2018 BIOLOGY Vol. IL for Class XIl K.N.Bhatia e M.P. TyagiNo.1 Selling TRUEMAN’S Elementary Biology mmm ( Complcté Tet BOOK) =m VOL. II For XII Class of 10+2 & NEET (National Eligibility ¢ trance Test) K.N. BHATIA M.P. TYAGI KSc.,M. Phil. MSc., Ph.D Botany Department Former Head of the Zoology Department anna (Pb.) ‘Arya College, Ludhiana(Pb.) S TRUEMAN BOOK COmPnnY Adda Hoshiarpur, JALANDHAR B.0,, 4352/54/4C, Ansari Road, NEW DELHIOpposite Arya Adda Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar (Pb) Branch Office : 4353/4-C, Anseri Road, Dary Ph. E-mail: danikabooks@yahoo.com ISBN : 978818722. | First Edition : 1990 New Edition : 2018 ‘Trueman’s Hologram is guarantee of Original Version. 3D hologram as shown above in artwork Is stuck on the cover. The sticker when viewed at a certain angle gives 3D effect of the hologram in muttiple colours. ‘Original’ in the back ground appears differently at a certain depth AND the portrait of SWAMI VIVEKANAND in the fore ground. The back ground appears to move as and ‘when the books tilted sideways.eco We acknowledge with thanks a very encouraging support from both our fellow teachers and the students for the last many years. This has been the beacon light for us to revise and update our book every year. We feel pleasure to present this revised twenty eighth edition before you. Every due care has been given while revising this edition. The contents have been prepared and discussed envisaging the guidelines projected by NCERT. Efforts have been made to provide latest material facts with clearconcepts. The Genetics portion constituting Principles of Inheritance and Variations, Molecular Basis of Inheritance and Evolution have been thoroughly revised according to NCERT alongwith many new diagrams addedatappropriateplaces. The special features of the present edition are: _ a Solved Value Based Questions have been adi ie end ofeach chapter. AIL NCERT based questions have bees [t with explanations in the ext. All the NCERT questions hay answered at the end of cach chapter under separate heading. One and Two Mark Questions have been answered at the end of each chapter. jasis has been laid to provide latest and useful information on ics to make the subject more lucid and understandable for all ’ and Competitive Examinations. SE and other Boards’ Questions upto 2017 and MCQs upto 2017 of various competitive exams have also been inserted in the relevant chapters. Solved Subjective Exemplar Problems and NCERT Exemplar Questions (Chapter wise) also find place at the end of the book. We have also maintained the unquestionable reliability of the book as expected by teachers and the taught. Further suggestions for the improvement of the book are always welcome and shall be thankfully acknowledged. —AuthorsSyllabus — Class XII & NEET Unit 1: Reproduction © Reproduction in organisms ; Reproduction, a characteristic feature of all organisms for continuation of species; Modes of reproduction — Asexual and sexual; Asexual reproduction; ‘Modes- Binary fission, sporulation, budding, gemmule, fragmentation; vegetative propagation in plants. © Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: Flower structure; Development of male and female— gametophytes; Pollination—types, agencies and examples; Outbreeding devices; Pollen-Pistil interaction; Double fertilization; Post fertilization events — Development of endosperm andembryo, Development of seed and formation of fruit; Special modes- apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony; Significance of seed and fruit formation, ‘* Human Reproduction : Male and female reproductive systems; Microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary; Gametogenesis-spermatogenesis & oogenesis; Menstrual cycle; Fertilisation, embryo development upto blastocyst formation, implantation; Pregnancy and placenta formation (Elementary idea); Parturition (Elementary idea); Lactation (Elementary idea), Reproductive health : Need for reproductive health and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases rth control Need and Methods, Contraception and Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP); tesis; Infertility and assisted reproductive technologies — IVF, ZIFT, GIFT (Elemenatry idea for sreness). Unit2: Genetics and Evolution dominance, Co-dominance, Multiple alleles and Inheritance of blood groups, Pleiotropy; inheritance; Chromosomes and genes; Sex determination—In humans, birds, honey bee; Linkage™and crossing over, Sex linked humans— Thalassemia; Chromosomal disorders in humans; Down’s syndrome, Turner's and Klinef®) ‘© Molecular basis of Inheritance: Search for genetic material and DNA ‘genetic code, translation; Gene expression and regulation-Lac Operon; Genome and project; DNA finger printing. * Evolution: Origin of life; Biological evolution and evidences for biological (Paleontological, comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular evidence); Dai contribution, Modern Synthetic theory of Evolution; Mechanism of evolution-Variation (Mutati and Recombination) and Natural Selection with examples, types of natural selection; Gene flow and ‘genetic dirft; Hardy-Weinberg’s principle; Adaptive Radiation; Human evolution, Unit3: Biology and Human Welfare © Health and Disease; Pathogens; parasites causing human diseases (Malaria, Filariasis, Ascariasis. Typhoid, Pneumonia, common cold, amoebiasis, ring worm); Basic concepts of immunology-vaccines; Cancer, HIV andA IDs; Adolescence, drug and alcohol abuse. + Improvement in food production; Plant breeding, tissue culture, single cell protein, Biofortification; A piculture and Animal husbandry. ‘+ Microbes in human welfare : In household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation and as biocontrol agents and biofertilizers.me ith and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine organisms-Bt crops; Transgenic Animals; Biosafety Unit5 : Ecology and Environment ‘© Organisms and environment : Habitat and niche; Population and ecological adaptations; Population interactions-mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism; Population attributes— ‘growth, birth rate and death rate, age distribution. ‘* Ecosystem: Patterns, components; productivity and decomposition; Energy flow; Pyramids of number, biomass, energy; Nutrient cycling (carbon and phosphorous): Ecological succession: Ecological Services-Carbon fixation, pollination, oxygenrelease. * Biodiversity and its conservation: Concept of Biodiversity; Pattems of Biodiversity; Importance of Biodiversity; Loss of Biodiversity; Biodiversity conservation; Hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, biosphere reserves, National parks and sanctuaries. ‘ Environmental issues : Air pollution and its control; Water pollution and its control; Agrochemicals and their effects; Solid waste management; Radioactive waste management; Greenhouse effect and global warming; Ozone depletion; Deforestation; Any three case studies as success stories addressing environmental issues. Chikangunya and Dengue.SS Oe el A : ; = Theory for Quick Revision 100% Verified Answers Thoroughly — Reytcat oe titars Dr. M.P. Tyagi Dr. Arvind Goyal TRUEMAN’S Objective BIOLOGY GENERAL. : ee MCQs Framed on For ee es tr Nk NEET B. L. Taneja TRUEMAN'S, e Objective PHYSICS ®@ Previous Years’ Solved Papers Evaluation Tests _ © Variety of New MCQs @ Complete Hints & Solutions e TRUEMAN'S Dr. Rajat Kumar Objective CHEMISTRY © Complete Theory Made Easy © Verified & Reliable Answers © Concept Based MCQs Arranged Systematically | © A Complete package of wel crafted Evaluation Tests+. % | Comenrs Unit 1 "REPRODUCTION Chapter 1: REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS. ul- 1 Chapter 2: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS Ul - 39 Chapter 3: HUMAN REPRODUCTION Ul - 83 Chapter 4: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ul - 140 Unit 2 GENETICSANDEVOLUTION Chapter 5: PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIONS Chapter 6: MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE U2 - 121 Chapter 7: EVOLUTION geo Unit 3 eIofoGyAND HUMAN WELFARE Chapter 8 : HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE U3- 1 Chapter 9 ; STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT mi IN FOOD PRODUCTION ae Chapter10 ; MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE @ ‘BIOTECHNOTOGYANDITS APPLICATIONS Chapter 11 ; BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES U4 - 1 Chapter 12 ; APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY U4 -31 Umit 5 ECOUOGYAND ENVIRONMENT Chapter 13 ; ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS. US- 1 Chapter 14 ; ECOSYSTEM Ne aoe Chapter 15 ; BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 1 U5 - 130 Chapter 16} ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUESABBREVIATIO! AMIS Antibody Mediated Immune System MAB _— Monoclonal Antibody AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome NFWP National Family Welfare Programme ADAM Androgen Deficiency in Ageing Male © NCP _ National Commission on Population ADA — Adenosine Deaminase NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ATS Anti-tetanus Serum NACO National AIDS- control organisation ABP Androgen Binding Protein Nif-genesNitrogen Fixing Genes BCG Bacillus Calmette Guerin NPP Net Primary Productivity BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand OPV Oral Polio Vaccine bp Base pair PEE Piezo Electric Effect CFCs — Chlorofluorocarbans PVS Potato Virus $ CC Convention on Climate Change ppm parts per million CAP Catabolite activator protein ppb parts per billion COD Chemical Oxygen Demand PET Position emission tomographic scanning CMIS Cell Mediated Immune System PGA Phosphoglyceric acid CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial PGAL _ Phosphoglyceraldehyde Research, New Delhi PID Pelvic inflamatory disease CT Scan Computed tomography scanning POST _ Peritoneal oocyte and sperm transfer CAT Computerized axial tomography PKU Phenylketonuria DDT _Dichloro-diphenyl trichloroethane PAR Photosynthetically Active Radiation DPT _Diphtherial pertussis tetanus pe Picogram DMPA _Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate Rh rhesus EEG __Electroencephalogram RSV Rouse sarcoma virus sive therapy RDB Red Data Book FAS Foetal Alcohol Ri It induces quick rooting in host organism GnRH — Gonadotropin releasing he Plasmid after injection GIFT — Gamete intra-fallopian transfer ‘Severe acute respiratory syndrome GMO — Genetically Modified organism ‘Sperm intra Fallopian transfer GEM — Genetically Engincered Microorganism ‘Superconducting quantum interference HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HCLV Human cell leukemia virus sTD transmitted disease ACG Human chorionic gonadotropin SCID Severe cimbined immunodeficiency disease HDL High-density lipoprotein SV40 Simian Virus HPV — Human papilloma virus SAFA- Solid Antigen Fhidrescent Antibody Test— HGP Human Genome project test _it is a modification of ELISA test HWE — Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle Taq _ Thermus aquaticus polyni IUD _ Intra Uterine Device Polymerase TUCN Intemational union for the conservation of TMR Total metabolic rate nature and natural resources TMV Tobacco mosaic virus ICSI Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection TER Total fertility rate IPM Integrated Pest Mangement TPA Tissue Plasminogen Activator TUL _Intra-uterine Insemination Ti Tumour inducing plasmid Kbp___ Kilobase pair Plasmid LASER Light amplification by stimulated emission UNEP United Nations Environment Programme of radiation UNDP _ United Nations Development Programme LDL Low-density lipoprotein. UNCED United Nations Conference on LSD Lyseric acid diethylamide Environment and Development MOET Multiple ovulation Embryo Tansfer VLDL Very low-density lipoprotein MAB — Man and Biosphere Programme WCP World Climate Programme MET —Magnetoencephalography WPSI Wildlife Preservation Society of India MRI Magnetic resonance imaging WWF — World Wildlife Fund MESA Microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration WFN World Wildlife Fund for Nature MALT — Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissues. WCU World Conservation Union MMR = Mumps, Measles and Rubella vaccine © WHO — World Health organisation ZIFT — Zygote Intra-Fallopian TransferREPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It involves the formation of young ones by the grown up individuals. This helps in perpetuation of species. LIFE SPAN ‘The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is called its life span. Life span of an organism may be few minutes to several thousand years. Life span of Mayfly is one day, while giant tortoise is considered the longest living animal (about 100 to 150 years) Life Spans of some living beings ‘Organism “Maximum Life-spai Organism jum Life-span 1. Some microorganisms,» Few minutes: to-few hours —~16,-Cat 35-40 years 2. May fly 1 day 17,_Whale 37 years 3. Cicada I day 18, Horse 50 years 4, Butterfly 12 weeks 19. Crocodile 60 years 5. Fruit fly 1 month 20. Elephant 60-75 years 6 Rice plant 4 months 21, Eagle 90 years 7. Wheat plant 5 months 22, Man 100 years 8. Rat 4 years 23, Parrot 140 years 9 Rose Bush 10 years 24, Tortoise 100-150 years 10, Rabbit 13 years 25, Banyan Tree 200-300 years 11, Crow 15 years 26. Peepal 2000-3000 yrs 12, Cow 25 years 27. Sequoia 3000-4000 yrs 13, Banana Tree 25 years (Red Wood Tree) 14, Monkey 26 years 28. Larrea tridentata. (Oldest plant found 15, Dog 25 years in S.W, California U.S.A.) 11,300 years Life span of an organism usually includes four stages : (i) Juvenility. During this stage organism develops the capacity to reproduce. (ii) Maturity. Reproduction begins during this stage. (iii) Ageing and Senescence. Ageing 's progressive deterioration in the body of the organisms. The terminal irreversible stage of ageing is called senescence. (iv) Death. Senescence finally leads to death. During this stage there is final permanent cessation of all vital activities of an organism. The change over from one stage to another is determined by genetic as well as environmental factors.fe BUTTERFLY FRUIT FAY (1-2Weeksy (One Monty os crow five) (15¥ear5) BANANA TREE (25Yen) ‘ROGODILE (60,6215) a TORTOISE ELEPHANT PRRROT 100-'50oar)| (0-75 ¥e0s) (140 Years) BANYANTREE — sequGIA TAEE (eoo-scoven's) 3900-4000 Yeats; Fig. 1.1. Approximate life spans of some organisms. It is not essential that life span of organisms should be correlated with their sizes. For example, the sizes of crows and parrots are not very different but their life spans show great difference. In an another example, a mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree, Whatever is the life span, death of every organism is must. It means no individual is immortal except some single-celled (¢.g., Amoeba) organisms which divide to form two individuals before becoming old. What is Reproduction ? Reproduction is a biological process in which organisms produce young ones (offspring) similar to themselves. The young ones grow and mature to repeat the process. Reproduction is one of the most important characteristics of the living organisms.REPRODUCTION INORGANISMS = 3 U1 Purpose of Reproduction 1. Contim y of Species. Reproduction maint ns the continuity of species. 2. Population Organisation. Reproduction maintains population of the young, adult and the aged persons. 3. Variations. Reproduction introduces variations are essential for adaptations and evolution. 4, Life. Life exists on earth due to reproduction in organisms. Basic Features of Reproduction All modes of reproduction have some common basic features. These are as follows : (i) Synthesis of RNA, proteins and other biochemicals. (ii) Replication of DNA. (iii) Cell divi- sion. (iv) Growth of cells. (v) Formation of reproductive units. (vi) Formation of new individuals from reproductive units. the organisms. Useful variations ‘Types of Reproduction Mode of reproduction depends upon the structural complexity, physiology and habitat of the organisms. It is of two main types, asexual and sexual, ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION _ When offspring are produced by a single parent without the involvement of gametic fusion, the reproduction is called asexual. As a result, the offspring that are produced are not only similar to one another but are also exact copies of their parent. Such a group of morphologically and genetically similar individuals is called clone. Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction — (i) A single parent is involved (uniparental condition). (ii) Gametes are not formed. (iii) No fertilization, Therefore, asexual reproduction is also called agamogenesis or agamogeny. (iv) There is only mitotic cell division. Asexual reproduction is hence somatogenie repro- duction. (v) Daughter organisms are genetically identical to parent. (vi) Multip rapidly. Occurrence jon occurs Asexual reproduction occurs in unicellular organisms, (Monerans and Protists), many plants and simple animals. It is absent in vertebrates and higher invertebrates. ‘Types of Asexual Reproduction — Asexual reproduction takes place in the following ways. I. Fission (L. fissus — cleft) ‘This is the division of the parent body into two or more daughter individuals identical to the parent. Fission can occur by binary fission, multiple fission and plasmotomy. 1. Binary Fission, In this process of asexual reproduction, the parent organism divides into two halves, each half forming an independent daughter organism, Binary fission involves mitosis. The resultant offspring (pl. offspring) are genetically identical to the parent and to each other. Depending upon the plane of division, binary fission is of the following types. (Simple Binary Fission (Irregular Binary Fission). It can occur through any plane, eg., Amoeba. (i) Longitudinal Binary Fis: n. The plane of division passes along the longitudinalA axis of the organism, It occurs in flagellates such as Euglena. The flagellum divides first followed by body. CONTRACTILE ‘VACUOLE NUCLEAR MEMBRANE! Anaphase ‘Telophese, Fig. 1.2. Itregular Binary Fission in Amoeba. LONGITUDINAL FuRRow paucHren EUSLENAE BASAL Bovis ucteus. FLAGELLUM: NuoLeaR ‘CONSTRICTION Fig. 1.3. Longitudinal Binary Fission in Euglena (ii) Transverse Binary Fission. The plane of division runs along the tranverse axis, of the individual, e.g., Paramecium, Planaria, diatoms and bacteria, In Paramecium the meganucleus divides by amitosis, while micronucleus divides by mitosis.REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS 5 U1 MacAONUoLEUS Divives. 8 ‘MITOSIS ANTERIOR, conTRAGTILE VACUOLE evtorHanynx BUDDING: ANOTHER covropHaavn POSTERIOR conraacié VACUOLE micronycieus DIVIDES BY MiTosis, POSTERIOR Conteactite PARENTAL VACUOLE: SYTOPHAR VIX EDING APPARATUS MACRONUGLEUS: MICRONUCLEUS -CONSTRICTION DAUGHTER PARAMECIA ANTERIOR, ‘CONTRACTILE cceone VACUOLES New evroPHARN Fig. 1.4. Transverse Binary Fission in Paramecium, Fig. 1.5. Transverse Binary Fission in Planaria. POSTERIOR ‘CONTRACTILE ‘VACUOLE (iv) Oblique Binary Fission, The plane of division is oblique, It occurs in dinoflagellates, ¢.g., Ceratium. Reproductive Unit and Immortality In binary fission, the parent body asa whole forms the reproductive unit and dis- appears after its division into daughter in- dividuals. Therefore, the parent can not be! said to have died. In fact, the parent con- tinues living as two daughter individuals. ‘Thus the organisms that undergo binary fission are said to be immortal. 2. Multiple Fission. In this process the parent body divides into many similar daughter individuals. Puasa COICO) A OD ‘TRausvense NA Divnes, (CELL WALL AND PLASMA, MEMBRANE BEGIN TO FORM ‘TRANSVERSE SEPTUM DAUGHTER CELLS Fig. 1.6. Binary fission in bacteria.U1 6 TRUEMAN’s ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY +2 Pseuoor0010— upruneo THREE rs eee. ‘CYST WALL LAYERED cyst wat nucueus itt yroPLASM pavoirten ae ‘cyst NUCLEI DAUGHTER NUCLEI COMA Pseuporooiosrones a ~ PORATION > c Fig. 1.7. Multiple fission in encysted Amoeba. (i) Multiple Fisssion in Amoeba. Under unfavourable conditions, Amoeba, withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a three layered thick covering— the eyst wall around itself. This phenomenon is called eneystation. On return of favourable conditions the eneysted Amoeha divides by multiple fission and produces many minute amoebae called pseudopodiospores The cyst wall ruptures to release the pseudopodiospores in the surrounding medium. They grow up into mature amoebae. Sometimes instead of forming a single cyst Amoeba produces a number of spores or ensheathed amoebae, The phenomenon is called sporulation. Spores take part in both dis- persal and perennation (passing through unfavourable period). Under favourable conditions each spore gives rise (o a small Amoeba. coos HOWIN —wucusas sg, SPORES srone-case nucueus NUCLEUS. DISINTEGRATING, erTmeERs SPORE case YOUNG ‘AMOEBA cyTorasm” ~ NucLeus A B c E Fig. 1.8. Multiple Fission in uncysted Amoepa. Gi) Multiple Fission in Plasmodium (Malarial Parasite). In Plasmodium multiple fission occurs in the schizont (rounded unicellular structure present in liver cell and RBC of the man) as well as oocyst (encysted zygote) present over the stomach of female Anoph- MEROZOITES eles. When multiple fission scugoxr upturn occurs in schizont, the pro- SCHIZONT WALL cess is called schizogony and Fig. 1.9. Multiple Fission in Plasmodium. the daughter individuals areREPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS | 7 U1 called merozoites. The process of multiple fission in oocyst is termed sporogony and the daughter individuals are known as sporozoites. Multiple fission is also found in Monocystis — also a protozoan. 3. Plasmotomy. It is the division of a multinucleate parent into many multinucleate daughter individuals without division of nuclei. Nuclear division occurs later on to maintain normal number of nuclei. Plasmotomy occurs in Opalina and Pelomyxa (Giant Amoeba). Both Opalina and Pelomyxa are protozoans. T-forms two daughter individuals, . It produces a number of daughter individuals, ‘The nucleus of the parent body divides only once. . The nucleus of the parcnt body divides repeatedly. In binary fission, no residue is left. . In multiple fission a residue is offen left behind. Itoccurs during favourable condition. . It can take place under favourable conditions (e.g., Plasmodium) as well as unfavourable conditions (e.g, Amoeba). Binary fission makes the organism immortal. . Immortality is absent in multiple fission. Examples : Bacteria, Amocha, Euglena, Example : Amoeha, Plasmedium Paramecium, Planaria IL. Budding | In budding, a daughter individual is formed from a small part or bud, arising from parent body. () Budding in Yeast. In yeast, an outgrowth develops on one side of the cell. Nucleus divides mitoti- cally and one nucleus shifts into the outgrowth now called bud. There is unequal division during budding. The young bud is small. It grows in size, gets separated and matures into new yeast organism. Sometimes, yeast may bear many buds which may further bear daughter buds. This budding stage in yeast resembles with a genus Torula. Therefore, this condition is called torula stage and the process is known as torulation. DEVELOPING nucteus BUD VACUOLE SUB SIHAIUM. Fig. 1.11. External Budding in Fig. 1.10. Budding in yeast. Sycon (Scypha).U1 8 TRUEMAN’s ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY +2 TeTACLE we 7 foek.orn era a stom "une coe on Fig. 1.12. Budding in Hydra. Gi) Budding in Animals. It is of two types : (a) Exogenous/External Budding. In this type ronaxon MOROPHE of budding an outgrowth or bud grows externally on sPcuLeS / CUTER MewoaaNe the surface of the body. The bud may split away from the parent and take up an independent existence ARCHAEOCYTES as in Hydra or it may remain attached and become a more or less independent member of the colony as in Sycon, Exogenous budding also occurs in certain an- nelids (Syilis) and urochordates or tunicates (Salpa).. (>) Endogenous/Internal Budding (Gemmule Formation; Fig. 1,13). In the fresh water sponges (e.g.. Spongilla) and a few marine sponges buds are formed within the parent’s body. They are called gem- mules (= internal buds). Gemmules consist of small groups of cells (archaeocytes) enclosed by a protec Fig. 1.18. Gemmule tive coat, During favourable conditions the mass of archaeocytes comes out through mieropyle and forms a new colony. (c) Strobilation, The repeated formation of similar segments by a process of budding is called strobilation. The segmented body is called a strobila (= Seyphistoma) larva and each of the segments is called an ephyra larva as found in Aurelia (a coelenterate). The ephyrae break at intervals and swim in the water. The free ephyrae feed, grow and in due course of time change into jelly fishes. About a dozen ephyrae are formed in a single strobilation. Strobilation also occurs in the neck of Tuenia (Tapeworm), Differences between Binary Fission and Budding ‘Binary Fisssi Budding INNER. MEMBRANE ‘The parent body divides into two equal and ‘The parent produces a small bud that similarhalves. Fach hal formsa new individual gradually grows in size and then separates from the parent body. A protuberance isnot formed A protuberance (bud) is formed Division is equal Division is unequal. Parent body disappears . Parent body remains intact Examples : Bacteria, Amoeba, Euglena, Example : Yeast, Syean, Hydra. Peramecium, Planariarcrrouronnoranene (jus TENTACLES EXUMBRELLA TENTACLES MANUBRIUM MouTH EPHYRAE EARLY EPHYRA BUDDING (Side View) INTER RADIAL. PER-RADIAL CANAL cau our STOMACH se ORGAN MANUBRIUM wancna < fff Sra IRENA IF ARM aottesive EARLY EPHYRA putt (Oral View) Fig. 1.14. Strobilation in Aurelia. Il. Fra; ‘The parent body breaks into two or more pieces called fragments, Each fragment develops into an individual. It is found in sponges, sea anemones (coelenterates) and echinoderms. In a starfish, one arm with a part of central disc can develop into a starfish. Fragmentation is also found in algae (e.g, Spirogyra), fungi (e-g., Rhizopus), bryophytes (e.¢., Riccia, Marchantia), pteridophytes (e.g., Selaginella rupestris), ete. IV. Gemmae_ ‘They are unicellular or multi- ‘a cellular propagules that detach from | => SS Fig. 1.16. the parent and grow into new indi- Fig. 1.15. Fragmentation ina Fragmentation in viduals. In Marchantia (Fig. 1.28 flatworm. fungus. D) gemmae are biscuit shaped multicellular green structures which are borne in small cup-shaped outgrowths called gemma cups. The mature gemmae detach in presence of water and float to reach new substratum for formation of new thalli. The gemmae formed by the male thallus produce male thalli while those of the female thallus develop into female thalli. Y. Regeneration _ Regeneration is the regrowth in the injured region. Regeneration is of two types, mor- phallaxis and epimorphosis. In morphallaxis the whole body grows from a small fragment, Icis a type of asexual reproduction as found in Sponges, Hydra, Planaria, ete. Regeneration was first discovered in Hydra by Abraham Trembley in 1740.