2 MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

No. 1,51l.--"Review of the Progress of Steam Shipping duringt h e

last Quarter of a Century." By ALFRED HOLT,M. Inst. C.E.l
TEE last five-and-twenty yearshave witnessed a revolution in
the carrying trade of the world, and more particularly in that
of this country, which only those who have been engaged in
affairsconnected with it can completelyappreciate. It has been
said thatuptothe momentof railways, an Englishman of
the nineteenthcenturyhad no better modeof traversingthe
earth than a Roman of the time of Julius Caesar, and up to the
steamboat epoch, the same might with reasonable accuracy have
been said for travel at sea; on neither element had the mode of
travel changed, though it might have improved. There was,
however, this marked difference between the application of steam
toland carriage, and its application towater carriage, that
whereas, in the former, its suitability to the conveyance of goods
was a t once recognised, and was indeed its original purpose, in the
latter thatuse succeeded a long period during which it was applied
only to the carriage of passengers and correspondence. The steam
navigation of theAtlantic beganabout 1838, and that of the
Mediterranean at anearlier date ; but till theperiod a t which thia
review commences, twenty-five years ago, or 1852, in neither case
wasthe oldmodeofconveyancefor cargo bysailing vessel
seriously invaded by the new. From that date a revolution has
been witnessed, whichhas never, it is believed, received the
attention it deserves. Broadly stated, and with some considerable
exceptions, British carriage by sea has passed from the hands of
sailing vessels to steamers. This extension was, in its early days,
greatly encouraged by the lavish ratesof freight paid by theEnglish,
and French Governments for the charter of steamers during the
Crimean war. Atthattimethecapital embarked in a steamer
was in many instances entirely repaid in twelve months, and this.
return naturally induced increased investments.
Three great changes of construction, from that which was ac-
cepted twenty-five years ago, have rendered possible the extension
thus referred to. Theyare : (1) The screw propeller. (2) The
iron vessel. (3) The compound engine. A11 were known, and the
first and secondwere in moderate use, at the beginning of the
time ; but none had received that firm, unhesitating acceptance

The discussion upon this Paper occupied portions of four evenings, but an
abstract of the whole is given consecutively.

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 PROORESS OF STEdM SHIPPING. 3
which is a necessary prelude to general adoption. And, although
the combination of the three in themodern iron screw steamer has
constituted a wonderfully economical carrier, yet it should be
recollected that its peculiar meritsappearonly in deep water.
Without any of these features, the woodenpaddle-wheelvessel,
with non-condensing engines, moves immense masses of bulky and
weighty cargo on the western rivers of America, a t rates of freight
a t which it would appear impossible to live; and very fine wooden
" propellers " (as screw steamers are called in the United States),

with single cylinders, maintain their ground in thecoasting trade

against the ironvessel with the compound engine.
(1.) The peculiar merits of the screw propeller seem to resolve
themselves into three. (a) It is equally effective a t varying
draughk ( b ) It is indifferent to rolling. ( c ) It is capableof
being used for the application of either small or great powers.
Thislast peculiarityhas more to do than is usuallythought
with its general adoption. It is equally adapted to be the instru-
ment for propelling the S-knotcollier andthe16-knotWhite
Star boat-whichcould not be said of the paddle-wheel. The
application of low power by means of paddles would be so waste-
ful as tobe practically impossible.
(2.) The maincontributionwhichtheuse ofiron hasrendered to the
production of an economical carrier by sea has been that, owing to
the diversity of form in which it can be produced, the ease of
uniting different pieces one to another, and the great strength of
such union, it has been possibleto construct vessels of much greater
displacement, in proportion to the power required for propelling
them, than can be done in wood. Many very seaworthy vessels
now built of iron could not be built of wood. I n endeavouring to
form a vessel of the greatest displacement and the least resistance,
naturally enough, as every vessel must have two ends, and can
only have one middle, and asit is the middle that carries and pays,
the first idea was to make that middle as large as possible-in
other words, to lengthen the vessel. This process of lengthen-
ing has gone through several interesting phases both in old and
new vessels. A length of about seven breadths wasconsidered
appropriate in 1852, and for some years thereafter a vessel
of eight breadthswas thoughttoerr on the side of length.
This wasfollowed by a somewhatsudden change of opinion,
initiated mainly by Messrs. Bibby, of Liverpool, and by Messrs.
Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, and a great and rapid stride was
made to ten, or even eleven breadths. The merits of this additional
length, in giving increased profits to those who adopted it, were so
B 2

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 4 NINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

apparent that a species of mania set in for lengthening vessels.

This was between the years 1868 and 1872 ; and to so great an
extent was it carried in Liverpool, that the MerseyDocks and
Harbour Board were compelled, on the ground that their graving
docks were for repairs only, to refuse the use of them for lengthen-
ing. Gradually discoveries were made, in connection with this great
length, of points which had previously not been suspected, or, if
suspected, had been disregarded. Great length wasfound to be
appropriate only for very large vessels ; a 500-ton vessel of eleven
beams would hardly look safe to go to sea, while a 5,000-ton vessel
of those proportionsis a most magnificent and seaworthy structure.
Again, although length provides easily driven displacement, a long
vessel requires more freeboard in proportion to her depth, a great
diminution of her carrying power when weight cargoes have to be
considered, and, lastly, the scantling of longitudinal materials for
a long vessel is necessarily so much heavier than for a short one,
that the weight and cost of the vessel herself come to form a
serious element in the calculation. These considerations, in con-
junction with the greater handiness of short vessels, have rather
turned the tide, and the present phase of opinion is not towards
lengthening, but somewhat the opposite. Probably the most
economical carriers issuefrom the north-eastern ports, for such
trades as the Baltic, or for the conveyance of grain from the
Black Sea, and these are taking somewhat the following propor-
tions :-Length about 74 times the beam, and depth about 4 to
thereof. These vessels have an engine of about 1 nominal HP.
to 10 tons of the gross register tonnage, and realise an average
speed of about B+ knots per hour.
(3.) Although, withoutthe screw propeller and theiron vessel, the
compound engine would not, single-handed, have given the steam-
shipthe hold it hasattained,yet, in apportioning the merit
amongst the three, the largest share seems to be attributable to it.
As with the others there was no novelty, no invention, in the
propersense of the word, but merely an application of long-
enunciated ideas to appropriate purposes. No doubt thethree
properties of steam-direct pressure, expansion, and condensation-
can beutilised for the production of power more economically in one
cylinder than in two or more; but the circumstances suiting such
application rarely present themselves afloat at all, andmore rarely
still in the screw vessel. A long stroke, a deliberate movement of
parts,andan arrangement of valves admittinggreatrange of
expansion,and therefore somewhatcomplicated in details, are
necessary. The first and second are not to be obtained, and the

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 PROGRESS OF STEAl SHIPPING. 5
third is inadmissible, in a screw steamer; but where these can
be obtained, as inthe walking-beam engine of the American
paddle-wheelboat, theduty performed €or the fuel consumed
approachesverynearly tothat of the best compound engines
made inthis country,although the pressures are muchless.
It is noteworthy how the Americans have, held tothe single
cylinder throughout, andthe success they have hadwith it even in
propellers. There is a laudable, andfrequently mostsuccessful,
daring in theirdesigns, which it would be well to profit by ; and it
is matter of reasonable speculation, whether the compound maynot
yet be abandoned, anda return made to the single-cylinder engine,
modified in details to suit high-pressure steam.
Histobcally, the facts of the case seem to be as follow :-
In 1852 such screw steamers as then existed were provided with
jet condensers, and carried about 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. steam pressure.
A dread of high piston speed seemed to prevail, and either very
short-stroke direct-acting engines wereused,or engines with
multiplying gear. Either of these consumed from 4 lbs. to 5$ Ibs.
of coal per indicated HP. per hour. As time went on the length
of stroke was increased, and the cheese-shaped cylinders-at best
wasteful abortions-were changed with great advantagefor others,
and the geared engine became rarer. It is remarkable, bearing in
mind that it was originally thought theonly possible arrangement,
howcompletely multiplyinggearhas vanished. The pressures
also continued to increase, an economywaseffected by super-
heatingthe steam, and occasionally surface condensers were
employed in the higher class of boats, and many improvements of
detail became usual. This type ofen&e was a t its best about
1864 and 1865. It was certain in action, easy to attend to, and
durable in its parts. NOwonder many engineers regret its dis-
appearance, With it unsubsidisedvessels had b ee mtoplyto
North America, and the Mediterranean ; nearer trades were fully
occupied, and it stretched tentativelyin vessels of moderate
power to the West Indies and the East Coast of South America.
The consumption of fuel in goodspecimens of this engine was,
perhaps, just under 4 lbs. of coal per indicated HP. per hour.
This consumption, however, was too great for longer voyages to
be remunerative, if exclusively supported by freight and passage
money. The attention of engineers was therefore naturally turned
to the economy evidently attainable by the use of high-pressure
steam. To use it in a single cylinder seemed perilous to the fabric
of the engine ;and to render the strain equable, the expedient was
resorted to of employing the great pressure in a small cylindex,

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 6 MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

and the small pressure in a large one. For years Messrs. Randolph
and Elder had been constructing engines on this principle with
marked economy, and if the pressures were not so great as those
coveted, the higherstrains entailed by these higher pressures
could be managed by using smaller cylinders than they had done.
To that firm must be attributed the introduction of the compound
engine for marine purposes. The vessels built by Messrs.Ran-
dolph and Elder, being mainly engaged in the Pacific Ocean, did
not attract the notice they deserved, so that the invention, or
rather application, was for awhileexperimental,and had no
general acceptance till about the year 1869. Thenthe system
became pretty thoroughly understood, and the Suez Canal open-
ing the way to the East, ‘<the hour and man ” seemed to come
together, and the tide set in, which has been flowing, with some
fluctuations, but on the whole steadily, ever since. The magnitude
of its current and the changes brought about have been touched
upon. It will be interesting now to notice the engineers’ side
of the question, namely, the peculiarities of construction and the
economical results of this machine.
The leading feature of the compound engine has been the pos-
session of two cylinders, the same steam being used in both, but
under different conditions. The arrangement which hasfound most
favour has been the inverted type, with the cylinders alongside
each other, and the cranks coupled generally at rightangles. It will
be at once seen,that thisdoes not provide for an uninterruptedflow
of expansion, and thatit is really only asingle engine, though with
two cranks. Instancesarenotwanting of difficulty in starting
and reversing; nevertheless, the first has not prevented a high
economy being developed, nor has the second amounted to a really
serious objection in practice. It is supposed that there are more
compound engines of this type in existence than of all others put
together. Anotherarrangement,and one that is comingmuch
into vogue for large engines, is thatwith four cylinders in
two pairs, each pair concentric, generally with the high-pressure
cylinder on the top, and having onecommonpiston-rod. An
excellent engine is thus made, at once providing for perfect expan-
sion and unfailing handling. It has been exclusively employed in
the boats of the White Star Line, and from the possibility of
obtaining a large power without castings of extraordinary weight
or complexity, is at present looked on with great favour. It is
also the easiest form into which t o ‘‘compound ” an engine of the
old type. Therearemanyotherarrangements, some with com-
bined horizontal and vertical cylinders, others with threecylinders,

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 PROGRFSS OP STEAM SHIPPING. 7
:and a considerable number with two cylinders arranged as a single
,engine, one crank and a fly-wheel. As fresh water, or an approach
thereto, is absolutely necessary for high-pressure boilers, surface
.condensers are employed, and the cooling surface is generally pro-
vided in small thin brass tubes. The boilers varyin design,
thoughhardlytothe same extentasthe engines, the general
type being similar (withthe modifications necessitated by the
higher pressure) to the old low-pressure boiler. This is too well
known to need description ; it is internally fired with acombustion
chamber at the back of the furnace, andreturntubestothe
chimney foot over the furnace mouth.
The consumption of the best specimens of such engines as have
been described varies from alittle under 2 lbs. to 24 lbs. of goodcoals
per indicated HP. per hour; and though it would be too much to
.say thatno further economy will take place, yet it may reasonably
be asserted, that unless some great discovery, involving the
production of powerfrom a newsource,or the utilisation of
the remaining properties of steam, all increased economy must
besought in higher pressures, change of proportions, and im-
provements of detail. There is no finality in mechanical in-
vention, butthereis less future scope as each improvement
is realised. Twenty-five yearsagotwice as much fuel was
required as is now burnt ; if in the next twenty-five years 20 per
.cent. further reduction takes place, it is as much as the Author
hopesfor. There is almost less incentive to further economy to-
day than there once was ; for, viewed from the side of the owner’s
pocket,coals are nolonger the chief item of expenditure : his
attention is turned to other and heavier disbursements in which
to effect a saving-wages, dues, insurance, repairs, &c.
The indicator diagram is generally accepted as a test of the
powerdeveloped by an engine, andexpressing as it does the
,elements of power-namely, distance, time, and pressure-it seems
unreasonable to cavil a t its acceptance, and illogical to question its
results. Kevertheless, the Author, somewhat diffidently, advances
,the opinion that, as a test of useful effect, it is not implicitly to
be relied on; and as a criterion whereon to fix the purchasing
price of an engine, it affords undesirable opportunities of de-
parting from the most useful form. As aninstrument to find
outfaults,thevalue of the indicator is considerable; as a
.gauge of the propulsion imparted to a ship, its results are often
questionable.
As the compound engine has settled into general acceptance,
many fears which once surrounded it have been dissipated, and

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 8 MINUTES OF PROOEEDINQS.

it is now equallymanageableanddurable withany of its

predecessors.To preserve the boilers, the engineswere a t one
time made as tightasa still, anywaste fromescapes being
replaced with fresh water obtained by distillation, so that almost
the identical water was carried voyage after voyage. This had
no better result than the premature decay of the boilers, which
when not so well cared for, are apparently more durable. It was
found a t once easier and less injurious to use sea-water to replace
waste ; when so treated, and managed with equal care, the high-
pressure boiler of the compound engine seems to last as many
yearsasthose of the old low-pressure type. The somewhat
abstruse question of the use of jacketed cylinders has practically
received an adverse solution ; for, whatever be the merits of the
controversy, the economy was imperceptible, while the complexity
of the castings, and the consequent risk of accident, formed a t all
times a distinctobjection.
The shipowner, looking at the commercial side of the question,
and not wanting an engine for scientific demonstration, but for
practically propelling a ship, will naturally select that descrip-
tion which does it best on the whole; and if he finds one engine,
though burning slightly less fuel than another, outbalances that
savingbybeing more costly to buy and keep in repair, will
naturally prefer the second. Thus simplicity, accessibility, free-
dom fromlikelihood of derangement,and ease of repairare
becoming daily more marked features in the steamboat engine,
even if these entail slight departures from the mosteconomical
form. It is found that anything that can go wrong at sea gene-
rally does go wrong sooner or later, so it is not to be wondered
that owners prefer the safe to the scientific. It is also found that
it is almost as bad to have too many parts as too few;that arrange-
mentswhich are for exceptional and occasionaluse arerarely
available when wanted, and have the disadvantage of requiring
additional care. Their verypresence, too, seemsin effect to indispose
the engineer to attend to essentials. Sufficient stress can hardly
be laid on the advantages of simplicity. The human factor cannot
be safely neglected in planning machinery. If attention is to be
obtained, the engine must be such that the engineer will be dis-
posed to attend to it. In one part only it seems impossible to have
too much, th0 boiler. When, however, the requisite provision is
made for all things going well and being easily kept right, asto-
nishingresultsare obtained. Forty days’ continuoussteaming
without a stop is not an uncommon performance. The generation
is hardly passed which was told that a eteamer could not cross the

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 PRoctBE88 OF STEAM SHIPPING. 9-
Atlantic, and already theengineer has grappledwith and overcome-
the longest distances on the surface of the world.
It is somewhat singular how gieat a failure the auxiliary steam
vessel has been, that is, where the engines are used intermittently,.
sails being employed whenever the winds are favourable; and this.
failure is all the more remarkable, because, a t first sight, hardly
any doubt could be entertained ofsuccess. On all long voyages,
t.here are parts of the ocean difficult to cross under sail, and a speed
of 6 knots an hour continued even for three days might shorten the-
voyage by weeks; also, if that speed were attainable, tugboats.
would be unnecessary for going up rivers, or entering or leaving
harbours, and short cuts might bemade available which could not
be safely taken under sail alone. Nevertheless, great as these ad-
vantages are, and frequently as the experimenthas been tried,
failure has been 'the almost invariable result. The famous " Great
Britain," the best specimen of this arrangement, hasabandoned her
long-continuedandremarkable service to Australia. The reason
does not lie on the surface; it is probably twofold. I n these vessels
the sailing department cannot be economised, while it is practically
impossible to keep the engine expenses in a reasonable proportion
to engine services. Hence a slight increase of engine staff enables.
a continuousservice to be maintained, which beingdone, the sailing
department may be a t once so immensely diminished as to go a
long way towards compensating for the additional fuel ; and the
vessel changes her character, gaining theadvantages and repute of
a steamer instead of a sailing vessel.
No review of recent steamboat enterprise and progress would be
complete which did not touch on the part Government has played
in various ways, whether-
(1) By subsidies for maintenance or assistance of mail services,
or
(2) By interference in design, condition, and equipment, on the
plea of providing for the public safety.
Both are difficult problems, and if the Author cannot consider
that unmixed good has come of the interference, he will not deny
that some advantagehas resulted, and that political situations
have arisen when it was impossible to avoid interference of some
kind.
Postal subsidies were originally granted in aid of lines of com-
munication which it was supposed could not live, or at any rate be
maintained withregularity,without. No doubt the ends aimed
a t wererealised.Communicationwasopened a t an earlier date,
and maintained more regularly, than it would have been without ;

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 10 MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

and somemost imposing fleets have come into existence under

the system. Butto onewhocouldsee behind the scenes as
a shipowner, and more especially if he were interested in me-
chanical progress as an engineer, there wasa reverse to the picture.
The lines thus created were huge monopolies ; the Government
money was used to crush competitors, and as a matter of fact, did
much to postpone all outside improvement in steam carriage a t
sea. Also, every result was obtained by simple money expenditure.
Science,economy, contrivance, thrift, all went for nothing.The
day of subsidies is nearlyover; they have caused great waste,
weakened the character of steamboat enterprise as a whole, and
left those who received them with both fleets and habits unfitted
for the race of open competition.
A volume might be written on the results of governmental in-
terference with steamships on the plea of public safety. This inter-
ference has grown up, during the last twenty-two years, from a
simple survey, principally confined to boats and one or two other
similar matters, to a minute and comprehensive inspection, begin-
ning with the laying of the keel, and not ending with thedestruc-
tion of the vessel. It is attributable to theunreasoning cry, Any
interference is justifiablewhich provides for safety.” The
executive department of the Board of Trade has professed itself
averse to much of this interference ; and it has been the Legisla-
ture, more prone to emotion and less informed as to theintricacies
of the subject, which hasimposed these heavyburdens. In practice,
however, the Board cannot be said to have given much effect to
its professed aversion, for it has rendered its interference exceed-
ingly onerous and obnoxious, stretching it largely in many direc-
tions beyond the points obligatory on it by enactment. The rules
on which its legion of surveyors is instructed to proceed have
been embodied in it volume, which will repay perusal, and will be
found not unamusing. It is an unwholesome fact that, under the
plea of safety, the Board is gradually assuming the position of
designer ; and it is suggested that this Institution would add to
the services it has rendered to engineering progress by protesting.
The system is too new to have wrought much ill ; but resistance
to novelties and preference for stereotyped forms are the results
only too naturally t o be expected.
Did the limits of this Paperadmit, it would be interesting tocri-
ticise the regulations individually. Thatthey do not approve
themselves to well-informed engineers isevidenced by thedissatis-
faction and irritation they have produced, and the remonstrances
made by important associations. The eccentricity of the laws is

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 PROGRESS OF STEAM SHIPPING. 11
noticeable. Surely life on shore is as worth preserving as life at
sea. Yet no 1aw.governsthe boiler of the railway engine, and the
public rides with perfect safety-as years of experience with
thousands of instances have proved-behind a locomotive carrying
120 lbs. of steam on a boiler which, if it was in a steamboat,would
be restricted by law to about 70 lbs. In fact, if sea rules for boiler
strengths were enforced on shore the infliction would beintolerable.
It wouldbe satisfactory, if it werepossible, to conclude this
review with the statement that,those who have been the actors in
this peaceful revolution have profited by it. Shipowning isa
pursuit in which, more than any other, success depends on per-
sonal management. 80 doubta fewpersons have reapedconsi-
derable rewards ; but aa a whole, and viewed over a series of years,
i t has been abadtrade for most of those engaged in it. The
perpetual progress of invention has made good vessels unprofitable
while still new ; the ease of competition, except in subsidy-protected
-trades, the temptation there has beenfrom the advantage every
newcomerpossesses, and the fitfulness of the demandfor steam
shipping,haveallcontributed to produce the resnlt, thatthe
steamship owner has worked for the public rather than his own
good. Nor is the case different for the owners of the cargoes his
.ships have carried. Rapidity of transit has done away with the
possibility of large profits, while the necessary hurry and roughness
of steamers' ways have much disturbed those accustomed to the
"accuracy and leisure of sailing vessels. Indeed, it isamatter
of frequent remark, that profit and comfort are driven out of any
trade a steamboat enters. I n fact, the one who almost alone has
profited by the change has been the over-idolised idol of these
dater free-trading days, the consumer.

[Nr. STEPHEXSON,

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