1 Properties of the Surface The suitability ofa workpiece for its purpose depends on the inner properties (material properties, inner discontinuities, eg shrink hole, inner imperfections, e.g. segress> tions) and on its surface condition ‘The surface condition comprises the properties ofthe surface border zone, These are chemical, mechanical and geometrical properties, Fig. 1. ‘The chemical and mechanical properties comprise chemical composition, grain, hardness, strength and inhomogeneities. The properties of the surface border zone may be diferent from those in the core zone, ‘The geometrical properties are defined as deviations fom geometrical ideal ele- iments (Features) of the workpiece, Geometrical ideal elements (features) are parts of the entire workpicce surface, which have geometrical sique and nominal form as ©, planes, eyinders, spheres, cones and tor. They can also be derived as, for example, axes, section lines, generator lines, lines of highest points and edges, Fig. 1.2. Geometrical deviations are size deviations form deviations orientational deviations locational deviations roughness surface discontinuities edge deviations Sursee condition Nateral properties of boundary laye ‘Gaomatical properties ——ervs Geomerseal daw emical coms Edge dev face dscortinutios 30k, pores. aps at LL. Resicual sess Process epocife dev wording, casing ole} Material ests pe inspect Fig. 1.1. Propertios of surfaces and thelr tests and inspections2 Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Design, Manufacturing a - sphere cylinaer generat f L— evinces plane Fig. 1.2 Examples of geometrical elements, Size deviation isthe difference between actual size and nominal sie. It has to be distinguished between “+ deviation of the actual local size from the nominal linear size or fom the nominal angular size; ‘+ deviation ofthe actual substitute size from the nominal substitute size, se 8 ‘The actual local linar sizes are assessed by swo-point-measurements (ISO 8015, 180 286 and ISO 14 660-2), see Fig. 826. The actual local angular sizes are assessed by angular measusements of averaged lines (ISO 8015, ISO 1947), see Fig, 3.45, ‘The actual local sizes of the same geometrical element of one workpiece ae diffe: ‘ent depending om ther location. Te actual substitute size is unique and therefore rep- resentative forthe entire geometrical element of one workpiece. Size deviations ate assessed over the entre geometccal clement, They originate ‘mainly by imprecise adjustment ofthe machine tool and by variations during the manu: facturing process, eg, de to tool weet. For special functions the new standard ISO 14 405 also presents other definitions of| sizes and their drawing modifier symbols, For example, diameter defined as circumference divided by with the modifier CC or diameter ofthe maximum inscribed cylinder with the modifier GX. The two-point size is according to ISO 14 40S, the default (without the modifier), and used in this book (in contrast o ASME Y14.5 rule #1), Form deviation isthe deviation of a feature (geometrical element, surface or tne) from its nominal frm (Fig. 1.3) If not otherwise specified form deviations are assessed over (or along) the entire feature. Form deviations are originated, for example, by th loose ness or error in guidanees and bearings of the machine tool, deflections of the machine ‘tool orthe workpiece, errr in the fixture ofthe workpiece, hardness deflection or wear. “The ratio between width and depth of local form deviations is in general more than 1000:1 (VDUVDE 2601), Orientational deviation isthe deviation ofa feature from its nominal form and ori- entation. The orientation is related to one or more (other) datum feature(s. The orien: tational deviation includes the form deviation (Fig. 1.3). If not otherwise specified ations are assessed over the entire Feature. Orientational deviations areProperties ofthe surface 3 locatonsl —ofenatonal farm Sonaton Seater ovat : — t { Za ro v datum Fig. 1.3 Form deviation, orientational deviation and locational deviation roughness or waviness profile LS roughness or waviness measurement ng Fig. 1.4 Assessment of roughness or waviness originated similarly as form deviations, They are originated also by erroneous fixture of the workpioce after remounting on the machine tool Locational deviation isthe deviation ofa feature (surface, line, point) fom its nominal location. The location is related to one or more (other) datum feature(s). The locational deviation ineludes also the form deviation and the orientational deviation (of the sur> face, axis, or median face) (Fig. 13). If not otherwise specified locational deviations are assessed over the entire feature. Locational deviations are originaed similarly as size, form and orientational deviations, ‘Waviness is mostly more or less periodic iregulaities of @ workpiece surface with spacings greater than the spacings of its roughness (DIN 4774). The ratio between spacing and depth ofthe waviness is in general between 1000:1 and 100:1. In general ‘more than one wave ean be recognized (VDI/VDE 2601). The waviness is assessed from ‘one or more representative pars of the surface (Fig. 14), Waviness is originated by eccentric fixture during the manufacturing process or by form deviations of the cutter4 Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Design, Manufacturing ‘or by vibrations of the machine tool andr the cuting tool andor the workpiece (DIN £4760), Waviness will not be dealt wit i the following, Roughness is periodic or non-petiodie inregularties of a workpiece surface with small spacings inherent of the forming process, The ratio between spacing and depth of the roughness is in general betwoon [50:1 and 5:1 (VDU/VDE 2601), The roughness is assessed from one or more representative pars ofthe surface (Fig. 14). Roughness is originated by the direct effect ofthe cutting edges (VDUVDE 2601), i.e. by imprinting the cutting edges onthe surface. Due tothe eutting process (tear chip, shear chip) the print will be modified, Other origins are deformations from blasting, gemmation with galvanizing, crystallization, and chemical effets (mordants, corrosion), Roughness ranges dawn to the erystal structure (DIN 4760). Roughness will not be dealt within the following, Surface discontinuity isan isolated imperfection of the surface like a crack, pore or lap. In general itis not (akon into account when assessing deviations of size, form, orientation, location, waviness and roughness. The definitions and sizes and permissi- bilities of surface discontinuities have to be dealt with separately. At this ime there are very few standards on this subject available, efor fastoners 180 6137 and for hot milled steel products ISO 943, Surface dscontisutie will not ‘be deat: with in the follow Edge deviations arc devitions of the workpicce edge zone from the geometrical ideal shape like burr or abraded edges instead of sharp edges. ISO 13 715 defines tol- erances for edges and gives the drawing indications. They are dealt within clause 22 of this book. ‘The classification of surface irregularities as described above is wsefl forthe fol- lowing reasons: (a) The different kinds of surface iregularites have diferent origins in the manu- facturing process. In order to control the manufacturing process these kinds must be assessed separately. () The different kinds of surface iregularties often have different effects on the suitability of the surface for is purpose. For example, on raceways of ball bearings, ‘waviness as a great influence on lifetime and noise while roughness has litle influ: ence. In order to specify the permissible function-elated deviations, the different kinds ‘must be specified separately () The depths of the iregularities vary in large ranges, between about 0.1 um (and sometimes smaller) with roughness and about 100 jum (and sometimes moze) with form. deviations. The rato between spacing and depth of te iregularites also varies greatly “The smallest ratio between spacing and depth occurs with cracks and is in gencral smaller than 5:1. Whereas the ratio between spacing and depth with form deviations is in general greater than 1000-1, Because ofthese wide ranges the requirements for meas- ‘uring devices and for diagrams are quits different. For the assessment of different kinds ofthe irregularities (deviations) different kinds of measuring instruments with diferent rmagniications and diferent profile diagrams with different ratios of horizontal to ver: tical magnifications are used The definitions of the different kinds of irregularities (deviations) are rather uncer- tain, There are no distint hordeines. Therefore it was discussed in ISO to define bor- derlines in terms of defined spacing of iregularites or in terms of defined ratios between spacing and depths of iepulariies or in terms of defined ratios between spacing of inregulaities and feature lengths, However, it was decided to retain the definitionsProperties ofthe surface 5 according tothe causes ofthe iregularites (ISO 4287, ANSI B46.1, BS 1134 and DIN 460) ‘There is another distinction between micro and macro deviations, Macro devia tions are those, that can be assessed with usual measuring devices forthe assessment of siz, form, orientation and location (eg, dial indicator). Micro deviations are those that ae assessed wilh roughness or waviness measuring instruments. Macro deviations ave assessed over the entire feature length; miero deviations ae assessed from a repre sentative part of the surface, Also, there is no disinet borderline because sometimes parts ofthe waviness will contribute to the result of the measured macro deviations and sometimes parts of the form deviations will contribute tothe result of the measured ro deviations (waviness), Figure 1.5 gives an idea ofthe combination (superposition) of the kinds of irregu= tes (deviations) ona surface. lar ‘rors in guidance of machine tool eflectors of machine too! or workpiece feror i ture ol workpiece, ‘warping, wear econ tour ‘om goviaton of tol vibration grooves, ‘um o1 feo cuting edge, Walang verteal ed ceuttng process (tear ehip, shar en), deformaton from blasting, ‘germation wis galvanizing rystalization process, ordart,eortosion| presentable ‘th ordor: Roughness: rot scosontatle Soperpost 1.1.5 Superposition of surface deviations (DIN 4760)