CHAPTER ONE

COMMUNICATION AN OVERVIEW

We start our study of Business Communication with an overview of communication. First we

consider briefly the meaning of communication, focusing on human communication in general and
business communication in particular. We next consider the development and nature of
communication. We see how effective communication benefit businesses and organizations. Finally
we highlight communication in management and the importance of effective internal and external
communication.

INTRODUCTION Surveys of employers consistently show that communication skills are critical
to effective job placement, performance, career advancement, and organizational success. In making
hiring decisions, employers often rank communication skills among the most requested
competencies. Many job advertisements specifically ask for excellent oral and written
communication skills. In a poll of recruiters, oral and written communication skills were by a large
margin the top skill set sought. In another poll, executives were asked what they looked for in a job
candidate. The top choices were teamwork skills, critical thinking, analytical reasoning skills, and
oral and written communication skills.

Your jobs, promotions, and professional reputation also depend on the success of your written and
oral communication. You should be able to present information, to write and speak in a Way that
others will understand. You have also got to be able to listen, read and create a climate in which
people are encouraged to share information. During your career, you will communicate with a wide
range of audiences internally and/or externally. Internal communication refers to the exchange of
information and ideas within an organization. You will receive numerous messages from colleagues
and supervisors, and you will be expected to convey information to audiences through the company
as well. In contrast, external communication carries information into and out of the organization.
Companies constantly exchange message with customers, vendors, distributers, competitors,
journalists, and community representatives.

People are not born writers or speakers. The more they write and speak, the more their skills
improve. This course teaches you how to create effective message and helps you improve your
communication skill through practice in an environment that provides honest, constructive criticism.

1.1. MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

The word ‘communication' is derived from the Latin word ‘communes’ which means sharing of
knowledge or information in common. Besides commonality communication incorporates the
concept of transfer meaning, information and the exchange of messages, ideas and understanding
between the people for the purpose of achieving common meaning. One will find difficult unless a
common meaning and understanding results from transmission of symbols (verbal and nonverbal)

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Definitions of communication vary widely. Some selected definitions of communication are
presented here to facilitate the understanding of the concept of communication. They cover different
aspects of communication, not necessarily unified.

 Allen Luis (Louis) defines Communication as the sum of all the things one person does when
he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a
systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, understanding and responding‖. This
definition gives importance to communication as a systematic and continuous two way process,
which links the sender of the message and the receiver who understands the message as is
expected by the sender. Thus the process of communication includes transmission, reception,
perception, and understanding.
 The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as the activity or process of expressing
ideas and feelings or of giving people information.
 According to Newman and summer, “communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or
emotions by two or more persons.”
 As per Koontz and O’Donnell ‘’ Communication is an intercourse by words, letters, symbols or
messages and is away that one organization member shares meanings and understanding with
another ‘’.
 Peter little in his book Oral and Written Communication defines communication as the process
by which information is transmitted between individuals and or organizations so that an
understanding response results. In this definition, the stress is on i) communication as a
changing or dynamic process, ii) transmission of information between individuals and or
organizations, and iii) the receiver‘s understanding response. Here, the communication process
involves systematic activity which leads to proper communication of information creating
understanding of the message and the receiver‘s expected action. The word information here
implies news, knowledge, as well as the sender‘s attitude or frame of mind.
 Keith Davies’ definition of communication as given in Business and Industrial
Communication, Communication is involved in all human relations. It is the nervous system of
an organized group, providing the information and understanding necessary for productivity and
morale‖. Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to
another. This definition lays emphasis on interaction, sharing of information and understanding
between the sender and the receiver.

What is Business Communication? As Business Communication plays an important role in any

business organization, it is necessary to focus on its meaning. Business Communication is the
sharing of information related to business activities and their results. The following definition is
more concerned with organizational communication. Therefore, it can be considered as a more
satisfying and comprehensive definition of Business Communication.

“Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and

accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions
which will accomplish organizational goals.” (William G. Scott, Organisation
Theory)

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This definition lays emphasis on:

 The process of communication involves the communication of idea.The ideas should be

accurately replicated (reproduced) in the receiver’s mind, i.e. the receiver should get exactly the
same ideas as were transmitted. If the process of communication is perfect, there will be no
dilution, exaggeration or distortion of the ideas.
 The transmitter is assured of the accurate replication of the ideas by feedback i.e. by the
receiver’s response, which is communicated back to the transmitter. Here it is suggested that
communication is a two – way process including transmission and feedback.

 The purpose of communication is to elicit action. It is fairly comprehensive definition and

covers almost all aspects of communication. But two comments can be made on it.

The concept of ideas should be adequately enlarged to include emotions also.

Even in administrative communication the purpose may not always be to elicitation.

Seeking information or persuasion can equally be important objectives of communication.

According to this definition, transmission and reception of ideas should match. For example, if the
sender recalls the happy experiences of the past, the receiver should relate and recall similar
experiences. All the above mentioned definitions may vary in scope; but they familiarize us with
important elements like interaction, interchange, dialogue, sharing, communion, commonness and so
on. They, no doubt, enhance our understanding of the concept of communication, which comprises
speaking, reading, writing, expressing ideas and opinions, and exchange of ideas, response to signs,
signals, symbols and gestures. We may, thus, define communication as a process of sharing facts,
ideas, opinions, thoughts and information through speech, writing, gestures or symbols, between two
or more person. Such an analysis and consideration of the varied aspects of communication is
essential for effective communication. Because, unless one understands and appreciates, fully, its
nature, scope, and range of possibilities, one will not be able to master the art of communication,
which is a matter of prime importance today.

Development of CommunicationIs communication a new phenomenon? Definitely not.

Communication is as old as human civilization. Man felt the need to communicate right from the
beginning of human history when, in the absence of language, signs, symbols, and sounds were the
only means of communication at his disposal.

With progress, man‘s needs and communication requirements also increased, which led to the
invention of more advanced means of communication. Thus the evolution of communication can be
traced from the prehistoric period to our present times.

Cave paintings, drawings, pictorial representations etc. stand testimony of early man‘s attempts at
communicating over space and time. The use of these was gradually replaced by language.

Invention of languages gave rise to oral communication which was the sole means of
communication in society at one time. Gradually, the written script came to be used and propagated,
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thus giving communication a more lasting value. In those days, dried leaves, marble, stone, papyrus,
etc. were used as writing materials.

Books, in ancient times, were in the form of manuscripts, which obviously had a very limited
circulation. Also, as the means of transportation had not developed, the spread of knowledge and
information was very restricted. Then, in 1437, came Johann Guttenberg‘s invention of the process
of printing, as a result of which communication took a quantum leap. The discovery of electricity
gave a further boost to communication, and extended its sphere of influence.

The industrial revolution began in the nineteenth century. Goods began to be produced not for local
consumption but for wider public. But the problem was how to reach this public. The need of more
efficient means of communication began to be felt rather badly. The scientists devoted themselves to
the task of improving communication and invented such refined and sophisticated means as the
radios, telephone, television, cinematography telex system, fax, internet etc. on the other; they have
made communication an instantaneous process. In fact they have brought about some kind of
information explosion.

A communication revolution has, indeed, taken place. While, earlier, man had very limited facilities
and access to knowledge and information, modern man faces the problem of an Information
Explosion there is so much available that he has to sift through and select what he wants from the
mass of information available.

Nature of Business Communication

Communication is the key integrating element of business organizations/companies because it brings

different individuals and sections/departments of an organization together so that they are effectively
collaborating with each other to achieve the goal of the organization. Communication is also the
lifeblood of any organization irrespective of its type and size and thus it always circulates in the
structures of organizations as does the circulatory system of human blood within the human blood
vessels.

No business can grow and expand without proper communication within their structures. From its
nature, communication in general from among the others is:

1. A Dynamic Process: It grows and develops even if the same people talk about the same thing
repeatedly. Every time people communicate, unexpected responses and reactions occur because
each one brings a different background and experiences to each communication event. Also, as
information travels along its way, it gets distorted by the carrier forcing people to change it in
accordance with their own attitude and environment.
2. Systematic and Continuous: It goes on in a proper and orderly way without stopping in some
way or the other. Even silence, body language and facial expressions contribute to carrying on
the continuous process of communication.

3. A Two-Way Process: Communication is complete only when the sender gets a response from
the receiver.
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4. Both an Interaction and Transaction: Communication is an interaction because it requires
coming together of the communicating parties and it is considered to be a transaction because it
requires not only the interaction of the communicating parties but also the influence of the
communicating parties up on each other in the process and becoming aware of each others ideas.

5. It Can Be Intentional or Unintentional: communication takes place whether we plan to do it

or unconsciously/without being planned. Intentional communication occurs when
communication conducted as being planned by the communicator. Many times we are able to
say what we want to as we have planned. Unintentional communication occurs when
communication conducted without being planned most often emotionally. Very often we
communicate what we had no intention of saying unconsciously.

6. It is Common to All Living Things: Communication is not only limited to human beings as
other living things also engage in communication even though they do not use words and do not
make it analytically as human beings does.

7. It Can Be Made Either Verbally or Non – Verbally: Verbal Communication refers to

communication conducted with words (either written or spoken words). Non-verbal
Communication (Body Language) refers to communication conducted without using words i.e.
facial expressions, silence, body movements, eye contacts, pictures, etc.

2.1OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1.1.1. Objectives of Business Communication

. The essential objectives of business communication from among the others would include the
following:

1. To Inform: People in an organization are to be kept informed of the organizational goals,

objectives, procedures, processes, systems, plans, priorities and strategies. Besides,
dissemination of information to external customers, prospects, competitors and the public about
products, services, plans, happenings, events and achievements are very essential.
2. To Educate: Refers to dissemination of knowledge and development of skills and attitudes
among the people working in an organization.
3. To Motivate: Concerned with inspiring people to pursue goals and reach higher levels of
performance through talks, lectures, films, meetings, non- verbal communication, etc.
4. To Integrate: Coordinating and integrating the different business units, departments and
territorial divisions that pursue different goals, sub–goals and approaches to achieve the overall
organizational goals on sustainable basis. It is also concerned with coordinating employees
working in these different areas to achieve the whole organizational objectives.
5. To Relate: Refers to a means of building and nurturing mutually beneficial relationships
between employees holding different work units and positions.
6. To Promote: Concerned with advertising, politicizing, creating good public relations and
communication as these are one of the very important aspects of business organizations.

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7. To Entertain: Communication facilitates social bonding and brings in higher moments that help
to release tension, foster camaraderie/friendship and get rid of feelings.
8. To Persuade: Is concerned with influencing the behavior of others either positively or
negatively.
9. To Report: communicating facts to the concerned body that is in need of the information/ fact.
10. To Analyze: Critically looking at and evaluating the existing conditions that are important to
make decisions.
11. To Organize: Refers to arranging and re–arranging ideas and things to make them more
productive.
1.1.2. Significance of Business communication

Significance of Communication for Individuals

Your jobs, promotions, and professional reputation often depend on the success or failure of your
written and oral communication. Also you will find that ability to communicate effectively is a
valuable asset during many activities in your personal life.

A. A variable job requirement

Especially if your career require mainly mental rather than manual labor, your progress will be
strongly influenced by how effectively you communicate your knowledge, proposals, and ideas to
others who need or should receive them.

rts is essential B.An essentials for promotion.The prime requisite for a promotable executive is
“ability to Preference for communication skills is found in many of the job descriptions listed by
numerous companies wishing to employ college graduates; some of the requirements are listed
below.

 Must be able to communicate effectively with all levels of management.

 Will prepare special analyses, research reports& proposals

 Needs ability to compose effective correspondence

 Must have ability to communicate and “sell” ideas

B. A help for meeting personal responsibilities.

Effective communication –written &spoken –also helps you better accomplish various aims in you
personal activates, you will sometimes need to write letter , proposals . or reports, or to present your
views orally as communities chairperson , club officer ,or private citizen . In these roles you might
communicate with public officials; business, industrial, or professional people; or personal friends.
Whatever the purposes, you will usually achieve them more effectively when you apply the same
skills that help you communicate effectively in business.

Significance of Communication for Organizations

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As indicated above, communication is vital to business and any other organizations. It is thus, a life
blood to an organization/company. Without effective communication no business can survive.
Communication helps businesses to emerge and flourish.

Therefore, although there are multitudes of significances communication plays in an organization,

the following can be expressed as the most important.

 Manages Complexity: Proper communication between various sections or departments like

production, marketing and personnel are necessary to avoid misunderstandings that is the basis
for effective functioning and efficiency.
 Manages Big Organizations: Every organization tries to grow in terms of employees and
sections/branches to operate at an international level. As a result of diversification of businesses
in terms of these, keeping track is becoming difficult. Therefore, meetings, conferences and
similar contacts must be made to travel on the right way in big organizations especially in
Multinational Corporations (MNCs).
 Creates Better Understanding and Cooperation: Mutual trust and confidence will prevail to a
great degree if there is open communication so that there will be better understandings and
cooperation between the communicating parties through effective communication.
 Increases Profitability: If business communicates properly losses are reduced. Wastage of
resources including time is avoided, while profits go up.
 More cohesion: As interaction increases, family feeling and emotional attachment to an
organization increases between the members and/or clients of an organization.
 Improves Image of the Company: If employers & employee are taking care for each other, the
culture of an organization becomes good and attractive. Employees become happy and
productive.
 Improves Market Opportunity: As we are more open to the environment we get to know
market fast and adjust our product to it appropriately so that we will have good market base.
 Lessens Employee Turnover: Employee turnover is a number of people who keep leaving any
organization. If communication channels are open, employees feel free to discuss all issues that
are pleasant and others that disturb them. Then, they feel less inclined to leave the company.
 Easies the Collection and Dissemination of Information: As employee’s interaction and
coordination exists, there are less communication barriers from individuals or organizations
leading to easier collection of information from different individuals and sectors and disseminate
to same.
 Creates Better Customer Interaction: when companies invest in better communication, there
are higher chances that they will have a satisfied customer base and eventually higher profits.
On the other hand, the reverse of all the above roles will occur if there is no effective
communication in an organization/company.
COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENThe term business communication
is used for all messages that we send and receive for officialpurpose like running a
business, managing an organization, conducting the formal affairs of a voluntary
organization and so on.

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The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient and effective communication. It
takes place among business entities, in market and market places, within organizations and between
various group of employees, owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and
customers, sales persons and prospects and also between people within the organization and the
press persons. All such communication impacts business. Done with care, such communication can
promote business interests. Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may
adversely affect the business interest.

Both internal and external communication has important contribution for the profitability and
growth of the organization. The following section discusses the important of effects of internal and
external communication on management.

The Importance of Effective Internal Communication

 With effective communication, every member of management and every other employee will
receive precise and accurate information, to ensure that every person working for the
enterprise knows exactly what he or she is expected to do, when and where; for what and for
whom, and to whom, they are responsible, etc. Misunderstandings and misinterpretations -
which can result in wastage of time, effort, labour or money and/or loss of profit - can
therefore be greatly reduced or even eliminated.
 No enterprise exists in a “vacuum”; changes in trading conditions, in the economy, in law
and attitudes, and in fashions and consumer demand, as well as technological developments,
occur continuously. For an enterprise to prosper - and indeed to survive - its management
must not only be able to react quickly in the right way to changes, but must also be able to
pass clear instructions quickly to all the personnel concerned. Instructions and information
must get quickly from management to supervisors and from supervisors to their
subordinates, so that changes and new methods can be implemented without delay,
particularly if new or existing employees need training or retraining.

 Effective two-way communication will help to promote good understanding between

management and other personnel, and that in turn can help to reduce disputes; too often
disputes have their foundations in simple misunderstandings which could so easily have been
avoided. Effective communication should not concentrate solely on passing instructions
“down the line” and on receiving reports at higher levels; it should also be concerned with a
two-way flow of information. The modern workforce (both managerial and nonmanagerial)
is no longer content to blindly accept “edicts” from above; personnel want - and need - to
know how decisions taken and instructions given may affect their livelihoods and job
security.

The Importance of Effective External Communication

Without external communication, an enterprise would be isolated from its potential and existing
clients/customers and its suppliers. Effective and efficient two-way external communication is
important:-
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  In maintaining good public relations.
 In ensuring that customers or clients are satisfied with the standard of the goods or services
provided.

 In ascertaining that what is being produced or provided is what customers or clients want.

 In ensuring that any consumer complaints are speedily and satisfactorily dealt with.

 In ensuring that consumers are kept appraised of new and/or improved products or services
(advertising and publicity) available.

SUMMARY

For survival in this high-tech global world, a mastery over communication in general and business
communication in particular, is of prime importance. Business communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals. It is the key to success at both
personal/individual as well as organizational levels as it makes for all-round development by
promoting cooperation, coordination, unity, high morale, motivation, good image, better
performance, and general efficiency

CHAPTER TWO

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESSES

Communication process is the set of activities and events in transmission of information and
meaning from one individual or group to another. We consider the seven elements of
communication and different groups of barriers to communication.

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Introduction

Communication is “the transmission of information and meaning from one individual or group to
another.” The crucial element in this definition is meaning. Communication has as its central
objective the transmission of meaning. The process of communication is successful only when the
receiver understands an idea as the sender intended it. This process generally involves its elements.

2.1. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

The most basic components of communication are;-

1. Source/Sender The source of the message is the originator of the ideas and feelings expressed.
The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to as the sender. From his
personal data bank he selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits them to the receiver. The entire
burden of Encoding of communication then rests upon the sender or encoder. His message choice of
images and words, and the combination of the two is what goads the receiver to listen carefully. In
this process a number of factors come into play, primary among them being an understanding of the
recipient and his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance with the expectations of the
receiver, the level of acceptance is going to be higher.

2. Ideation/Message

Communication begins with ideation, which refers to the formation of the idea or selection of a
message to be communicated. It consists of the 'What" of communication and is concerned with the
content of the specific message to be presented. The scope of 'ideation' is generally determined by
the sender's knowledge, experiences, and abilities, as well as the purpose of communication and the
context of the communicative situation.

3. Receiver

The receiver of the message is the person or persons who interpret the message. When
communicating with others, it’s the receiver that will ultimately determine if your message was
successful whether it was understood and was appropriate. Effective communicators are receiver
oriented; they understand that the listener is the one who ultimately makes sense of the message you
express. If you’re selling a product, for example, your prime focus should be on whether the
customer understood your message.

4. Channel/ Medium

The channel is the means by which the message is expressed to the receiver. It could be oral, written
or non-verbal. Prior to the composition of the message, the medium/channel should be decided. If
you’re typical, you receive messages from a variety of channels. Increasingly, in business and
professional settings (as well as in all communication situations), you are receiving messages via a
mediated channel such as text messages, email, phone, video conference, or even a Face book post
or tweet.

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 5. Noise Noise is anything that interferes with the message being interpreted as it was intended. As
we’ve emphasized, what we express isn’t always interpreted as we intend. If there were no noise,
then all of our messages would be interpreted accurately. But noise is always present. Example;-
computer that tells you that you have incoming email or it can be psychological, such as competing
thoughts, worries, and feelings that capture our attention.
6. Feedback. Another element integral to communication is feedback. Feedback is the response to
message. Without feedback, communication is less likely to be effective.
7. Context One final component of communication is context the physical, historical, and
psychological communication environment. As the saying goes, everyone has to be somewhere. All
communication takes place in some context.

The communication-as-transaction perspective acknowledges that when we communicate with

another, we are constantly reacting to what our partner is saying and expressing. As Figure 2.1
illustrates, we send and receive messages at the same time. Even as we talk, we are also interpreting
our partner’s nonverbal and verbal responses. Transitive communication also occurs within a
context; and noise can interfere with the quality and accuracy of the meaning of messages. As we
send messages, we monitor the degree to which the other person understands our message.

2.2. THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a remarkable process in which we are all involved. Being a two- way
transactional process, it occurs between two or more persons. Since this is an on-going, creative,
dynamic developmental process, it comprises a varied set of processes, a series of actions involving
a sender, a receiver, a message. Communication does not take place haphazardly in an organization
as it is not a random exchange of information. It requires a vast repertoire of intrapersonal and
interpersonal skills involving listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing and evaluating.
The process of communication begins when the sender with desire to communicate generate an idea
to be communicated. He initiates communication using a variety of speech acts, some of which are:
expressing ideas, feelings, thoughts, opinions, directing the participants to do something,
persuading, providing information, sharing something with someone and making the receiver take
theSender
action. Generally the process of communication involves a series Receiver
of stages:1. An idea arises in
the mind of the sender, which he wants to share. 2.The sender encodes the idea in the form of a
message.3. The sender chooses some channel/medium to put across his message.4. The receiver
Stagethe
receives I message. 5. The receiver
Channel/Medium Stage VI the message.6.The
decodes absorbs, understands, interprets
Idea Generation
receiver sends feed back or his message Sending Feedback

Barriers

Stage II Stage V
Encoding Decoding

Barriers

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Stage III Stage IV
Channel/Medium
Transmission of Receiving
Message Message
Figure 2.1. The Communication Process

The process of communication begins with an idea that arises in the mind of a person (the sender),
which he wants to share. But, since human beings cannot communicate telepathically, the sender has
to put the idea into some form (that is using some channel/medium) by using signs, signals, and
words. Words are, in fact, symbols which stand for ideas or objects. When a set of symbols is agreed
upon by two or more people, it is called a code. Each language is a code which people unfamiliar
with that language will not understand. When a message is sent out in such a code, the process is
called encoding. When this set of symbols and signs is interpreted and understood by the receiver,
the process is called decoding. After this, the receiver provides some feedback in the form of a
response/reaction/reply to the message, which the sender must note. With this, a round of
communication is completed. Usually, the whole process repeats itself several times over.

that was in his mind at the time. We, therefore, talk in terms of a Communication Cycle. The
Communication Cycle may be diagrammatically represented in the following way:

Figure 2.2. The Communication Cycle

A barrier means a hurdle, a disturbance, or an obstacle, in fact, anything which interferes with or
blocks the smooth flow of communication. Due to some form of interference, a speech act may not
achieve its desired effect, and the communication cycle is disrupted. It is, therefore, necessary to
Barrier
control the influence of the barriers, if not overcome them completely. Since the natureDecoder
and types of
s
barriers are too Encoder
many a separate section of barriers Communicatio
of communication were present.
n Cycle
2,3. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Barriers
The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in the way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially.. When any such
thing happens, we say that a barrier has arisen in the process. A barrier, therefore, is any factor
Message medium 12
which interrupts the process of communication. Barriers may arise at any point in the process of
communication from the sender or the receiver, in the message, the medium, or the feedback. A
barrier can even arise outside the process and still cause an interruption. This means that there are
different kinds of barriers. These can be divided into four main groups. 1.Physical or environmental
barriers.

2. Language or semantic barriers 3.Psychological barriers 4.Cross – cultural barriers

1. Physical or Environmental barriers

Physical barriers can be caused by environmental factors like noise, time and distance. The noise
created by external factors like traffic, playing of loud music, trains and airplanes, or by crowds of
people, affects our communication. Time becomes a Physical barrier when people have to
communicate across different time zones in different countries. The physical distance between
people who need to communicate can also cause problems because it does not allow oral or face-to-
face communication. Physiological defects and limitations like stammering, hearing defects,
mumbling while speaking, are examples of physical barriers. Mechanical problems and defects in
instruments of communication also create physical barriers, as in a faulty fax machine or typewriter.
Similarly, a computer that hangs, or a dead‖ telephone line can lead to non-transmission of
messages.

2. Language or Semantic Barriers

Language is the main medium of communication and words are its tools. Language proves to be a
barrier at different levels, such as semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammar), phonological
(pronunciations, intonation, pitch etc.) and finally linguistic (across languages).:

3. Psychological Barrier Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers are created in the mind.
Communication is a mental activity and its aim is to create understanding. But the human mind is
complex and not all communication can result in understanding. There are several kinds of
psychological barriers which can come in the way of understanding.

i. Emotions: Emotions are among the most common psychological barriers to communication.
The emotion may be connected to the communication received or it may be present in the
sender‘s or receiver‘s mind, even before the communication takes place. In both cases, it acts
as a barrier.

Emotions can be positive, like happiness and joy, or negative, like fear, anger, mistrust etc. Both
positive and negative emotions act as barriers, if they are not kept in check.

Prejudice: A prejudice is an opinion held by a person for whom there is no rational basis or
valid reason. It can be against something or someone, or in favor of it,. Prejudices are based
on ignorance and lack of information, e.g., prejudices about certain communities or groups
of people.

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 Halo effect: Sometimes our reactions to people are not balanced or objective; they are of an
extreme nature. Either we like a person so much that we can find no shortcomings in
her/him, or we dislike someone so much that we can see nothing good in her/him. In both
cases, we commit errors of judgment and fail to understand the person.

Self-image or different perceptions: Every person has in her/his mind a certain image of
herself/himself. She or he thinks of herself/himself in a certain way. This is their perception
of themselves, their self-image. One‘s self-image is the product of one‘s heredity, one‘s
environment and one‘s experiences, and thus every person‘s self-image is unique and
different from the others. Self-image can create a barrier because we accept communication
which is compatible with our self-image. We avoid or reject communication, which goes
against our perception of ourselves.

Closed Mind: A closed mind is one which refuses to accept an idea or opinion on a subject,
because it is different from his idea. Such persons form their opinion on a subject, and then
refuse to listen to anyone who has something different to say about it. A closed mind may be
the result of some past experience or just habit. It is very difficult to remove this
psychological barrier.

Status: Status refers to rank or position. It could be economic, social or professional status.
In any organization, hierarchy creates differences in rank, and this is a normal situation.
Thus, status by itself does not cause barriers; but when a person becomes too conscious of
his status, whether high or low, then status becomes a barrier. For instance, in a business
organization, a senior executive who is unduly conscious of his seniority will not
communicate properly with his juniors, and will refrain from giving them the required
information. Similarly, if a junior is acutely conscious of his junior status, he will avoid
communicating with his seniors, even when it is necessary

Inattentiveness and Impatience: Sometimes the receiver may not pay attention to the
sender‘s message, or he may be too impatient to hear the message fully and properly. Such
barriers are common in oral communication.

Cross – Cultural Barriers :

Culture can be defines as the complex system of values, traits, morals and customs shared by a
society. Cultural diversity within a country, and cultural differences between people from different
countries, are a major cause of barriers. This is because people are conditioned by their cultures, and
they develop certain habits of working, communicating, eating, dressing etc. according to their
cultural conditioning. They find it difficult to get through to people who come from an alien culture,
and who have different habits. A simple thing like a greeting to welcome a person is vastly different
in India from a greeting in, for example, an Arab country, or in Japan. Food and dress habits of a
different culture can make a person uncomfortable. Concepts of space and time are also different
across cultures; for example, Indians do not mind sitting close to each other and sharing space in
offices or in public places. However, a European would not be able to tolerate such intrusive
14
behavior. Similarly, people who come from a culture where time is very valuable will be impatient
with those who come from a culture with an easygoing attitude towards time, where everything is
done in a slow, unhurried way.

Overcoming Barriers

Barriers disrupt communication and interfere with understanding. They must be overcome if
communication has to be effective. Physical barriers are comparatively easier to overcome. The use
of loudspeakers and microphones can remove the barriers of noise and distance in crowded places
like railway stations. Traffic signals and non-verbal gestures of the traffic policeman remove
physical barriers on the roads. Technological advancement has helped in reducing the
communication gap arising due to time and distance .It is possible to make an alternative
arrangement, should the technological instruments fail. A back-up plan helps in tidying over any
snag. Language or Semantic Barriers can be overcome if the sender and the receiver choose a
language which both of them understand very well. Help from a translator or an interpreter also
helps in overcoming the language barrier. Exposure to the target language and training oneself in the
acquisition of skills of the given language too help in overcoming the language barrier. Language
barriers can be avoided by careful study and accurate use of language. Clarity should be the main
objective when using language. Jargon should be avoided.

Psychological barriers, as also cross-cultural barriers are difficult to overcome, as they are difficult
to identify and even more difficult to address. Even these can be avoided or reduced by adopting a
flexible and open-minded attitude. The ultimate aim is to build bridges of understanding between
people – that is the main aim of communication. Training oneself to listen to different views ,
exposing oneself to different environments help in broadening one‘s outlook and cultivating
tolerance to multiple views. Teaching oneself to listen with empathy helps in making oneself more
open to others’ perceptions.

While dealing with psychological or cross-cultural barriers the sender should make it a point to:

1’Use language that is politically neutral and correct.

2. Present views in simple and objective manner

3. Focus on the objective of communication

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS AND TEAMWORK

1.4.1. Interpersonal Communication

There are many kinds of communication. We distinguish one type of communication from others
based on the number of persons involved, the formality of the interaction, and the opportunity to
give and receive feedback. For example, since intrapersonal communication occurs when you think
or talk to yourself, it requires only a single communicator—you! In contrast to intrapersonal
communication, interpersonal communication is the ongoing, ever-changing process that occurs
when you interact with another person, forming a dyad, which is defined as two people
15
communicating with each other. Both individuals in a dyad share the responsibility for determining
the nature of a relationship by creating meaning from the interaction. Thus, anytime we
communicate with another person, whether a friend, parent, coworker, or employer, we are
communicating interpersonally. It is very common for communicators to use digital media to get
their messages across to one another or the public by blogging, texting, tweeting,

Five Characteristics Of Interpersonal Communication

Let’s explore the noteworthy characteristics of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal Communication Is a Dynamic Process. By dynamic process we mean that

interpersonal communication is ongoing or continuous, and in a constant state of flux. All the
components continually interact with and affect each other. They are interdependent or
interconnected. They depend on and influence one another. What one person says or does influences
what the other person says or does. Every interpersonal encounter is a point of arrival from a
previous encounter and a point of departure for a future encounter.

Interpersonal Communication Is Unrepeatable. Every interpersonal contact is unique. It has

never happened in just that way before, and it will never happen in just that way again. Why?
Because every contact changes us in some way and, as a result, can never be exactly repeated or
replicated. Try as we might, we can never recapture exactly the same feelings, thoughts, or
relationship that existed at a specific point in time. We are no longer exactly the same persons we
were before we made contact.

Interpersonal Communication Is Irreversible. In addition to being unrepeatable, interpersonal

communication is irreversible. Once we have said or done something to another, we cannot erase its
impact. After exhibiting behavior, we cannot simply say, “Forget that!” and substitute a better or
more appropriate behavior in its place (though we sometimes would like to try). We cannot rewind
or restart communication as we can a TV program recorded on a DVR. We cannot unhear words,
unsee sights, or undo acts. They are irretrievable. Presenting a new stimulus does not change the
previous stimulus. It merely becomes part of a behavioral sequence.

We Cannot Uncommunicate Online Either. For one thing, a written message provides evidence of
the message sent. E-mails are virtually impossible to erase. They remain on servers and
workstations, even after we have “deleted” them. So do all entries made on social media sites such
as Facebook, Tumblr, Twitter, and LinkedIn. You may try to soften their effects, but you cannot
reverse their existence any more than you can try to squeeze toothpaste back into a tube. In fact, the
online service Social Intelligence can provide a dossier on every faux pas, every sarcastic comment,
every remark containing overt or implied prejudice, and every lewd personal picture you have
posted. The Web is forever.

Interpersonal Communication Is Learned. Over time we learn what works for us in an

interpersonal relationship and what does not. We can hinder our communication with another person
if we remain unconscious of how we affect him or her, and vice versa. Part of the art of

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interpersonal communication involves recognizing how our words and actions affect others, how
their words and actions affect us, and then, based on our observations, making the necessary
adjustments.

Interpersonal Communication Is Characterized by Wholeness and Nonsummativity. When we

say that the interpersonal relationship is characterized by “wholeness,” we are saying that it operates
as a complete entity. We consider more than the individuals who are in the relationship; we look at
the unique ways in which the persons involved influence each other. When we say that interpersonal
communication is characterized by “nonsummativity,” we are saying that the whole is more than the
sum of its parts; interpersonal communication is about more than just its participants per se. We
cannot understand a couple by looking at only one-half of the partnership. We cannot understand a
family by looking at only one of the children. The nature of the relationship must be examined. The
“us” must be explored. The relationship takes on a quality that we cannot understand merely by
possessing information about its parts. The system as a whole is simply different from the sum of its
parts.

Interpersonal Patterns

Interpersonal communication involves understanding patterns of behavior, predicting what others

will do and say, and providing reasons for their actions as well as our own.Thus, understanding the
patterns of behavior an individual displays, not just a single behavior, provides the basis for
understanding the person’s interpersonal communication. In other words, a single isolated behavior
is not what we need to focus on; rather, we must take into account the entire behavioral sequence.

Interpersonal communication involves not only interpreting but also predicting and accounting for
another person’s behavior. If we are able to distinguish individuals from a general group, then we
recognize their uniqueness and are able to know and understand them. For example, were we to
interact with a number of different professors over time yet treat all of them alike, or were we to date
a number of different men or women yet not distinguish one date from another, we would not be
very effective interpersonal communicators. To the extent that we can predict the behavior of a
particular teacher or a specific romantic interest, and account for that behavior, what we term
reasoned sense making, we can understand that individual more than we might understand other
professors, or other dates.

Teamwork A team is a unit of two or more people who share a mission and the responsibility for
working to achieve a common goal. 3 Problem-solving teams and task forces assemble to resolve
specific issues and then disband when their goals have been accomplished. Such teams are oft en
cross-functional , pulling together people from a variety of departments who have different areas of
expertise and responsibility. The diversity of opinions and experiences can lead to better decisions,
but competing interests can lead to tensions that highlight the need for effective communication.
Committees are formal teams that usually have a long life span and can become a permanent part of
the organizational structure. Committees typically deal with regularly recurring tasks, such as an
executive committee that meets monthly to plan strategies and review results.

17
Advantages and Disadvantages of Teams

When teams are successful, they can improve productivity, creativity, employee involvement, and
even job security. Teams are oft en at the core of participative management, the effort to involve
employees in the company’s decision making. A successful team can provide a number of
advantages:

 Increased information and knowledge. By pooling the experience of several individuals, a

team has access to more information in the decision-making process.
 Increased diversity of views. Team members can bring a variety of perspectives to the
decision-making process—as long as these diverse viewpoints are guided by a shared goal.

 Increased acceptance of a solution. Those who participate in making a decision are more
likely to support it and encourage others to accept it.

 Higher performance levels. Working in teams can unleash new levels of creativity and
energy in workers who share a sense of purpose and mutual accountability. Effective teams
can be better than top-performing individuals at solving complex problems.

Although teamwork has many advantages, it also has a number of potential disadvantages. At the
worst, working in teams can be a frustrating waste of time. Teams need to be aware of and work to
counter the following potential disadvantages:

 Groupthink. Like other social structures, business teams can generate tremendous pressures
to conform with accepted norms of behavior. Groupthink occurs when peer pressures cause
individual team members to withhold contrary or unpopular opinions. The result can be
decisions that are worse than the choices the team members might have made individually.
 Hidden agendas. Some team members may have a hidden agenda private,
counterproductive motives, such as a desire to take control of the group, to undermine
someone else on the team, or to pursue a business goal that runs counter to the team’s
mission.

 Cost. Aligning schedules, arranging meetings, and coordinating individual parts of a project
can eat up a lot of time and money.

Characteristics of Effective Teams

The most effective teams have a clear objective and shared sense of purpose, have a strong sense of
trust, communicate openly and honestly, reach decisions by consensus, think creatively, and know
how to resolve conflict. Teams that have these attributes can focus their time and energy on their
work, without being disrupted by destructive conflict.

18
In contrast, teams that lack one or more of these attributes can get bogged down in conflict or waste
time and resources pursuing unclear goals. Two of the most common reasons cited for unsuccessful
teamwork are a lack of trust and poor communication. A lack of trust can result from team members
being suspicious of one another’s motives or ability to contribute. Communication breakdowns are
most likely to occur when teams operate across cultures, countries, or time zones.

CHAPTER THREE

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

We have covered the processes of communication which is a two-way transactional process occurs
between sender and receiver of a message. And also the barriers of communication which makes
communication unsuccessful and ways to reduce the possible barriers for communication.

We now see the seven principles of communication called the 7 C’s. The application of business
communication principles helps us to communicate effectively through letters, memorandums,
reports, speeches, telephones, face-to-face conversation, etc. The commonly used principles in
business communication are discussed in this topic.

When you have finished this chapter you should be able to:

 Revise messages to reflect courtesy.

 Revise messages to enhance clarity.

 Apply techniques that ensure concise messages.

 Make messages concrete by providing specific information.

 Review messages for correct content, mechanics, and appearance.

 Determine whether a message meets the completeness criteria of who, what, when, where,
why, and how.

 Revise messages to reflect consideration

INTRODUCTION

The application of business communication principles helps to compose and communicate messages
effectively through letters, memorandums, reports, speeches, telephones, face-to-face conversation,
etc. These principles tie in closely with basic concepts of the communication process and are
important for both written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for choice of content
and style of presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message called the “Seven
Cs,’’ they are courtesy, clarity, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, completeness, and
consideration.

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 1.1. THE 7 C’S OF COMMUNICATION
1.1.1. COURTESY

Courtesy helps you maintain goodwill by showing concern for the reader. Goodwill is a feeling of
confidence based on honesty and reliable service.

You can also describe courtesy as diplomacy. For example, when government officials from
different countries meet, they employ some of the same strategies you use in showing concern for
the reader of your messages. Both parties prepare by researching the other’s culture and language
(developing the you attitude). If a disagreement arises, the representatives try to be objective and
polite (using positive words) rather than insulting. The officials use appropriate gender references
during their dialogue (selecting gender-free terms). After the meeting, further negotiations and
relations between the two countries are aided by meeting communication deadlines (responding to
messages promptly).

All communicators should demonstrate courtesy by following these methods:

 Develop the you attitude.

 Use positive words.

 Select gender-free terms.

 Respond to messages promptly.

Develop the You Attitude

To develop the you attitude in communication, a writer or speaker must project empathy into
business messages, replace I or we with you or your, and address the receiver by name.

Empathy means imagining yourself in the receiver’s position. In written communication, apply the
same tact that you would use if you were talking directly to the receiver. When you talk with a
person, body language helps project your meaning. When you write, you have only words to convey
the meaning. The reader must understand exactly what you intend because many business decisions
depend entirely on the written word. A misused or misunderstood word can confuse the reader and
cost business money. Thus, when you write or speak, avoid colloquialisms, jargon, and any words or
phrases that might be offensive.

Replace I or we with you or your to establish your friendly intent as a writer. In your message,
emphasize the benefits to the reader. Consider the following examples:

I/We Attitude You/Your Attitude

I will issue a $25.82 credit to you on your You will receive a $25.82 credit on
December invoice. your December invoice.

We will provide free event shirts for All volunteers may wear free event
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volunteers to wear at the race. shirts at the race.
Even requests for action and unfavorable responses may create goodwill when the emphasis is on the
reader’s benefits. The following examples illustrate how an unpleasant message can be courteous and
incorporate the you attitude.

I/We Attitude You/Your Attitude

After September 15, I will drop all Please protect your enrollment. Sign
students who have not signed and returned and return your Acceptable Use Form
their Acceptable Use Form. by September 15.

We require a $300 minimum balance in When you maintain a $300 minimum

order for customers to receive free checks. balance, you receive free checks.

Use the reader’s name in the message to emphasize the person’s importance. When you respond to a
written message, obtain the correct spelling of the name from the sender’s message. If you originate
the message and you are unsure of the correct spelling, call the business and ask for the correct
spelling of the individual’s name and title.

Use Positive Words

Courteous messages use positive words. Positive words show respect for the reader and reflect the
you attitude. People are more open to the content of positive messages than of negative ones. Refer
to Table 3-1 for a list of negative words that undermine positive messages.

Table 3-1: Negative Words to Avoid

blame damaged fear no

complaint doubt lazy not
criticize failed never sorry
Both word choice and sentence structure can change a negative tone into a positive tone. Structure your
sentences to state what can be done rather than what cannot be done. The next examples show how word
choice can change a negative tone into a positive tone.

Negative Tone Positive Tone

Never allow customers to shop without Always greet customers as soon as they
first greeting them. arrive.

We do not make exchanges for purchases With your receipt, you may exchange any
without receipts. purchase.

Select Gender-Free Terms

Some nouns, especially job titles, refer to either men or women. Gender-free terms grant both sexes
equal status and respect. Terminology that stereotypes or indicates bias against either men or women
is called sexist language. Stereotypes may imply that racial and ethnic groups, women, men, or
individuals with disabilities are superior or inferior to others. Thus, words that stereotype people may
21
offend readers and lessen opportunities to create goodwill. Alternatives to sexist terms are listed in the
following examples.

Sexist Gender-Free
policeman police officer
craftsman craft worker
fireman firefighter
foreman supervisor or manager
mailman mail carrier

When you refer to a category of people that may include both men and women, one option, shown in the
next examples, is to make the noun plural and use a plural (gender-free) pronoun.

Sexist Gender-Free

The doctor should listen to his patients. Doctors should listen to their patients.

Treat the customer courteously so she will Treat customers courteously so they will
continue to shop in our store. continue to shop in our store.

Respond to Messages Promptly

Timeliness is the watchword for diplomatic communication. Therefore, prompt responses enhance
the effectiveness of written communication. A favorable business reputation is built on orders that
are shipped early. In addition, a timely response may turn a complaint into a business opportunity.

Business etiquette dictates that you send congratulations within two days of an event and that you
answer requests within five working days of receipt. Practice courteous communication.

ACTIVITY 3.1

1. What does it mean by courtesy as principle of communication?

2. Describe the guidelines which help communicator to be courteous.

1.1.2. CLARITY

Clarity means writing easy-to-read and easy-to-understand messages. A clear message keeps the
intended receiver in mind. The message should focus on expressing a thought, not on impressing the
reader.

In the following, the unclear examples on the left are written to impress the reader; the clear
examples on the right are written to express the thought.

22
To Impress To Express

The English language device known as Capitalization, a punctuation tool, varies

capitalization, using in printed matter based on different language rules.
designated letters of larger size, not only
is a punctuation tool of considerable
importance but also is a tool whose
function varies in accordance with
differing, prescriptive language rules.

The self-explanatory purpose of the letter The letter address names the message
address is both to designate the person to receiver and specifies the delivery
whom the mailed correspondence is to be location.
received and to stipulate the location to
which the said mailed article of
correspondence is to be delivered.

At first, you may hesitate to make changes in messages that you create. Strive, however, to form the
habit of rewriting to improve clarity. Use these points to check messages for clarity:

 Select appropriate words.

 Place words in an orderly sequence.

 Limit use of it and there.

 Position phrases correctly.

 Position clauses correctly.

 Keep sentences short.

Select Appropriate Words

Appropriate word choice improves understanding between writer and reader. Words that look alike
or sound alike frequently cause confusion. Verify word meanings in a dictionary to avoid offending
or misleading a reader. When preparing spoken messages, use a dictionary to verify pronunciations.
Study the examples of frequently confused words listed in Table below, and in the Reference Guide.

Table 3-2: Frequently confused words

Word Meaning Example

A lot many; much Connie had a lot of anxiety.
Accept to take or receive Midori agreed to accept the trophy
Except to leave out; other than Read all the notes except those on page 22.
Affect to influence or change Changing chairs did affect his posture.

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Effect a result We cannot see any effect of Carolla’s new diet.
Place Words in an Orderly Sequence

Reading messages aloud helps reveal unclear word placement. If the word order makes you hesitate
or reread the statement, try a different word arrangement. The pattern of subject before verb usually
provides the clearest sequence.

The remarks “Baked is the bread” and “Scrambled are your eggs” sound awkward. Both statements place
the verb before the subject, and the order appears illogical. In the next examples, notice how placing the
subject before the verb makes the sentences easier to read and understand.

Unclear Word Order Clear Word Order

Enclosed is your check. Your check is enclosed.

Burned was the toast. The toast was burned.

When using a pronoun, be sure that the pronoun restates the intended reference, the antecedent.
Change the word order or word choice when any confusion exists between a pronoun and an
antecedent. Sentences containing expressions such as his or hers, he and she, or him or her are
confusing to readers. Try rewriting the sentence with a plural antecedent and plural pronouns. The
following examples illustrate how to correct unclear pronoun references:

Unclear Antecedent Clear Antecedent

Felix called his agent while he was reading While Felix was reading the script, he
the script. called his agent.

Pronouns should not be used in definitions Definitions containing pronouns may have
because they have unclear meanings. unclear meanings.

Limit Use of It and There

It, an indefinite reference, often causes the reader to search for a correct meaning or relationship.
With a minimum of effort, you can state exactly what you mean and limit the use of it. By being
specific, you may also shorten your message. Compare the following sentences:

Indefinite It Improved Clarity

It is recommended that you label your Please label your clothes with a
clothes with a waterproof marker. waterproof marker.

After the program ends, it is time for you After the program ends, you may leave.
to leave.

24
Just as removing it from sentences often improves clarity, so does reducing the use of there. When
used correctly, the word there refers to a specific place. Note how both clarity and brevity improve
when there is eliminated in the following examples:

Indefinite There Improved Clarity

There are six steps you can use to ensure You can use six steps to ensure message
message clarity. clarity.

There is no other membership requirement Age is the only membership requirement.

except age.

Position Phrases Correctly

Humor can be an asset in messages. However, you want the reader to laugh with you, not at you.
Incorrectly placed phrases can create unintended humor, cause misunderstanding, and reduce your
credibility. Correctly positioned phrases reduce the chance of unintended humor, as shown in these
examples:

Incorrect Positioning Correct Positioning

Victor ordered rugs for the new apartment Victor ordered rugs of various colors for
of various colors. the new apartment.

Dr. Zayas wrote the letter while flying While flying from Washington Los to Los
from Washington to Angeles on the back Angeles, Dr. Zayas wrote the letter on the
of an envelope. back of an envelope.

Position Clauses Correctly

The words which and that frequently introduce a clause. If the sentence is clear and correct without
the clause, the clause is nonrestrictive and should be set off with commas. When the clause is
needed for clarity or correctness, the clause is restrictive and commas should not be inserted. Which
generally introduces a nonrestrictive clause, and that generally introduces a restrictive clause. Correctly
placed clauses make the meaning clearer. Incorrectly placed clauses can create confusion, as shown in the
following examples:

Incorrect Positioning Correct Positioning

Julia returned the support cast for her Julia returned the support cast that she
injured leg that she bought. bought for her injured leg.

Please place your donation in the jar, Please place your donation, which is
which is appreciated. appreciated, in the jar.

25
Keep Sentences Short

State your message in as few words as possible. Lengthy sentences often cause readers to lose the
intended meaning. Most sentences range from 13 to 20 words; the average sentence contains 16
words. Short sentences are forceful and emphatic. However, short sentences can become choppy
unless you write thoughtfully.

Combine words into sentences that show concern for the reader and that are easy to understand.
Thus, you can maintain courtesy and clarity with brief sentences. Section 3 contains techniques for
writing concise messages.

Activity 3.2

1. Define clarity.
2. List and describe the specific mechanisms used to ensure clarity in effective
communication.
1.1.3. CONCISENESS

Keep in mind the exact message that you want to convey to the reader. Conciseness means saying
what needs to be said in as few words as possible. When you write with brevity, not abruptness,
your messages remain both concise and courteous. Remember that courtesy helps you build and
maintain goodwill. Critique your writing, and make every word meaningful.

As you edit and revise your writing, use the following methods to develop concise messages that are
courteous and clear:

 Eliminate unnecessary words.

 Select action verbs and efficient words.

 Use necessary modifiers.

 Write in the active voice.

Eliminate Unnecessary Words

Write naturally! Keep that two-word command in mind as you write messages. Use a conversational tone
that is easy to read. Enhance clarity and conciseness by using only the necessary words. After you compose
a draft, edit your message to eliminate unnecessary words. Note the difference in this example:

Wordy Concise

You will quickly come to the conclusion Communication consistency builds trust
that unless you communicate in a with coworkers.
consistent manner, you will jeopardize
your relationships with your coworkers.

26
The wordy version contains 23 words. The concise version eliminated unnecessary words and
reduced the word count to six words.

Select Action Verbs and Efficient Words

Some writers use wordy phrases even though action verbs make clearer, shorter, more concise
statements. Compare the wordy phrases with the action verb messages in the next examples.

Wordy Phrases Action Verbs

Please make an agreement to purchase the Please agree to purchase the Marco
Marco system. system.

Dr. Parker made a contribution of $500 to Dr. Parker contributed $500 to St. Jude’s
St. Jude’s Hospital for Children. Hospital for Children.

After you choose action verbs, check for efficient, concise words. In the following examples, note how
concise expressions reduce the word count:

Wordy Phrases Concise Words

Every one of the students entered the Every student entered the contest.
contest.

Please move the box off of the desk. Please move the box off the desk.

Use Necessary Modifiers

Select a word or phrase only when the word or phrase serves a purpose. Avoid unnecessary
modifiers and doublet phrases—phrases that say the same thing twice, such as the honest truth.
Compare the following sentences:

Unnecessary Modifiers Revisions

Follow the road west in direction until you Follow the road west until you see our
see our facility on the right. facility on the right.

The team leader suggested a very unique The team leader suggested a unique
solution. solution.

Write in the Active Voice

In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs some action. The passive voice shows the subject
receiving the action. Passive constructions add unnecessary words, usually in the form of prepositional
phrases. Changing from the passive to the active voice makes the messages more succinct.

27
Passive Voice Active Voice

The old car was painted by the The technicians painted the old car.
technicians.

The overgrown trees were trimmed by the The power company trimmed the
power company. overgrown trees.

Select the passive voice when you want to avoid placing specific blame on someone. In a negative
situation, the passive voice sounds more diplomatic and tactful than the active voice. Note how the
active voice examples have accusatory tones:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Dora placed the books in the incorrect The books were placed in the incorrect
positions. positions by Dora.

Alex cut the pattern too small. The pattern was cut too small by Alex.

Unless you choose the passive voice to ensure diplomacy, use the active voice to achieve both
conciseness and clarity. You can further refine conciseness and clarity by checking your messages
for concreteness.

Activity 3.3

1. Define conciseness.
2. Why is word economy in communication important?
3. State the ways used to compose a concise message.
1.1.4. CONCRETENESS

Concreteness means conveying a message with precise terms. As a message sender, you build
mental pictures for your readers through your use of words. The readers’ backgrounds influence
their perceptions of your words. Thus, words have different meanings for different people. If you
said, “Charles has a hit,” a baseball coach might think that Charles will help win the game. A music
producer might think that Charles has composed a song that soon will be at the top of the sales
charts. Use words or phrases that have definite meanings to convey a concrete message. These steps
will help you write concrete messages.

 Establish contact with the reader.

 Use precise modifiers.

 Avoid opinions or generalizations.

 Provide specific details.

Establish Contact with the Reader

28
Concreteness in written messages compares with exactness in spoken messages. When a young boy
catches a fish and tells his friends about the event, he uses his hands, posture, and words to describe
the size of the fish. Even more hand gestures illustrate the struggle he had in pulling the fish into the
boat.

When the boy writes to a relative, he may include with the fishing story recollections of other family
incidents. These recollections help the reader visualize the fishing adventure. You can use the same
approach to establish contact with readers. When you write a message, build on shared personal or
business backgrounds.

Business communication often involves mutual experiences, such as the following:

 Sending and receiving documents

 Shipping and possibly returning orders

 Applying for credit and being either accepted or rejected

 Asking for or writing recommendations

If you do not have an experience in common with the receiver, establish contact and build a concrete
message through these techniques:

 Mentally picture the person.

 Collect as much background information as possible.

 Consider the person’s culture and occupation.

 Use concrete words that have well-understood meanings.

Use Precise Modifiers

Dynamic verbs show action and motion, whereas static nouns name objects and ideas. Modifiers
(adjectives and adverbs) add meaning and intensity to other words. When you use adjectives and
adverbs, you add strength and color to nouns and verbs. Select precise modifiers because research
reveals the following facts:

 Readers remember precise (concrete) words longer than general words.

 Specific terms translate more easily than do broad, general words.

You probably would receive three different answers if you asked three people the question, “What is
a good price for a printer?” Each person would have a different interpretation for good, and you did
not give adequate information about the type or speed of the printer or about how much you were
willing to pay. The next examples illustrate how precise modifiers or details provide more
concreteness than vague modifiers.

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Vague Modifiers Precise Expressions

Our storage facility offers large climate- Our storage facility offers 15- by 20-foot
controlled units. climate-controlled

Our new product will arrive soon. Our new product arrives October 1.

Business writing uses Standard English rather than formal English. Formal prose is usually reserved
for academic and literary writing. Overuse of formal vocabulary makes a business writer sound
pretentious.

Also, overusing modifiers may make messages sound insincere and may create a sense of distrust. Replace
vague terms with precise modifiers. Develop and maintain credibility by writing clearly and precisely.

Overused Modifiers Precise Expressions

Take advantage of the very lowest prices Take advantage of the 50 percent discount
you’ll ever find anywhere! off our regular prices.

Customers who use Expo Marketing Customers who have used Expo Marketing
products build a more positive image. products have shown a 10 percent gain on
the Baker Image Scale.

Avoid Opinions and Generalizations

When people ask for your opinion, think about what information they need before you respond. If
you have a negative opinion or if you do not agree with their position, exercise caution. When you
are not sure what information they really want, ask for clarification. The following examples
demonstrate the differences between opinions and requests.

Opinions Courteous Requests

You should join our focus group. Please join our focus group.

I think the data would look better in table Please consider displaying the data in table
format. format.

Generalizations, vague or sweeping statements, often appear in written messages when the writer is
attempting to persuade readers. Advertisers sometimes make broad, inclusive claims. Experienced
advertisers exercise caution with generalizations because many consumers do comparison shopping. Note
how these examples change generalizations into specific descriptions:

Generalization Specific Information

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Our kit offers the ideal solution for Our Zoom Porte, a complete Internet kit,
accessing the Internet. includes the V.34 external data fax modem
and $400 worth of software on one CD.

Our holiday jewelry sale offers Our 14kt gold pendants are$70.50, a
extraordinary values on gold pendants. savings of 30 percent during the holiday
sale.

Provide Specific Details

Effective messages contain specific details that are clear to both the sender and the receiver. Show
concern for the receivers by providing specific details, such as sources of information your readers
may need or want.

Suppose prospective clients called a vendor and asked that someone meet them at the airport. The
vendor, eager to make a sale, agreed to meet the clients at the baggage claim area at 7:30.
Unfortunately, the agreement lacked specific details, such as the name of the airline carrier and
whether the arrival time was a.m. or p.m.

Imagine the vendor’s concern when the clients could not be located at the luggage carousel for any
7:30 a.m. incoming flight. In a large airport, checking all carriers and incoming flights could take
hours. The clients had not indicated the name of the carrier and the 7:30 p.m. arrival time. Also, the
vendor should have asked for vital information. Complete details would have saved time and
concern for all parties.

A concrete message is exact. As you develop concrete messages, you also verify correctness.
Correctness, the next quality of effective messages.

Activity 3.4

1. What does it mean by concreteness as principle of communication?

2. Describe the guidelines which help communicator to be concrete.
3. Make the following statement concrete.
"I will the cost of the training in the near future."
1.1.5. CORRECTNESS

Correctness means that the details of a message are accurate. Details involve not only the message
content but also the message appearance. The correctness of your messages depends on your
proofreading skills. Good proofreaders use reference tools to check message content and evaluate
message appearance. The following four reference tools will help you produce correct messages:

1. A dictionary
2. A thesaurus (either printed or electronic version)

3. A word division manual

4. A format guide
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Use a dictionary as a general reference to check spelling and word meaning. Consult a thesaurus for
acceptable word choices. Verify preferable word division points in a word division manual. Refer to
the Format Guide for acceptable message layouts.

Sending correct messages builds your credibility. In the workplace, a reputation for accuracy
enhances your competence and helps you build a successful career. After you have written a draft of
your message, complete the following tasks to ensure message correctness:

 Verify spelling.
 Select correct words or phrases.

 Insert appropriate punctuation.

 Check names, places, dates, times, and amounts.

 Evaluate message appearance.

Verify Spelling

Misspellings of frequently used words may be difficult to locate if you just give your message a
quick once-over. However, a misspelled word may change the meaning of a sentence or may create
a negative impression about you and your organization. Be absolutely sure every word is correct
before you transmit your message.

In addition to a standard dictionary, you may need a trade or professional dictionary to check the
spelling of technical or specialized terms. When you key a document in a word processing program,
use the spell checker. However, do not rely on an electronic spell checker to detect errors in word
usage. Spell checkers cannot determine whether you have used a word properly in the context of
your message. Recheck spelling when you add new text or change word endings during the writing
process.

Select Correct Words and Phrases

Selecting the word or phrase that correctly communicates your meaning can be challenging. The English
language has borrowed words and expressions from many languages. As a result, English contains many
homonyms (words that are spelled and pronounced alike but have different meanings) and homophones
(words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings). Select correct words and phrases for
accurate messages. Be especially alert for words and phrases that sound alike but have different spellings
and meanings. These examples illustrate how word choice affects meaning:

Word Choice Discussion

Answering e-mail messages is an everyday Everyday as one word means “usual” or

activity for me. “routine.”

Every day provides you with opportunities Every day indicates each new day.
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to develop new skills.

Selecting correct words and phrases also involves checking your messages for subject and verb
agreement and for parallel structure. Parallel structure means using the same grammatical form
throughout a list or within a sentence. These examples illustrate nonparallel structures and show how to
make the statements parallel:

Nonparallel Structure Parallel Structure

Minimum maintenance should include the Minimum maintenance should include the
following: following:

1. Check oil and water levels 1. Checking oil and water levels
2. Balancing tires 2. Balancing tires

3. Check air pressure 3. Checking air pressure

The computer operator’s duties are completing The computer operator’s duties are to complete
the log, starting and stopping all runs, and to the log, start and stop all runs, and make minor
make minor repairs. repairs.

Insert Appropriate Punctuation

Punctuation marks serve as traffic signs for readers. Commas indicate caution—slow down or pause
to comprehend the meaning. Semicolons tell readers to yield for the next thought. Periods and
question marks mean readers should come to a complete stop before they proceed to the next
sentence. Punctuate messages according to punctuation rules. When you insert appropriate
punctuation in the correct locations, you maintain clarity for readers.

Punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence. Compare the following two examples:

Punctuation Effect Discussion

“Sprouted grain bread,” said the The first example indicates that a certain
nutritionist, “can be traced to ancient type of bread can be traced to ancient
times.” times.

Sprouted grain bread said the nutritionist The second example implies not only that
can be traced to ancient times. bread is speaking but also that a certain
nutritionist can be traced to ancient times.

Proofread aloud to be sure you insert the correct punctuation. If the message sounds awkward or
causes you to hesitate, check the punctuation.

Check Names, Places, Dates, Times, and Amounts

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Effective messages contain complete and correct names, places, dates, times, and amounts. Avoid
confusion, lost time, effort, and money for your receivers. Check names, places, dates, times, and
amounts twice for accuracy.

Evaluate Message Appearance

After verifying content correctness, evaluate the message for correct appearance. Correct appearance
includes the style and placement of the message.

Most business messages follow standard company guidelines and practices. The Format Guide
illustrates business and personal message formats. The message placement on a page, form, screen,
or letterhead produces an image in the reader’s mind. To make a good impression, the message
should be formatted correctly and attractively, as well as be free of keying errors.

Activity 3.4

1. When do we say a message is correct?

2. List and describe the guidelines used to make communication correct?
1.1.6. COMPLETENESS

Individual words express parts of a whole thought. Several words work together to express an entire
thought in a sentence. Sentences become building blocks for messages. A complete message uses
sentences to answer the questions who, what, when, where, why, and how. A complete message also
promotes goodwill.

Answer Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How

When you are developing a message, you do not need to answer the questions who, what, when,
where, why, and how in a prescribed order. You must include all the appropriate answers, however,
to have a complete message. After writing a draft of your message, use the criteria in

Table 3-2: to evaluate your message for completeness.

 Who? Who is the intended receiver? Is the content appropriate for the intended
receiver?
 What? What is your objective? Will the reader know what to do?
 When? When should the reader respond? Have you included complete, accurate
details?
 Where? Where should the reader respond? Have you identified names, postal
and electronic addresses, telephone and fax numbers?
 Why? Why should the reader respond? Have you stated a benefit for the reader?
 How? Have you encouraged a positive response? Does your message promote
goodwill?

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Notice how the following example does not satisfactorily answer the questions who, what, when,
where, why, and how:

Example: Please attend our in-service meeting on Thursday at 5 p.m. The meeting will end by 6:30
p.m.

 Who? Your name was included on the distribution list, but you do not know who is
sponsoring the meeting.
 What? An in-service meeting is being held, but you do not know what kind of a program is
planned.
 When? The meeting begins at 5 p.m. and ends by 6:30 p.m., but you do not know which
Thursday to attend.
 Where? You do not know the location of the meeting.
 Why? The reason for this particular meeting is unknown.
 How? You do not know how the meeting will benefit you.

Maintain Goodwill

Develop clear, complete messages so readers will understand you. Your complete message will
more effectively promote goodwill when readers know exactly what you are asking for or what you
are offering to do.

Activity3.6

1. Do you think that completeness and conciseness are contradictory? Why?

2. How does a complete message minimize the possible additional costs?

1.1.7. CONSIDERATION

As discussed in previous chapter, the interrelationship of the message sender and receiver
profoundly affects communication effectiveness. Consideration means that you prepare every
message with the recipient in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place. Try to visualize your
readers (or listeners)-with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and probable reactions
to your request. Then handle the matter from their point of view. This thoughtful consideration is
also called “you-attitude” empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human nature .It does
not mean, however, that you should overlook the needs of your organization.

In a broad but true sense ,consideration underlies the other six C’s of good business
communication .You adapt you language and message content to your receiver’s needs when you
make your message complete, concise ,concrete ,clear, courteous , and correct, Specific ways you
can indicate you are considerate :

 Focus on “you” instead of “I” and “we.”

35
  Show reader benefit or interest in reader.

 Emphasize on positive, pleasant facts.

 Apply integrity & ethics.

Focus on “you” instead of “I” & “we”

Your receivers are usually more concerned about themselves than about you or the company you
represent. They are more likely to read your message when they see their name and the pronoun
“you” rather than “I”, “we” or “us.”)

Usually it is very desirable to get the the attention of your reader in to the first paragraph or the
attention of the person hearing you in the first few minutes or even seconds. If, psychologically
desirable , begin with “you” or “your”, and keep your reader in the message (tactfully )until you
finish .The opposite of the you –attitude is the we-attitude , in which the writer/ speaker views every
matter from his (or the organization ‘s) standpoint rather than from the reader’s/listener’s , Examples
below contrasts the “We-attitude” and the “you-attitude”.

We-attitude You- attitude

I want to send my congratulations for your Congratulations to you on your

promotion Promotion

We will ship soon the goods in Your May 4 You should receive by may 8 the TV
order. screens you ordered on may4

We pay 8% interest on the loan You earn 80% interest on the loan.

II) Show reader benefit or interest in reader

When ever possible and true, show how your readers will benefit from whatever the message asks or
announces .They will be more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest if you show that
benefits are worth the effort and cost. In situations where actual direct reader benefit is impossible or
irrelevant to the subject matter, the message should at least show interest in and concern for the
reader’s needs or viewpoint.

Even a simple request gets better response when a reader-benefit plug accompanies it. For example,
an insurance company that wanted to update its address files sent to half its policyholders a double
postcard with this message:

Because we have not written you in some time please help us bring our records up to-date by filling
and returning the other half of this card .

36
Only 3 percent of these cards came back.

To the remaining half of its policyholders the firm sent the same request –reworded to show reader
benefit:

So that dividend cheeks, premium notions, and other message of importance may reach you
promptly please fill out and return the other half of this card .

This request brought 90 percent of the cards back in a four days !

Though your company is in business to make a profit, you omit that selfish sounding idea; the
reader assumes it anyway and is motivated only by what benefits s/he receives. Reader- benefit
appeals are desirable also in job applications, favor requests, and announcements to your customers,
prospective buyers, and the like.

III) Emphasize the positive, pleasant facts.

A third way to show consideration for your reader (or listener ) is to emphasize the positive. This
means.

 Stressing what can be done instead of what cannot be done, and

 Focusing on words your recipient can consider favorably.

Statement of what can be done;

The reader (or listener) wants to know what you can do for him/her. For most people negative words
like no, won’t, cannot, never, impossible trigger unpleasant emotional reactions. By making clear
what you can or will do, you (by implication) often make clear what you cannot do, without using a
single negative word. Furthermore, whenever possible and helpful, tell why or how.

Negative – Unpleasant Positive – pleasant

It is impossible to open an account for you today.
As soon as your signature Card
reaches us, we will gladly open an
account for you.

We don’t refund if the returned item is soiled and We refund when the returned item
unsalable. is clean and resalable

When you travel on company expense, you will When you travel on company
not receive approval for first class fare. expense, your approved fare is for
tourist class.

Words your recipient can consider favorable ;

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Sometimes you will have to be very careful in your word choice. Some people may find some words
to be impolite when your intention was not to create such a perception. Be Very careful not to
offend your customers (or any individual for that matter) by the words you have chosen. Among the
positive words to which people react favorably is benefit, cordial, happy, help, generous, loyal,
pleasure, thanks, thoughtful. Words with negative connotations that often arouse unfavorable
reactions include blame, complaint, failed, fault, negligence, regret, reject, trouble, unfair, and many
others. For example, in the following opening of a letter the negative words (underlined) focus on
ideas you’d rather not have the reader think about.

We regret that, since you closed your account, your name will be missing from our long list of
satisfied customers. We sincerely hope that, despite the best efforts of our fine staff, there were no
occasions on which you felt we failed to serve you properly.

A better opening expresses appreciation for the customer’s patronage in the first paragraph, as
shown below. Then the second paragraph welcomes him/ her to other services.

Having you as a member of XYZ savings bank was a pleasure. Thank you for giving us the
opportunity to serve you.

We noticed recently that you closed your account with us. Perhaps you reached that particular goal
for which you were saving, or it may be that an emergency arose which called for a large outlook
cash. Whatever the reason, we were happy to have some small part in your financial program.

You are cordially invited to use our other profitable, time saving services that can provide benefits
for you in various ways.

IV) Apply integrity & Ethics

To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity – high moral standards, personal honor,
truthfulness, & sincerity- to your written and oral message. Integrity is indispensable in our jobs, in
business transactions, in social &, political activities, in everything we do. Without it business
communications would prove worthless, & our confidence in people would be shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right human conduct .codes of ethics provide standards enabling us
to determine the fundamental distinction between right &wrong human behavior.

Because you are an agent of your company, you help build your company’s image. To make this
image one of integrity & ethical conduct required consistently fair standards & honesty in
communications with persons outside & inside your organization.

Integrity with persons outside the organization:

When you show consideration for your customers, you try to let them know you are aware of & are
doing something about their interest & needs. This does not mean that, however, you yield to the
temptation of showing favoritism, allowing deviation for one customer that you would not allow for

38
all other customers in similar circumstances, or arranging money kickbacks & bribes to obtain
government or commercial business.

Studies have shown that the behavior of superiors & pressures from top management to meet
competition & increase profits were the chief factors influencing executives to make unethical
decisions. Typical examples include misrepresenting contents of products, substituting materials
with out customer knowledge after the job contract has been awarded, scheduling inaccurate
delivery dates to get a contract has been awarded, scheduling inaccurate delivery dates to get a
contract, so on.

Therefore, an ethical boss can be an important influence for ethical employee communications.

Needed Ethical communication within the organization.

Employees must also be fair to their employer & to each other. Weak ethical standards, economic
pressure, & competition for promotions or increased income have tempted many to unethical
behavior.

Dishonesty toward employers: employee internal thefts, & dishonest practices like the followings
are estimated to cost organizations a great loss: Wasting time on the job – by taking excessive lunch
or coffee breaks; claiming sick leaves when not ill; failing to report an employee error that will cost
the company losses; so on .

Unfair communication with or about co – workers: examples of dishonest behavior by employees

toward each other include: issuing false instructions to an co – worker in order to make that person
look bad or perform poorly; giving false information to a superior in order to improve the giver’s
position in the department; falsely reporting high work evaluations for personal favorites so they
will get unjustified promotion, etc.

Activity 3.7
1. Define consideration
2. When do we say a written business letter is considerate?
3. List the means of achieving consideration.
4. Why is the ‘you attitude’ so important?

SUMMARY

To compose and communicate effective messages you need to apply certain communication
principles. They provide guidelines for choice of content and style of presentation adapted to the
purpose and receiver of your message called the “Seven Cs”; they are:

 Completeness: A business message must be complete. It must not leave out any piece of
information. It must answer all the questions that arise in the mind of the receiver.

39
  Correctness: First, you must ensure that the content is correct. You must check the facts and
figures. You must verify the information before putting it on paper. Secondly, at the level of
conventions of letter writing, you must not make any mistake. Thirdly, you must check the
message for spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, unnecessary repetitions, or any mistakes
in punctuation.
 Clarity: A business message must be clear at the first reading. You must try to anticipate
what your receiver will want to know, and must communicate his message in such a way that
the receiver will understand it without any difficulty. You must be clear about the purpose of
the letter, and your objective in sending it. The language must be simple, and the content
self-explanatory, so as to avoid confusion or misunderstanding.
 Conciseness: you must work towards expressing more in the least possible words. You must
revise the first draft by replacing low information words with high content words, and
replacing loose constructions with compact ones.
 Consideration: By focusing on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’ and emphasizing the pleasant and
the positive, you can establish a personal rapport with the receiver. Politeness costs nothing,
but pays much. The overall tone of the letter must be gentle and considerate. It may vary and
become demanding or aggressive, if the situation demands. But it is best to avoid being
insulting or rude.
 Courtesy: By conveying your message politely you earn the respect of your receiver. A
courteous tone speaks your decency and helps to get a positive response from the receiver. It
also creates a favorable image about you or your organization.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Part I: Choose the best answers and fill your answers on the space provided.

1. Which characteristics of effective communication state it to be told in least possible words?

40
 A. Courtesy C. Conciseness

B. Concreteness D. Clarity

2. Which of the following is odd

A. Develop you attitude. C. Use positive words.

B. Keep sentences short. D. Select gender-free terms.

3. It saves time and expense for both the sender and receiver

A. Conciseness D. Consideration

B. Completeness E. clarity

C. Concreteness

4. The following guidelines help to compose concrete, convincing messages, except one .

A. Use specific facts and figures C. Choose vivid, image building words

B. Put action in your verbs D. Grant and apologize good naturedly

Part II: say true if the statement is correct and says false if statement is incorrect

1. A completeness message must answer all the questions that arise in the mind of the
receiver.
2. Checking the message for spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, unnecessary repetitions,
or any mistakes one of the guidelines for conciseness.

3. Using simple language and making the content self-explanatory, in order to avoid
confusion or misunderstanding is one mechanism to make the message clear.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to

 Understand and recognize the main reasons for communication failure in organizations.
 Understand and recognize the functions of communication in organizations and see
their practical applications.
 Understand the implications of Japans Approach to Management for Communication.
 List the objectives of formal communication and see their impact in organizational
performance.
 Identify oral and written methods in downward and upward communication.
 List the problems of downward and upward communication in organizational practices.
 Identify the channels for and means of effectively utilizing the grapevine
4.1. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

Dear learners, in previous chapter you have passed through communication principles that guide
the overall system. And in this chapter we shall discuss types of communications in organization.
As you have seen communication, both oral and written is a predominant form of organizational
behavior. People in today’s organizations spend a great deal of time communicating; the higher
they go in the organizational hierarchy, the more time communication consumes. However, as
Peter Drucker points out, all is not well; “We have more attempts at communications today . . .
yet communications has proven as elusive as the unicorn. The noise level has gone up so fast that
no one can really listen anymore to all that babble about communications. But there is clearly
less and less communicating. The communications gap within institutions and between groups in
society has been widening steadily to the point where it threatens to become an unbridgeable gulf
of total misunderstanding.” In short, while people in organizations today spend a lot of time
engaged in communication-related activity, they are not very successful in communicating.

Activity 4.1: In sending reports or messages do you ever realize the objective of the message
and its contribution to organizational performance?

42
Generally, we have found five basic causes of communication failure.

1. Communication in most organizations is activity-oriented, not results-oriented.

When consulting with hospitals for example, it is our practice to ask the hospital administrator to
show us the hospital’s employee handbook. Then we ask him or her, “Do you feel this is a good
employee handbook? Typically, their answer will be “yes” followed by such reasons as: It has
won national awards for design and layout; it costs us a lot of money to produce; my picture is
on the inside cover; consultants helped us to develop it, and so on. When we then ask, “But does
it do what is it supposed to do?” We typically receive a puzzled look and a long silence in
response. Communication is a tool designed to produce some effect upon its receiver. Too many
organizations, however, view communication as something that “ought to be done” losing sight
of the impact their communications should have.

2. Communication often is one-way

Management frequently assumes that, as long as they are sending messages regularly to the rest
of the organization, they are communicating. They therefore engage exclusively in “downward”
communication, receiving little or no feedback from lower levels of the organizations as a result
they often do not know if their downward messages were received, understood, believed, or
approved of by employees, and they cannot adjust future messages to employees needs or
characteristics. In order to be effective, communication in organizations must flow not only
downward, but upward and laterally as well.

3. The impact of communication is not measured.

This problem is related to the preceding one. In many organizations, management receives
information feedback. However, no systematic attempt is made to measure the impact of
communication in terms of the objectives or results the communication was supposed to achieve.

In effect, management must clearly define the results they want their communication systems to
achieve, and then regularly measure the extent to which those results have been produced.

Activity 4.2 1. Many meetings are conducted; many training are offered; but their
impact is not usually measured in terms of their contribution to organizational

43
performance. Why?

4. Communications are not responsive to employee needs.: When defining the objectives of their
communication systems, management should first ask employees what information they want or
need. Then they can tailor downward messages to meet those needs. Rarely, for example, do
companies ask new employees what information they would like to receive in the new employee
orientation meetings; rather, they assume that the information they are providing is exactly what
the employees’ need. When we have interviewed incoming employees about their concerns and
desires, we find an entire body of information is needed that company orientation programs do
not provide.

5. The people who implement communication systems lack the necessary communication skills.
Department meetings cannot be effective if the department heads conducting them lack meeting
leadership skills. Employment interviews do not select the best available candidates if the
interviewers are unskilled. Communication systems and opportunities are not enough; the people
who use those systems must have skills as communicators. As the preceding discussion
indicates, communication in organizations has two basic elements; communication systems (the
meetings, publications, conversations and so on in which messages are transmitted), and
communication skills of the people participating in those communication systems.

Activity 4.3

Have you ever taken training on meeting management and /or interviewing? What do you thing
is the impact of taking or not taking such communication systems in achieving your objectives?
4.2. INTERNAL &EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

4.2.1. External Communication

External Communication: An organization is greatly affected by its external environment.

Therefore, in order to exist, any organization has to adjust its activities in accordance with
external influences. Communications to persons outside the company-customers, inquirers,
suppliers and the public- can have a far-reaching effect on the reputation and ultimate success of
the organization. The right letter, telephone call, or personal conversation can win back a
disgruntled customer, create a desire for a firm’s product or service, can negotiate a profitable
sale, help an inquirer who is a potential customer, and in general create goodwill. Reputable

44
organizations are also seriously concerned about enhancing their public image through various
communications. Among these communications are public speeches by their executives, tactful
replies to comments and criticisms from consumer groups, free informative pamphlets,
interviews with news media. All these forms of communication are transmitted with a greater
emphasis on truthfulness.

Thus employees who communicate effectively can contribute in a variety of ways to the
lifeblood of their organization. Successful messages:

 Eliminate unnecessary additional correspondence.

 save time and expense
 Build favorable impressions.
 enhance goodwill, and
 Help increase company profits.

Therefore, in brief, effective internal communication integrates and facilitates the managerial
functions at all levels; and effective external communication relates and integrates an enterprise
successfully to its external environment.

4.2.2. Internal Communication

Internal Communication in the organization could be categorized as Formal and Informal

Communication.

4.2.2.1. Formal Communication

Communication in organizations takes two forms: “formal” and Informal”. Formal

communication is that which follows prescribed channels of communication throughout the
organization-typically the chain of command. It follows the official channels of communication
prescribed in the organization structure. Informal communication generally is considered to be
any interaction that does not follow official channels of communication.

Formal communication is the official patterns of communication that are designed, approved,
and recognized by the management of the organization. It is an integral part of the organization
structure. Organizational chart can be regarded as anatomical drawing of the official channels
(paths) through which official messages travel. Formal communication is thus the official chains

45
that determine the flow and direction of official messages among individuals or divisions in an
organization. Formal channels of communication provide for the structured flow of primarily
vertical communication (upward and downward) and secondarily crosswise (horizontal and
diagonal) communication.

4.2.2.1.1. Downward Communication

Activity 4.4: Clearly state the mission, vision, goals, objectives, strategies, policies, and
three year plans of your organization. If you do not know them how can you really
contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the organization.

Messages flowing upper from organizational levels to lower organizational levels constitute
downward communication.

Downward communication has three main objectives.

i) To provide directives to subordinates.

Through downward communication, organizations;

 Assign goals and explain the reason for assignment

 Direct the activities of employees
 Instruct them in proper behaviors and work methods
 Persuade them to adopt certain attitudes and ideas
 Evaluate their performance on the job
 Solicit upward communication, and
 Provide entertainment

ii) To indoctrinate company objectives, strategies, programs, policies and procedures.

iii) Appraise subordinates’ performance/performance feedback: Performance of subordinates

must be evaluated continuously or periodically. The performance result must also be
communicated to the subordinates so as to help them know whether they are meeting their goals
or not. Positive evaluations contribute in raising the morale of workers and thereby increase their
productivity. Carefully communicated low evaluations also help the subordinates to overcome
their shortcomings and take corrective measures.

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The most commonly used downward communication methods are the following:

i) Employee hand books- used to provide basic information about the organization, pay policies,
and benefit programs, work rules, and working facilities.

ii) Job descriptions and work procedures-used to inform an individual what is expected of him
and his work unit form the organization.

iii) Newsletters- are periodical publication about the news of the organization and other related
activities.

iv) \Letters and memoranda

v) Employment interview-used to promote good relations with prospective employee.

vi) Performance appraisals- conducted as a private meeting between a superior and his
subordinate.

vii) Disciplinary interviews- conducted by managers and superiors when employees violate the
rules and regulations of the organization.

viii) Departmental or unit meetings- often called by supervisors used to discuss with subordinate
about

 Current events in the company

 Future plans of the company
 Progress reports, (evaluation reports)

ix) New employee orientation programs-used to give employees detailed information about their
jobs and the environment at which they will work. This helps employees to feel welcome in the
organization and learn about matters that directly affect them; and adapt to the new environment
and become effective.

Limitations of Downward Communication

i) Communication often is not received

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Employees often do not read the announcements, or they ignore the bulletins that are posted and
overlook the posters that announce current events. Supervisors and managers choose not to
conduct departmental meetings, or neglect to conduct the disciplinary or appraisal interviews that
are their responsibility.

ii) Communication occurs too frequently and after a time employees become saturated and
simply stop paying attention.

iii) Distortion or filtering

The sheer number of people involved makes it likely that:

Facts will be distorted

Details will be filtered out
The meaning of the message will be changed

iv) Built in resistance

Downward communication is characterized by some degree of authoritarianism. Subordinators

are expected to receive the message at its face value, i.e without questioning the validity,
reliability and appropriateness of the message.

Ways of Improving Downward Communication

 The message must be clearly understood by the subordinate

 The employee has to believe the order or instruction is consistent with the
organization goal.
 The subordinate must be able to comply with the order mentally and physically.
Orders and instructions have to be reasonable enough to reflect the capacity of the
subordinate with due regard to time.

Activity 4.5: Clearly state the mission, vision, goals, objectives, strategies, policies, and three
year plans of your organization. If you do not know them how can you really contribute to the
achievement of the objectives of the organization.

4.2.2.1.2 Upward Communication

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Upward communication constitutes the flow of information from subordinates to supervisors. It
involves information about

 Subordinates performance
 Feedback on organization a policies and practices
 Problem solving suggestions opinions, complaints etc.

Importance of Upward Communication

i) Providing feedback: Managerial function is incomplete without feedback. Managers ascertain

whether:

 The policies are being followed

 The rules are being strictly respected
 The directives are properly carried out by means of feedback.

ii) Outlet for pent-up emotions

Upward communication provides employees with the opportunity to channel their problems,
complains, and grievances to superiors. This reduces frustration and enables employees develop
positive attitude.

iii) Providing constructive suggestions

Every member of an organization has a capacity to contribute ideas or suggestions that can
promote the welfare of the organization. Every employee is endowed with some creative
capacity and wise managers utilize the creative capacity of their subordinates.

When subordinates’ constructive suggestions are accepted and implemented, they feel
encouraged and motivated because they believe are participating in decision making. This also
enables them to identify themselves with the management and the organization.

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iv) Easier introduction of new schemes

Effective upward communication minimizes resistance to changes and makes them exert extra
efforts to make the new schemes successful.

v) Greater harmony between superiors and subordinates

Methods of Upward Communication: The most common methods of upward communication

are the following:

i) Employee opinion surveys: These are written questionnaires asking employees to report about
their attitudes and feelings toward all elements of their working lives. Responses are anonymous
and employees are free to express their attitudes without fear of reprisal.

ii) Letters and reports.

iii) Suggestion and complaints boxes- often effective at the beginning and their novelty quickly
wear off.

iv) Open door policies: This allows employees to stop by any manager’s office with concern,
suggestion, or complaint whenever they feel the need. Practically, however, many managers may
not have either time or willingness to listen to the ideas of subordinates and other lower level
people. Moreover, entering managers’ offices is often intimidating.

v) Open floor policies/management by walking: This is an upward communication method

through which management member’s walk around work areas talking informally with
employees individually or in-group. This method is more effective because employees are likely
to say what is in their minds when they are at work.

vi) Departmental meetings- employees are freer to report discuss and evaluate all elements of
their work lives than using written reports.

vii) Social gatherings: Social gathering creates favorable atmosphere for informal upward
communication through employees throw away their timidity and fear and feel free to talk to
superiors about organizational and personal problems.

Limitations of Upward Communication

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i) Upward communication is subject to substantial distortion: Employees are reluctant to
communicate negative information to superiors. Subordinates make every attempt to send
messages that please management and this leads to exaggerated information.

ii) By passing some organizational levels: When subordinates by pass their immediate superiors,
the possible result can be:

 Hostility between a subordinate and his/her immediate superior

 Information overload to top management resulting in distrust for lack of response
 Violation of the chain of command

iii) Many superiors discourage upward communication because of Negligence, lack of

confidence, or because they claim to be busy.

4.2.2.1.3 Horizontal Communication

Horizontal or lateral communication is communication between people or work units at the same
level of organizational hierarchy. It is designed to save time and facilitate control. Strict
adherence to the chain of command might result in the following problems.

 By the time the communication process in complete through the scalar chain, the
information may be useless.
 The communication must pass through various levels aggravating screening and
distortion.
 The communications will unnecessarily costly in terms of time and money.

4.2.2.1.4 Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication takes place between work units or people at different levels of
organizational hierarchy but without having direct reporting relationship. It is designed to
support the vertical and horizontal communication systems.

Conclusion

The vertical, horizontal, and diagonal communication constitutes the internal communication.
Effective internal communication helps in decreasing absenteeism, grievance, turnover; and

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increasing job satisfaction, belongingness, productivity, and profit. In general effective internal
communication integrates and puts into action the management functions.

It is needed to:

 Establish and disseminate goals and develop plans for their accomplishment.
 Organize human and non-human resources in most efficient and effective way.
 Select, develop, and appraise organizational members.
 Lead, motivate, and create a conducive climate at which employees are made to
contribute to organizational goals.

4.2.2.2. Informal Communication(The Grapevine)

People talk about job related or unrelated information. They talk about promotions, salary
increment, demotions, administrative policies and decisions. They also talk about local and
international affairs. They talk such situations in the form of rumors, gossips, daily friendly chat
etc. This all travel through informal networks that often develop through incidents of spatial
arrangement, similarity of personalities or compatibilities of personal skills. Informal
communication is thus, ones, aspect of organizational communication that is not designed and
recognized by management. Since every communication cannot be programmed, grapevine is
created and exists out of the will of management. It arises out of the need for social interaction
between people in the organization.

Of course what they share at an informal level will affect their ability to communicate about their
jobs and their attitude towards their work and the organization. Most employees are involved in
several networks at the same time; some grow from political ties, other from technical interests
and still others from social preferences. Grapevine is thus made up of several information
networks that overlap and interest at a number of points-that is some well informed individuals
are likely to belong to more than one informal networks. It shows admirable disregard for rank
and authority. The situations that employees may informally discuss in the form of rumors and
gossips may distort the accuracy of the information and may even go against the interest of the
organization, but managers cannot avoid it because it is not created by management.

Four Informal Communication configurations

1. Single strand:
A B C D

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2. Gossip - a person with the information passes it to every other individual in the chain

F
B C A
A
3.Random - Probability chain - each person passes on information at random, without particular regard for who
the receiver is. And the receivers use the same approach in their communication efforts.

C D
E

A
D
G

I
H

4. Cluster chain - information is passed on selectively: the individual deliberately tells

some people and does not tell others. Some of those getting the information pass it on to
others while the remainder does not. The result is that handful of people often account for
all of the information that is passed along this information chain.

F
C
E

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 M
G J

H I

K L
Importance of the grapevine

i) It is used by employees as a safety value

Employees use the grapevine as a way of expressing their confined emotions use releasing their
anxieties. When people feel powerless to direct their destinies, the grapevine is a way to letting
their confined emotions thereby reducing frustration.

ii) The grapevine promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion.

People have inborn interest to interact and they satisfy their needs for friendliness, Love and
acceptance by their peers.

iii) Provides feedback to management

It enables managers to know the real responses of employees towards a policy or other parts of
the organization from the grapevine leaders informally than formal reports from supervisors. The
most negative attribute of the grapevine, however, is that it serves as a network for rumors that
cannot be supported by facts. Rumors can travel like wild fire across the boundary of an
organization thereby spoiling the public image of the organization. Besides often transmits
incomplete information resulting in possible misunderstanding, confusion and wrong action.

Ways of effectively utilizing the grapevine

Grapevine is a natural and enviable result of people working together in groups. It cannot be
avoided because the more one tries to block the more force it will have. Therefore the following
are some of the ways through which the grapevine can be utilized effectively for organizational
purposes. Managers should admit its existence and try to feed the leaders or the grapevine
accurate information for fast dissemination and minimize rumors that adversely affect the

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Organizations productivity and public image. The grapevine should be used to diagnose the
feelings and attitudes of employees so that Management policies, styles and other practices
would be adjusted profitably according to the common interest.

Encouraging informal organizations to build team work wand mutual understanding so that false
rumors can be prevented before they prove to be harmful and disastrous.

4.3. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

We communicate in many different ways. What we say can be reinforced or contradicted by

nonverbal communication, such as facial expressions and body gestures. Nonverbal symbols are
expected to support the verbal. But it is not always so. For example, an autocratic manager who
pounds a first on the table while announcing that from now on participate management will be
practiced certainly creates a credibility gap. Similarly, managers who state that they have an
open-door policy, but then have a secretary carefully screen people who want to see the boss
create incongruence between what they say and the way they behave. Clearly, nonverbal
communication may support or contradict verbal communication, giving rise to the saying that
actions often speak louder than words.

Nonverbal communication is any message (information) the sender communicates without using
words. This type of communication, sometimes referred to as body language, is an important part
of the communication process. It takes place through body language (body movement) such as
gesture, eye contact, facial expression, and voice intonations as well as physical appearance. A
meaning is attached to these nonverbal symbols. The meaning of nonverbal communication is in
the observer, who both reads specific signals and interprets them in the context of the particular
situation.

4.3. 1 CHANNELS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. Facial expressions and eye behavior

The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the
intensity of a person’s feelings.

A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used to indicate
attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and to establish dominance.

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Although the eyes and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes
manipulate their expressions to simulate an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true
feelings.

2. Gestures and Postures

By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a
wave of the hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or
goodbye.” The other types of body movement are unintentional and express general messages.
These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile,
assertive or passive, powerful or powerless.

3. Vocal characteristic/tones

The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are,
your relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.

4. Personal/physical/ appearance

The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on
the basis of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people
think we are capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior,
which in turn affects other people’s perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style
modify our appearance.

5. Use of time and space

This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and
determines how comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves
important functions with respect to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it,
substitute for it, or accent it. It is important for the receiver to understand the real message
conveyed by the nonverbal communication. Although verbal and nonverbal communication
works together best when they are complementary, nonverbal communication may take the place
of or even contradict formal communication or is misleading.

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One should look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender’s
words; he should particularly be aware of contradictions of the messages. For instance, a boss
may say that he/she is free to talk to him about a grievance but he may see nonverbal signals that
suggest that this is not the time to discuss the subject. Regardless of what is being said, an
individual who frequently glances at his/her wristwatch is giving the message that he/she would
prefer to terminate the conversation. These contradictions suggest one saying that “actions speak
louder-and more accurately-than words.

SUMMARY

Verbal and nonverbal messages are the tools of effective leadership. People in business and
professional settings who use and interpret verbal and nonverbal messages effectively become
leaders. Their leadership gives them the ability to influence others and to effect change in the
workplace. Put simply, they make work happen. Three sets of verbal communication skills will
help you use and interpret verbal messages effectively:

 The first skill set focuses on making messages concrete, concise, and relevant.
 The second verbal communication skill set involves communicating supportive messages
that enhance the communication climate.
 The third verbal communication skill set is aimed at communicating assertive messages—
that is, making requests rather than demands.
 The use of text messages in workplace communication is effective when used
appropriately, and not to convey important or personal information.
 To use and interpret nonverbal messages effectively, it is important to understand the unique
characteristics, functions, and sources of nonverbal messages.
 Nonverbal messages are unique in that they convey our feelings and emotions; they convey
relational cues, which help us form relationships; they tend to be authentic and believable;
and they are culture bound.
 Nonverbal messages function on a variety of levels, which means they serve a number of
purposes. Nonverbal messages can be used to substitute, complement, repeat, regulate,
accent, or contradict.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Part I: Choose the most appropriate answer and encircle your choice.

1. An oral channel is the best under the following situations except

A. You do not need a permanent record

B. You want immediate feedback

C. You do need a permanent and verifiable record D. Your message is relatively

simple E. None of the above

2. Which of the following statements does not characterize non-verbal communication?

A. Nonverbal communication is spontaneous and is difficult to plan

B. Nonverbal communication sometimes is made unconsciously out of your mind control

C. Nonverbal communication is structured

D. Nonverbal communication is difficult to learn and study

E. Nonverbal communications vary from culture to culture

3. Brief documents usually used for internal communication within an organization and
also Coined as “work horses” are said to be

A. Letters C. Proposals

B. Memos D. Reports

4. Which of the following is not a medium through which a message is sent

A. Speech B. Teleconference

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 C. Fax D. Letter E. None of the above
5. Top managers hesitate to listen to those individuals lower in the hierarchy is called
A) Credibility C) Closed mind
B) Status consciousness D)Unfavorable information E) None
6. People tend to react favorably when the message they receive agree with their view
towards the information, the set of facts and the sender.
A) Channel selection C) Bypassed instruction
B) Interpretation of words D)Attitude and opinions E) None
7. The following statements are true about perceptions of reality except
A. Reality is not a fixed concept
B. Human being has limited sensory perception
C. Each person mental filter is unique
D. Two persons perceive reality in the same way
8. Which one of the following is wrong about non-verbal communication?
A. Information conveyed by action
B. Receiver gives more weight to verbal communication
C. Non verbal communication can stand-alone
D. Non verbal communication conveys the emotional state of the sender
E. None
9. For which one of the following horizontal communication is used
A) Coordinating tasks B) Sharing information
C) Solving problems D) Resolving conflict
E) All F) None

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