INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

CEN-566
Airport Planning and Design

Geometric Design of Runways

Prof. Sanhita Das

sanhita.das@ce.iitr.ac.in
https://civil.iitr.ac.in/CE?Uid=sanhita.das
 Geometric Design

Runway
❖ Runway configurations
❖ Orientation of runway
❖ Determination of runway length

Taxiways
• Different types of taxiways
• Design elements and standards

Exit Taxiways
Different types
Optimum locations
Design of exit taxiway

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 Runway Configuration

Number and relative orientations of one or more runways on an airfield

Runway configurations are mostly combinations of several basic configurations
Single runways
Parallel runways
Two parallel runways
Two parallel runways with staggered thresholds
Four parallel runways
Intersecting runways
Open-V runways

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 Flight Operation Rules

Orderliness in the aircraft movements in airspaces during take-off and landing

Providing safety by applying separation standards between aircrafts within the airspace
Expedite movement of traffic

Two basic flight rules

Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

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 Flight Operation Rules

Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

These rules apply when weather conditions are such that aircrafts can maintain safe
operation by visual means
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) establish what the prevailing flight visibility
must be, and how far the airplane must remain away from clouds
Aircrafts are allowed to fly under “see and be seen principle”.
Air traffic controllers exercise minimum control under VFR
Intervene only when there is need

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 Flight Operation Rules

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

These rules apply when visibility falls below the

minimum level fixed for VFR operations
Safer operation is the responsibility of air traffic control
personnel
Air traffic controllers exercise positive control when
IFR apply

To avoid mid-air collisions at high speeds and density

of traffic, IFR are prescribed regardless of the weather
conditions.
A flight plan is required

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 Flight Operation Rules

VFR and IFR Criteria Conditions

Ceiling height Visibility

VFR >1000 feet above the ground 3miles or more
IFR <1000 feet above the ground <3miles

Overcast clouds
FAA defines a ceiling as: "The height of the
lowest layer of clouds above the surface that
are either broken or overcast, but not thin

Broken clouds
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https://nocas2.aai.aero/nocas/AAI_Links/Airports-IFR-VFR-200815.pdf
 Runway Configurations

Single runway
Simplest of the runway configurations
Suitable when the wind blows in one direction predominantly in a year
Air traffic requirement does not exceed capacity of such pattern
Capacity depends on air traffic mix and type of control
VFR: 45-60 operations/hour
IFR: 20-40 operations/hour

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 Runway Configurations

Single runway

Veer Savarkar International Airport Pakyong Airport, Sikkim

Runway length= 3290m Runway length= 1700m

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 Runway Configurations

Parallel runways
Capacity depends on number of runways, lateral spacings between them,
weather conditions and navigational aids available
Two, three and four parallel runways are common
Air space requirement becomes large and traffic handling becomes difficult

Depending on the centerline separation between two parallel runways,

spacing is classified as close, intermediate and far

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 Runway Configurations
Parallel runways
Spacing Capacity (operations/hr)
VFR IFR
Close 210-750m 50-60
Intermediate 750-1290m 60-200 60-75
Far >1290m 100-125

Close spacing
IFR conditions:
An operation of one runway is dependent on the operation of other runway.
Simultaneous operation cannot take place
VFR conditions:
Allow simultaneous arrivals on one runway and departures on the other runway
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 Runway Configurations
Parallel runways

Spacing Capacity (operations/hr)

VFR IFR
Close 210-750m 50-60
Intermediate 750-1290m 60-200 60-75
Far >1290m 100-125

Intermediate
An arrival on one runway is independent of a departure on the other runway
IFR: Simultaneous arrivals and departures may be permitted if spacing is at least 750m.
VFR: Simultaneous arrivals
Far
IFR conditions the two runways can be operated independently for both arrivals and departures.
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 Runway Configurations
Staggered Parallel runways

Two parallel runways Staggered parallel runways

Staggering of runways may be required because of shape of the land area available for
runway construction
Reducing the taxiing distance of takeoff and landing aircraft.

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 Runway Configurations
Staggered Parallel runways

Near threshold

Far threshold
Simultaneous arrivals and departures
If the arrivals are on the near threshold, centerline spacing may be reduced by 30m for
each 150m of stagger
minimum centerline separation of 300m for aircraft with wingspans <51m
minimum of 360m for larger wingspan aircraft.
If the arrivals are on the far threshold, centerline spacing must be increased by 30m for
each 150m of threshold stagger
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 Runway Configurations
Dual-lane runways
Consists of two sets of parallel runways with appropriate exit taxiways
Planned to take care of high demand and when the winds are predominantly
blowing along the runways
Each runway pair can be used for mixed operations, though it is desirable to use
farthest runways (from terminal) for arrivals and nearest runways (inner one)
for departures
Combined capacity depends on which parallel runway configuration is chosen
for each runway pair.
Spacing between closely-spaced runways more than 300m
The dual-lane runway can handle at least 70% more traffic than a single runway
in VFR conditions and 60% more traffic in IFR conditions (FAA)
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 Runway Configurations

Los Angeles
Dallas Fort Worth
International
International
Airport
Airport
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 Runway Configurations

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 Runway Configurations
Intersecting runways
Two or more runways in different directions crossing each other

Used when relatively strong winds occur from more than one direction.

When the winds are strong from one direction, operations will be limited to only one runway

With relatively light winds, both runways can be used simultaneously

Capacity depends on the location of the intersection point and the runway-use-strategy
The farther the intersection is from the takeoff end of the runway and the landing threshold,
lower is the capacity
Highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is close to the take-off end and the
landing threshold

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 Runway Configurations
Intersecting runways

Direction of operations

Two intersecting runways at Two intersecting runways at Two intersecting runways at far
near threshold each one’s mid point threshold
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 Runway Configurations
Intersecting runways: Capacity

Direction of operations

70-175 operations/hour for VFR 60-100 operations/hour for VFR 50-100 operations/hour for VFR
60-70 operations/hour for IFR 45-60 operations/hour for IFR 40-60 operations/hour for IFR

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 Runway Configurations
Intersecting runways

Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport

Houma-Terrebonne Airport, Louisiana,
United States

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 Runway Configurations
Non-intersecting Runways / Open V runways

Runways in different directions which do not intersect

Open-V runways revert to a single runway when winds are strong from one direction

Configuration is useful when there is little to no wind (both runways in use). With strong
winds only one runway will be used

When take-offs and landings are made away from the two closer ends, the number of
operations per hour significantly increases

When take-offs and landings are made towards the two closer ends, the number of
operations per hour significantly can reduce by 50%

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 Runway Configurations
Non-intersecting Runways / Open V runways
L TO
TO L

Diverging pattern
Converging pattern

60-180 operations/hour for VFR 50-100 operations/hour for VFR

50-80 operations/hour for IFR 50-60 operations/hour for IFR

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 Runway Configurations
8/30/2023

Non-intersecting Runways / Open V runways

Vancouver International Airport Corpus Christi International Airport, US

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 Runway Orientation

Runways are always oriented in the direction of prevailing wind.

Runways are oriented in such a manner that they may be used in either direction

Determination of a runway orientation is a critical task in the planning and design of an

airport

Direction of runway controls the layout of other facilities (passenger terminals,

taxiways/aprons, circulation roads, parking, etc.)

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 Runway Orientation

Following points need to be considered while orienting the runways and taxiways:
Avoiding delay in the landing, taxiing and take-off operations and least interference in
these operations

Providing the shortest taxi distance possible from the terminal area to the ends of
runway

Making provision for maximum taxiways so that the landing aircraft can leave the
runway as quickly as possible to the terminal area

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 Runway Orientation
Data required
Map of area and contours
To examine the flatness of the area and possible changes in longitudinal profile so as to
keep them within permissible limits
Wind data
direction, duration and intensity of wind in the vicinity
Required for the development of wind rose diagram
Wind direction is variable and keeps on changing throughout the year. Wind data can
be obtained for 5 to 10 years from the Meteorological department.
Fog characteristics of the area

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 Runway Orientation

Wind data: Wind direction

To examine whether the wind is from the head side or tail side or from the sides
Also the direction of wind is not same throughout the year
Maximum wind direction needs to be ascertained

Wind data: Wind intensity

Reported as velocity in km/hr

Wind data: Wind duration

Time period for which the wind of certain intensity blows in a certain direction

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 Runway Orientation
Headwind
Wind data: Wind direction
Its effect on aircraft movement is different and
depends on whether the wind acts as:
Head wind Crosswind
Tail wind
Cross wind

Tailwind

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 Runway Orientation
Wind direction

Wind component: Cross wind

V
When landing and taking off, aircrafts are able to

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
maneuver on a runway as long as the wind component 𝜃 V
at right angles to the direction of travel (crosswind
component), is not excessive. 𝜃

Excessive cross-wind component affect the movement

alignment of aircraft and might even veer off the 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
aircraft away from the runway. Crosswind component

According to FAA standards, runways should be

oriented so that aircraft can take-off and/or land at
least 95 percent of the time without exceeding the Runway centerline
allowable crosswinds

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 Runway Orientation

Wind component: Cross wind

FAA ICAO Allowable

The maximum allowable cross wind depends on Runway Reference field crosswind
width (m) length (m) component
Size of aircraft A-I and B-I <22.5 <1200 10.5
knot/19kmph
Wing configuration A-II and B-II 22.5-30 1200-1499 13 knot/24kmph

Condition of pavement surface A-III, B-III and 30-45 16 knot/30kmph

C-1 through D-III
For medium and light aircraft A-IV through D- >45 >1500 20 knot/37kmph
VI
CW ≤ 25km/h

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 Runway Orientation

Wind Coverage
Wind coverage or usability factor of airport is the percentage of time in a year during
which the cross wind component remains within the limit or runway system is not
restricted because of excessive crosswind.
ICAO and FAA recommend minimum wind coverage of 95%

When a single runway or a set of parallel runways cannot be oriented to provide the
required wind coverage, one or more crosswind runways should be provided

Calm period

This is the period for which the intensity of wind remains below 6.4kmph

Calm period = 100-Total wind coverage

100 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of time wind is blowing from all directions

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose

A diagram in which the wind direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented.

The appropriate orientation of the runway or runways at an airport can be determined

through graphical vector analysis using a wind rose

Collection of wind data

The wind information that is used in the analysis should be latest and should accurately
represent the situation.

Preferably, wind data for the last 10 consecutive years or at least 5 years should be collected

Airport development should not proceed until adequate wind data are acquired

Indian Meteorological Department is the source for the collection of wind data in India.

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose Diagram
The area is divided into 16parts using an angle of 22.5º

Wind Rose : Methods

Type I: Showing direction
and duration of wind
Type II: Showing direction,
duration and intensity of
wind

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 Wind Rose : Data
Sector True Azimuth 4-15 mi/h 15-20 mi/h 20-25 mi/h 25-35 mi/h Total
Percentage of time
N 0.0 2.4 0.4 0.1 0.0 2.9
NNE 22.5 3.0 1.2 1.0 0.5 5.7
NE 45.0 5.3 1.6 1.0 0.4 8.3
ENE 67.5 6.8 3.1 1.7 0.1 11.7
E 90.0 7.1 2.3 1.9 0.2 11.5
ESE 112.5 6.4 3.5 1.9 0.1 11.9
SE 135.0 5.8 1.9 1.1 0.0 8.8
SSE 157.5 3.8 1.0 0.1 0.0 4.9
S 180.0 1.8 0.4 0.1 0.0 2.3
SSW 202.5 1.7 0.8 0.4 0.3 3.2
SW 225.0 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.0 2.3
WSW 247.5 2.7 0.4 0.1 0.0 3.2
W 270.0 4.9 0.4 0.1 0.0 5.4
WNW 292.5 3.8 0.6 0.2 0.0 4.6
NW 315.0 1.7 0.6 0.2 0.0 2.5
NNW 337.5 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.0 2.7

Subtotal 60.4 19.7 10.2 1.6 91.9

8/30/2023 Calms 8.1 35
 Wind Rose : Data

Sector True Azimuth 4-15 mi/h 15-20 mi/h 20-25 mi/h 23-35 mi/h Total
Percentage of time
N 0.0 2.4 0.4 0.1 0.0 2.9
NNE 22.5 3.0 1.2 1.0 0.5 5.7
NE 45.0 5.3 1.6 1.0 0.4 8.3
ENE 67.5 6.8 3.1 1.7 0.1 11.7
E 90.0 7.1 2.3 1.9 0.2 11.5
ESE 112.5 6.4 3.5 1.9 0.1 11.9
SE 135.0 5.8 1.9 1.1 0.0 8.8
SSE 157.5 3.8 1.0 0.1 0.0 4.9
S 180.0 1.8 0.4 0.1 0.0 2.3
SSW 202.5 1.7 0.8 0.4 0.3 3.2
SW 225.0 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.0 2.3
WSW 247.5 2.7 0.4 0.1 0.0 3.2
W 270.0 4.9 0.4 0.1 0.0 5.4
WNW 292.5 3.8 0.6 0.2 0.0 4.6
NW 315.0 1.7 0.6 0.2 0.0 2.5
NNW 337.5 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.0 2.7
Subtotal 60.4 19.7 10.2 1.6 91.9
8/30/2023 36
Calms 8.1
 Runway Orientation Sector Total
N
Wind Rose: Type I NNW NNE
N 2.9
NNE 5.7
NW NE
NE 8.3
ENE 11.7
E 11.5
WNW ENE
ESE 11.9
SE 8.8
SSE 4.9

W S 2.3
E
3 6 9 12 SSW 3.2
SW 2.3
WSW 3.2
WSW ESE W 5.4
WNW 4.6
NW 2.5
SW SE NNW 2.7
Subtotal 91.9
SSE Calms 8.1 41
8/30/2023 SSW 37
S
 Runway Orientation Sector Total
N
Wind Rose: Type I NNW NNE
N 2.9
NNE 5.7
NW NE
NE 8.3
ENE 11.7
E 11.5
WNW ENE
ESE 11.9
SE 8.8
SSE 4.9

W E S 2.3
3 6 9 12 SSW 3.2
SW 2.3
WSW 3.2
WSW ESE W 5.4
WNW 4.6
NW 2.5
SW SE NNW 2.7
Subtotal 91.9
SSE Calms 8.1 42
8/30/2023 SSW 38
S
 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type I

It is based on direction and duration of wind

Minimum eight directions are taken but optimum is 16 directions

Data include total percentage of time in each direction

Concentric circles are drawn to scale according to the percentage of time wind is blowing in a
direction
Total percentage in each direction is marked on the radial line drawn in that direction

These points on radial lines are joined together to form a duration map

Best direction of runway is indicated along the direction of the longest line on the Wind Rose
diagram

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

It is based on direction, duration and intensity of wind

Concentric circles are drawn to scale according to the wind velocity

The influence of wind is assumed to spread at an angle of 22.5º in a direction

Radial lines, from center, are drawn up to mid point of two directions thus dividing the space
into 16 directions and 64 parts.

Categorized duration is marked in the related cell

Transparent rectangular template of length greater than the diameter of the diagram and width
equal to twice the allowable cross wind component is made

Wind rose diagram is fixed in position and the template is placed above it such that center of
template coincides with center of diagram. The centerline of template should pass through a
direction

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

The template is then rotated and placed in next direction. The total wind coverage is
calculated for that direction too.

Same procedure is adopted for all the directions

The direction which gives the maximum wind coverage is the suitable direction for
orientation of runway

If a single runway is not sufficient to provide the necessary coverage then two or more
runways should be planned to get the desired coverage.

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

30 km/hr
18.75mi/h

Wind coverage from

runway =90.8 <95%

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 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

Wind coverage from Additional

19-08-2021
8/30/2023 runway =90.8 coverage = 5.8% 49
45
 Runway Orientation
Wind Rose: Type II

Combined Wind coverage

for both runway =96.6%

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 Runway Orientation

Runways are named by a number between 01 and

36, which is generally one tenth of the magnetic
azimuth of the runway's heading in degrees:

a runway numbered 09 points east (90°), 09-27

runway 18 is south (180°),

runway 27 points west (270°) and

runway 36 points to the north (360°

rather than 0°).

When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a

plane would be heading 90° (east). Delhi IGI airport

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