TMY3 weather deta, Results show that for different locations the RadiCold system could potentially save 64%-82% of the elec- tricity consumption for cooling in winter (from November to February), and save 32%-5% of the electricity consumption for cooling in summer (rom May to August). In summary, by using the R2R manufactured solar-reflective and infrared-emissivity, RadiCold metafilm, we developed a RadiCold module and experimentally demon. strated cooling of water to 10.6°C below ambient under the sun under stationary conditions. Higher radiative surface temperature gives higher net radiative cooling power during both daytime and nighttime, which provides a guideline for the design of diffrent radiative cooling systems that have different operating temperatures, Continuous production of cool water at constant subambient temperatures has: been demonstrated. The comparison between different target temperatures (24°C Cell Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 16,2019 aJoule Cell = and 26°C) indicates that for subambientradiative cooling, there exits a compromise betwcen the subambiant temperature lfference and the net cooling power, the 0 performance indices ofthe technique. The correlation between cool-water produce tion rate (i.e, net cooling power) and subambient temperature drop at diferent ambient temperatures has been confirmed. The effects of different weather cond tions (local wind speed, precipitable water, and cloud cover) on the performance of radiative cooling have been investigated The RadiCold module constructed in ‘thisworcuses various low-cost and commercially available polymer-based materials, which is appealing for large-scale deployment of radiative cooling systems in the near future AkW-cale RadiCald system has been bult to demonstrate the zcalabil- ity of our radiative sky cooling technology, which provides a maximum cooling power of 1,296 W at night and an average cooling power of 407 W at noon (12-2 pam) under 952 Wim? average solar iradiance at @ water volumetric flow rate of 28.5 Uthsm?). As cooling and airconditioning demand increases dramatically inthe 21stcentury,”” our work here paves the way fr pursuing RadiCold technology for real-world applications, which could result in energy saving, water saving, and more aficient power generation EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Full experimental procedures are provided in the Supplemental Information. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION, Supplemental Information includes Supplemental Experimental Procedures and 14 figures and can be found with this article online at hitps://do\.org/10.1016/)oule 2018.10.06. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. ‘The authors acknowledge the financial support of this work from the US Department of Eneray’s Advanced Research Projacts Agency ~ Energy (ARPA-E) under contract, no, DE-AROOOO580. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS DZ. and RY. conceived the concept of this work. D.Z. led all the efforts under the supervision of RY.,XV., and G.T- All authors participated in the construction, exper imentation, and data analysis. DZ. drafted the paper. RY.,.D.Z., X¥., and G.1- final ized the paper, while all co-authors participated in the diccussion. DECLARATION OF INTERESTS ‘The authors declare no campeting interest, Received: May 1, 2018 Revised: July 22, 2018 Accepted: October 3, 2018 Published: October 26, 2018 REFERENCES 1. Smith, G8, and Granavt C6. (2010, Groen sadative cooing of zlacive mula. Sol Martin M. and Bard P. (1984. Nanotechnology Satins fr Su Energy 17.85.89 CCharaterisis of ced sy ‘adaton inthe fd Energy inthe Bult Eonar (CRC United Sates So. Energy 521-536 Pes 3 Grange, CG, ane Hceberg, A (1981) onsidoresore and apetietion tsa Zicly GON). Asiudy of pohmer based hecooinigtslowterperires goneral 5. Meir M.G, Rektad 11, nd Law, OM 2 Cassano, S, Cuome, V,Pka,G. Rugg, Siting Si fin gl Paye 32, 30S Facatve cooing sytem Sol Energy 73 ‘Shee Vand Troe, (1975) The oan ‘aa, 122 Joule 3, 119-123, anuary 14,2019Joule 6, Eker, U, and Daan A 2010. Protovoisethea ealector fo right ‘acatve coon of bulings, Sl Ene 8, eains 7. 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