1

ELECTROSTATIS CH # 12
Definition:
The branch of physics in which we deal with properties of electric charge at rest is called Electrostatics.
COULOMB’S LAW
(Short Questions)
Q. What do you know about electrostatics?
Ans. The branch of Physics that deals with the charges at rest is called electrostatics.
Q. State Coulomb’s law and write down its mathematical form.
Ans. Statement:
The force between to point charge is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of
point charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically:
1 q1q2
F=
4pe o r 2
Q. Define permittivity (absolute permittivity) and relative permittivity (dielectric constant).
Ans. Permittivity or Absolute permittivity: permittivity or absolute permittivity is the measure of
resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a particular medium, usually denoted by
the Greek letter ε (epsilon).
Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant:
The ratio of coulombs force between two given point charge when there is free space between
them, to the coulombs force between same two point charges when some other dielectric medium
between them, is called dielectric constant. Mathematically we write.
F
= εr
F¢
The value of εr is greater than 1
Q. Write the value of coulomb’s constant and permittivity of free space.
Ans. For free space between the two point charges and using SI system of unit’s, the value K and εo is
written as
1
K= = 9 × 109 C 2 N / m 2
4pe o q2
εo = 8.86 × 10 -12 2
C N/m 2
r̂12
Q. Write the Coulomb’s law in its vector form. F21
q1
Ans. The formula for the force between two-point charges can be written in F12 q2
vector form as follows.
r̂12

r̂21
1 q1q2
F21 = r̂21 Here r̂21 is unit vector from q1 to q2
4pe o r 2
1 q1q2
F12 = r̂12 Here r̂12 is unit vector from q2 to q1 q1
4pe o r 2
Q. What is the Effect of medium between the charges on Coulomb’s force?
Ans. It is experimentally found that value of force reduces by a factor ε r if we use dielectric medium
other than free space. Where εr is relative permittivity of dielectric medium with respect to free space. If
we use dielectric medium of permittivity ε other than air, the coulombs law becomes
1 q1q2
F' = here e = e oe r
4pe r 2
1 q1q2
So F' =
4pe oe r r 2
 2

F
= er
F¢
or F = er F ¢
The value of εr is greater than 1 so F > F ¢ .
 3

Topic:
Quantitatively, the force between two charges first of all measured by French military engineer Charles Coulomb in 1784 AD. By
performing experimental measurements, Coulomb realized that the force exerted by one point charge on another act along the line joining
the charges.
Statement:
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of
point charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically:
If two-point charge q1 and q2 separated by small distance r, the force between them varies
inversely as the square of the distance separating the charges
1
Fµ
r2
And it is proportional to the product of the charges.
F µ q1q2
By combining the above factors, we can write
q1q2
F∝
r2
q 1q 2
F = (constant)
r2
q 1q 2
F=K --------(1)
r2
Where K is proportionality constant. The value of K depends upon nature of the medium
between two point charges and also upon the selection of units. For free space between the two point
charges and using SI system of units, the value of K is written as
1
K=
4 o
1 q 1q 2
So equation (1) becomes F=
4 o r 2
The force between two point charges given by above mathematical expression is called
coulomb’s force. It is a conservative force. Here εo is a constant known as permittivity of free space. Its
value in SI system of units is 8.86 × 10 -12 C2 N / m2. By putting the value of εo we get;
1
K= = 9 × 109 C 2 N / m 2 q2
4 o
Coulombs law in vector form: r̂12
If we denote F21
q1
F12 = force on q1 due the q2
F12 q2
F21 = force on q2 due to q1 r̂12

The force is repulsive if the charges have the same signs and attractive if r̂21
the charges have opposite signs. Force acting on q1 due to q2 is of same
magnitude as the force acting on q2 due to q1 but these two have opposite
directions so we can call them action and reaction forces. We can write as q1
F12 = - F21
The formula for the force between two point charges can be written in vector form as follows.
1 q 1q 2
F21 = r̂ Here r̂21 is unit vector from q1 to q2
4 o r 2 21
1 q 1q 2
F12 = r̂ Here r̂12 is unit vector from q2 to q1
4 o r 2 12
From fig, we can write as
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r̂12 = - r̂21
This confirmed that
F12 = - F21
Effect of medium:
It is experimentally confirmed that value of force between two point charges is affected by
changing the medium between them. If we use dielectric medium of permittivity ε other than air, the
coulomb’s force becomes
1 q 1q 2 ε
F' = 2 here ε=ε o ε r as ε r =
4πε r εo
1 q 1q 2
So F' =
4 o  r r 2
Where εr is relative permittivity of dielectric medium with respect to free space.
Dielectric constant:
The ratio of coulombs force between two given point charge when there is free space between
them to the coulombs force between same two point charges when some other dielectric medium
between them, is called dielectric constant. Mathematically we write.
1 q1q2
F 4pe r 2 = εr
=
F′ 1 q1q2
4pe oe r r2
Above relation shows that F́ > F so value of εr is greater than 1
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Field of force
(Short Questions)
Q. What do you know about electric field and Electric Field Intensity or Strength? Also write its
expression and units.
Ans.
Electric Field: It is the region around any point charge in which it can exert coulombs force on any
other charge when placed in that region is called electric field or field of force.
Electric Field Strength: The electric field intensity or strength at a point is defined as the force
experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
Mathematically:
F
E=
qo
Units:
F Newton
E= = =N∕C
qo Coulomb
Q. Derive the expression of Electric Field Intensity due to Point Charge.
Ans. The force experienced by a test charge qo when it is placed at a distance r from an electric charge q
the coulomb’s force between them is given by
1 qqo
F= r̂
4pe o r 2
The test charge must be of very small value so it cannot disturb the electric field produce by q. So By
F
using above equation in E =
qo
1 qqo
r̂
4pe o r 2
We will get E=
qo
1 q
E= r̂
4pe o r 2
It is the required formula to calculate the electric intensity at a distance r from a point charge q.
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Topic:
It is the region around any point charge in which it can exert coulombs force on any other
charge when placed in that region is called field of force.
To explain how a point charge exert force to the other charge placed in its field, the concept of electric field was
introduced by Michael Faraday (1791▬1867AD)
Theory:
According to Michael Faraday it is intrinsic property of nature that electric field exists around an
electric charge. This field is a force field. This
means force is exerted on any other electric charge
when placed inside this field.
Explanation:
Let us suppose that an electric charge q +q -q

produces electric field all around it. This field is

independent of any other electric charge placed
near by. To test the existence of this field another
electric charge qo is brought inside the field of the
q.
The interaction between q and qo is due to the following two factors.
(1) Charge q produces electric field.
(2) Field interacts with charge qo to produce electric force.
The strength of electric force near the charge is stronger as compared with far off point.

Electric Field Strength:

The strength and direction of an electric field at a point is measured by placing a unit positive
charge at that point. The direction in which the unit positive charge moves or tends to move is the
direction of field. The strength of the field is the magnitude of the force experienced by the unit positive
charge placed at that point.
Definition:
“The electric field intensity or strength at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point”.
Mathematically
F
E= -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - (1)
qo
The force experienced by a test charge qo when it is placed at a distance r from an electric charge
q the coulomb’s force between them is given by
1 qq o
F= r̂ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- (2)
4 o r 2
The test charge must be of very small value so it cannot disturb the electric field produce by q.
By using (2) in (1) we will get
1 qq o
r̂
4 o r 2
E=
qo
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1 q
E= r̂
4 o r 2
It is the required formula to calculate the electric intensity at a distance r from a point charge q.
Units:
F Newton
E= = =N∕C
qo Coulomb
As we see the units of electric intensity is Newton per Coulomb.
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Electric field lines:

(Short Questions)
Q. What are electric field lines and write down its characteristics?
The visual representation of electric field region with the lines are known as electric filed lines.
A small arrow indicates the direction of the electric force at that point. These arrows are always directed
away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge as shown in fig.
Characteristics of lines of force:
(1) The electric lines of force do not intersect each other.
(2) The electric lines of force start from position of positive charge and end at the position of negative
charge.
(3) The electric lines of force are closed together at the points where the field is stronger and are
further apart at the points where it is weaker.
(4) If electric lines of force are parallel to each other then the electric field is uniform at that point.
(5) The number of electric lines of force passing per unit area held perpendicular to the direction of
lines is directly proportional to the strength of electric field at the position of the area.
(6) The electric lines of force become curve if two similar charges separated at short distance.
(7) The lines of force are at right angle to the surface of conductor.
(8) The lines of force have no physical existence.
(9) The lines of force never cross each other.
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Application of electrostatics:
(Short Question)
Q. What do you mean by photoconductor and give an example of photoconductor?
Photoconductor is an insulator in the darkness and it becomes conductor when exposed to light,
selenium is a photoconductor.
Q. What do you mean by Xerography?
Ans: Photocopier or xerography means “dry writing” or photocopying.
Topic:
(1) xerography (photocopier or dry writing)
“Xerography” is Greek word it means “dry” and “graphos” mean writing hence xerography
means “dry writing” or photocopying.

Paper to be copied –face down

downcown

LCA

Len
s

Lamp Toner cartridge

containing black
Cylinder toner dust

LCA

Printed image Paper on which

image is printed
Heated rollers

Construction:
The major parts of a photocopier machine are shown in figure.
The main part or heart of photocopier machine is of Aluminium cylinder coated with a thin layer
of selenium. Aluminium is a good conductor whereas selenium is an insulator in the darkness and it
becomes conductor when exposed to light or selenium is photoconductor.
Working:
Positively charged material is sprinkled over the selenium. These charge remains on the surface
of cylinder till it remains in darkness. And when light falls on the cylinder, then selenium coating emits
photoelectrons, which carry negative charge and neutralize the positive charge already sprinkled on the
surface of cylinder.
When an image is formed on the surface of cylinder, when it is being exposed to light, then at the
position of image positive charge is not neutralized because no photoelectron is emitted from there. The
area under shadow of the image remains insulating while reaming area of cylinder on which light is
falling becomes conducting and neutralizes positive charge and becomes electrically neutral.
The toner is a black powder, which is negatively charged and is spread over the drum. This black
powder sticks with the image area due to positive charge on it. This is then transferred on to the sheet of
paper on which document is to be copied. After this hot rollers then melt the toner into the paper to give
permanent impression of image of document.
(2) Inkjet printer:
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Inkjet printer uses electric charge in its operation. The inkjet printer ejects a very thin stream of
ink, which is forced to come out of a nozzle, in the form of very very small droplets during the spray of
ink the inkjet moves to and fro on the paper.
Working:
The small droplets come from nozzle of inkjet printer and pass through charging and deflecting
regions. These regions are shown in the figure. Two plates are connected with a battery. These are called
deflecting plate. When print head passes over the regions of paper, which are made to be inked, the
charging electron become on and there give electric charge to the ink droplets. When these charged ink
droplets pass through deflecting plates, then this experience electric force due to charge on them and
these are deflected towards gutter. In this way these droplets cannot reach the sheet of paper.
Charging
electrodes Deflection plates

Nozzle
of
printer Gutter
Pump
Paper
Charge
Controller

Ink supply

Instruction from computer

When ever ink is to be placed on the sheet of paper to give print on it, then charging electrodes
become off. The ink droplet remains uncharged so these droplets experience no electric force while
passing through the region between deflecting plates towards gutter and fall straight on the sheet of
paper, as shown in figure.
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Electric flux:
(Short Questions)
Q. What is Electric flux, on what factors it depends and when does the flux have maximum and
minimum value?
Electric Flux:
“the measure of number of electric lines of force passing through a certain element of area is
known as electric flux”. It is denoted by φe.
Factors:
The value of electric flux passing through an area of element depends upon the following factors.
The value of electric intensity E:
Greater is the value of electric field intensity greater is value of electric flux.
The value of area ΔA:
The greater is the value of area greater is the value of electric flux passing through
The orientation of area:
The orientation of area of an element is represented with the help vector area. Keeping the above
factors in mind the magnitude of electric flux passing through area of an element ΔA is written as
Δφe = E. ΔA
Δφe = E ΔA Cosθ
Here θ is the angle between the direction of E and ΔA.
Maximum flux:
When plane of area is held perpendicular to line of electric field, then maximum value of
electric flux passing through it is.
Minimum flux:
When plane of area is held parallel to lines of electric field, the value of electric flux is minimum or zero
through it.
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Topic:
Definition: B
“Electric flux is defined as the measure of number of electric
lines of force passing through a certain area”. It is denoted by Φe.
Explanation:
In order to give quantitative meaning to flux, the field lines
drawn such that the number of field lines passing through a unit area
held perpendicular to field lines at a point represent the intensity E
A
of the field at that point. Suppose at given point the value of E is
4NC -1. This means that if 1m2 area is held perpendicular to field
lines at this point, 4 field lines will pass through it.
Maximum flux:
When area of element is held perpendicular to line of
electric field, then maximum value of electric flux passing A E
through it is.
Vector area:
Consider a closed surface like Minimum flux:
the surface of balloon. Divide When area of element is held parallel
the whole surface into little to lines of electric field, the value of
patches, which are so small that electric flux is minimum or zero A E
over any patch the surface is through it.
practically flat. If we want to
describe any patch of the Direction of area with field line:
surface, we should mention When area of an element makes an angle
both its orientation as ell as θ lying between 0 o and 90 o then value of
magnitude. A unit vector drawn flux depends upon the value of θ. A E
along the normal to the patch The value of electric flux passing through θ
can represent the orientation of
any patch. Thus a small element an area of element depends upon the
of a surface of area ΔA, having following factors.
its outward drawn normal along The value of electric intensity E:
a unit vector can be represented Greater is the value of electric field
by a vector intensity greater is value of electric flux.
^
ΔA= ΔA n The value of area ΔA:
The greater is the value of area greater is the value of electric flux
passing through
The orientation of area:
The orientation of area of an element is represented with the help vector area. Keeping the above
factors in mind the magnitude of electric flux passing through area of an element ΔA is written as
ΔΦe = E . ΔA
ΔΦe = E ΔA cosθ
Here θ is the angle between the direction of E and ΔA.
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Electric flux through a surface enclosing a charge:

(Short Questions)
Q. What do you mean by Gaussian surface?
Ans. It is an imaginary surface of suitable shape around which electric flux calculation is easy is called
Gaussian surface. It is passes through the point at which value of electric intensity is to be calculated.
Q. Does electric flux due to a point charge inside irregular shape closed
surface depends on the shape of the surface?
Ans. Consider an arbitrary shaped close surface and a point charge q lies
anywhere inside it then the value of electric flux through the closed surface of
irregular shape is same as the electric flux passing through the surface of
imaginary sphere centered at the position of q and lying inside the closed surface
+q
of irregular shape. This shows that total electric flux through a closed surface does
not depend upon the geometry of closed surface and depends upon the value of
charge enclosed.
Q. Where does we can apply Gauss’s law?
Gauss’s law is applied to find intensity of electric field due to different shapes of charge
distribution.
Topic:
Let us calculate electric flux through a close surface in the form
E
of a sphere having a point charge at its center.
Electric field due to point charge is spread all over the surface ∆A
of the sphere and the electric lines of force are at right angle to the
surface of the sphere at every point.
Total surface of the sphere is supposed to be divided into large
number of small area of element. All these elements are almost flat.
The vector area of these element are denoted by +q
ΔA1, ΔA2, ΔA3…, ΔAn
Direction of these elements is outward drawn normal to the
surface of each element. The electric intensity at each element is
E1, E2, E3, ………, En
Direction of electric intensities is along the radius of the sphere
or perpendicular to the area of each element so the angle between them is zero. The flux through each
element is
ΔΦ1 = E1. ΔA1 = E1 ΔA1 Cos0
ΔΦ2 = E2. ΔA2 = E2 ΔA2 Cos0
ΔΦ3 = E3. ΔA3 = E3 ΔA3 Cos0
……………………
……………………
ΔΦn = En. ΔAn = En ΔAn Cos0
So the total flux through the surface is
Φe = E1.ΔA1 + E2.ΔA2 + E3.ΔA3 +…+ En. ΔA n
Φe = E1 ΔA1Cos0 + E2 ΔA2Cos0 + E3 ΔA3Cos0 +… + En ΔAnCos0
Φe = E1 ΔA1 + E2 ΔA2 + E3 ΔA3 +……… + En ΔA n
The magnitude of electric intensity at each element is same as the distance of each element is same from
the center of the sphere or charge. So
E1 = E2 = E3 = ……….. = En = E
So we get
Φe = E ΔA 1 + E ΔA 2 + E ΔA 3 +……… + E ΔAn
Φe = E (ΔA 1 + ΔA 2 + ΔA 3 +……… + ΔAn)
Φe = E (total surface area of the sphere)
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Φe = E (4πr2)
As we know
1q
E=
4peo r 2
By putting the value of E in the above equation
1 q
F= (4p r 2 )
4peo r 2

1
F = (q)
eo
It is the required value of electric flux through the surface of sphere due to a point charge q
placed at its center.
Electric flux due to a point charge inside irregular shape closed surface:
When the closed surface is of irregular shaped and a point charge
q lies any where inside it then the value of electric flux through the closed
surface of irregular shape is same as the electric flux passing through the
surface of imaginary sphere centered at the position of q and lying inside
the irregular shaped closed surface. This shows that total electric flux
through a closed surface does not depend upon the geometry of closed
surface and depends upon the value of charge enclosed. +q
 15

Gauss’s law:
Topic:
Statement:
It is stated as the flux through any closed surface is 1/εo times the total charge enclosed by the
surface.
Proof:
Consider an irregular closed surface S enclosing n point
charges q1, q2, q3, ……., qn as shown in fig. The electric flux due to the
point charge q1 through the surface S can be determined by
considering a sphere S1 in such a way that q1 lies at its center. The flux q3
through the surface S1 is given by q 2
qn
q
F1 =
eo q1 q6

The flux through the closed surface S

due to q1 is the same as that through the sphere S1. Thus, the flux q5
q4
through the surface S due to point charge q1 is
q
F1 = 1
eo
Similarly, the flux through surface due to other charges will be
q
F2 = 2
eo
q3
F3 =
eo
…………….
…………….
q
Fn = n
eo
Total electric flux due to all point charges through the surface S is
Φe = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 +………+ Φ n
By putting above values
q q q q
Fe = 1 + 2 + 3 + - - - - + n
eo eo eo eo
1
Fe = (q1 + q2 + q3 + - - - - -qn )
eo
1
Fe = (Q)
eo
Here Q is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
Application of Gauss’s law:
Gauss’s law is applied to find electric field intensity due to different charge distribution. To find
the electric field intensity we first consider an imaginary surface of suitable shape around which electric
flux calculation is easy, which is called Gaussian surface. It is passes through the point at which value of
electric intensity is to be calculated.
To find intensity of electric field inside a hollow charged sphere:
Let us consider a hollow charged conducting sphere of radius R. the total charge on the surface
of sphere is +Q. to find electric intensity at any point inside hollow charged sphere. For this we imagine
a Gaussian closed surface in the shape of sphere concentric with the charged sphere and passing through
 16

the point at which electric intensity is to be calculated. As the charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is
zero. Gauss’s law gives us
1
Fe = (charge enclosed by suface)
eo
1 Gaussian surface
Fe = (0)
eo R'
Φe = 0 ------------------ (I) +q
By definition
Φe= E (total surface area of Gaussian surface)
Φe = E (4πR2) ----------------- (II) R
By comparing (I) & (II)
E (4πR2) = 0
4πR2 ≠ 0 so we must have E=0
This shows that electric intensity inside a hollow charge sphere metallic sphere is zero or field
free region.
Any apparatus placed within a metal enclosed is shield from external electric field.
Electric intensity near an infinite sheet of charge:
Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniformly distributed positive
charges. Let the surface charge density be σ (charge per unit area of the
surface).
To find electric intensity at point p, which is much closer to the sheet
of charge as compared with the area of sheet.
We imagine a Gaussian closed surface in the form of a cylinder passing
through the sheet which is perpendicular to the sheet of charge and has equal
length on both sides of sheet also point p lies on flat surface of imaginary cylinder. The lines of electric
field are perpendicular to end faces and parallel to the curved surface of imaginary surface. There is no
contribution of flux through the curved surface because the direction of curved surface and electric field
lines are at right angle to each other. We only consider the flux through the end faces.
Let A be the area of each end face of the cylinder then flux through it is given by
Φ = E. A = EA cos0 since E and A are along same direction
Hence Φ=EA
Similarly, the flux through the other end is
Φ=EA
ìTotal flux throug ü ìFlux through ü ìFlux through ü
í ý=í ý+í ý
îthe cylinder þ îboth end facesþ îcurve surface þ
Φe = EA +EA + 0
Φe = 2EA …….. (1)
But according to Gauss’s law the flux through the surface of the cylinder is
1
Fe = (charge enclosed by suface)
eo
1
Fe = (Q)
eo
Charge Q
But s= =
Area A
Or Q=σA
Gauss’s law becomes
1
Fe = (s A) ……… (2)
eo
 17

By comparing equation (1) and (2)

sA
2EA =
eo
s
Or E=
2eo
In vector form the intensity at p is given as
s
Or E= r̂
2eo
r is a unit vector normal to the sheet and directed away from it.
If the sheet is negatively charged then equation becomes
s
Or E =- r̂
2eo
The electric intensity in this case is directed towards the sheet.
Electric intensity between oppositely charged parallel plates:
Let us consider two oppositely charged
plates of some conducting material, which are
held parallel to each other having a very small
distance between them. Let the charge density
on the positively charged plate be +σ and on
negatively charged plate be –σ.
Let the distance between the plates is
very very small as compared to their sizes so
that they behave like a charged plane sheet of
infinite size for a point p in between them at
which we want to find electric intensity.
Let us consider a Gaussian surface of
regular shaped of rectangular box as shown in
figure. First, we calculate the electric flux
through the Gaussian surface by definition.
Φ1 = Φ2 = Φ3= Φ4 = E. A = EA cos 90 = 0 since E and A are perpendicular with vertical plane of
rectangular box
Flux through upper surface of rectangular plate will also be zero as there is no electric field line passing
though it so Φ5 = E. A = (0) A = 0
Similarly, the flux through the bottom side of rectangular plate
Φ6 = E. A = EA cos 90 = EA
Total flux through 
  = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3+ Φ4+ Φ5 + Φ6
 the rectangular box 
Φe = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + EA = EA
But according to Gauss’s law the flux through the surface of the cylinder is
1
Fe = (charge enclosed by suface)
eo
1
Fe = (Q)
eo
Charge Q
But s= =
Area A
Or Q=σA
Gauss’s law becomes
 18

1
Fe = (s A)
eo
By comparing equation
A
EA =
o

Or E=
o
In vector form the intensity at p is given as

Or E= rˆ
o
r is a unit vector normal to the sheet and directed away from it.
If the sheet is negatively charged then equation becomes

Or E=− rˆ
o
The electric intensity in this case is directed towards the sheet.
 19

Electric potential difference:

(short questions)
Q. Differentiate between electric potential difference and absolute electric potential.
Electric potential difference:
Potential difference between two points is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one point to the other against the electric field.
WAB
ΔV =
qo
Units:
In SI system the electric potential difference is measured in joule per coulomb, which is also
called as volt
WAB unit of work joule
As ΔV = = =
qo unit of charge Coulomb
Def. Of volt:
The potential difference between two points will be one volt if one joule of work is done to move
a positive charge of one coulomb from one point to the other while keeping the charge in electrostatic
equilibrium.
Absolute electric potential:
The electrical potential at any pointing in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping the electrostatic equilibrium.
W
V=
qo
 20

Topic:
When a positive charge is moved inside an external electric field, in opposite direction of it then
work is required to be done on it due to which potential energy of the positive charge is increased and
we say that there is potential difference between its initial and final positions.
Definition:
Potential difference between two points is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one point to the other against the electric field.
Explanation: A A
F
+qo
d
+qo

q oE q oE

B B
Consider a uniform electric field of intensity E between two oppositely charged plates held
parallel at a distance d as shown in fig. When a positive charge +qo is placed near a positive plate, it will
freely move from positive charge plate to negative plate. On the other hand if we want to move the
charge +qo from negative plate to positive plate or against the electric field we must require an external
force and this force do work on charge qo. This work stored in the charge qo in the form of electrical
potential energy ΔU
Where ΔU = UB – UA = WAB
UB and UA are potential energy at points B and A respectively. If the charge is moving with uniform
velocity the applied force is
F = qo E
So the work done in moving the charge q is given by
WAB = (force х displacement)
Or WAB = F. d
By using the value of force
W= (qoE). d
Dividing both sides by qo we get
WAB qo Ed
=
qo qo
WAB
= Ed
qo
W
Here AB work done per unit charge, which by definition is equal to electric potential difference ΔV.
qo
Hence
W DU
ΔV = AB =
qo qo
Here ΔV =VB− VA
Or qo ΔV = ΔU = WAB
Or WAB = qo ΔV or ΔU = qo ΔV

These relations give the definition of potential difference.

Units:
In SI system the electric potential difference is measured in joule per coulomb, which is also
called as volt
 21

WAB unit of work joule

As ΔV = = =
qo unit of charge Coulomb
Def. Of volt:
The potential difference between two points will be one volt if one joule of work is done to move
a positive charge of one coulomb from one point to the other while keeping the charge in electrostatic
equilibrium.
Absolute electric potential:
In order to calculate the absolute potential at a point inside an electric field again we select two
points. But one of these is taken as reference point and usually the reference point is taken at infinity
where value of electric field is zero and electric potential at that point is also zero.
We have
W
VB -VA = AB
qo
When A lies at infinity then VA = 0 because electric field is zero at infinity.
W
VB -V¥ = AB
qo
But V∞ = 0
W
So VB = AB
qo
To generalize the above relation we drop the subscript we get
W
V=
qo
It is the formula for the electric potential at any point inside electric field.
Definition:
The electrical potential at any pointing in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping the electrostatic equilibrium.
 22

Electric potential as potential gradient:

(Short Questions)
Q. Show that Electric field is a negative gradient of electric potential.
The word “gradient” mean maximum rate of change of a variable with respect to change in
position.
In order to find a relation between potential difference and electric intensity we consider that
there is uniform electric field E in the space between two oppositely charged parallel plates A&B. the
potential difference between plates A and B separated by distance d is given as
WAB
VB -VA = ---------------------- (1)
qo
Here WAB = force displacement
Or WAB = F. d = Fd Cos 180
Because the Force and displacement are in opposite direction
WAB = − Fd ------------------- (2)
According to the definition of electric intensity
F
E= or F = qoE
qo
Putting the value of F in equation (2)
WAB = − (qoE) d
Putting this value in equation (1)
-(qo E)d
VB − VA =
qo
VB − VA = − Ed
VB -VA DV
or E =- =- as VB − VA = ΔV
d d
For small value of displacement d = Δr so the above relation becomes
DV
E=−
Dr
DV
Here is the maximum rate of change of electric potential with respect to distance covered. The word
Dr
maximum is used due to the fact that charge is moved along line of electric field along which distance
between the two oppositely charged parallel plate is minimum. For this minimum possible value of Δr
we get maximum possible value of
DV
, This maximum rate of change of electric potential with respect to change in position is called
Dr
gradient of V.
Hence from the above relation of E we can say that electric intensity is equal to negative
gradient of electric potential V.
volt newton
Q. Show that =
metre coulomb
volt
Ans. As Unit of E = Where volt = joule per coulomb
metre
Joule (Newton)(metre)
coulomb = (coulomb) (Newton)(metre)
So Units of E = =
metre ( metre ) ( )
metre (coulomb)
newton
Units of E =
coulomb
 23

Electric potential at a point in the field due to a point

charge:
Topic:
Let us consider an electric field due to a point charge q.
The equation ΔV= − EΔr holds only when the electric intensity
between the two points remains the same. But as we know that E rB
varies as the square of the distance from the point charge. So E •
rA Δr
does not remain constant as we displace unit positive charge from A B
one point to the other against the electric field. In order to remove
this difficulty we take two points A and B very close to each
other so that E is nearly constant between these two points as
shown in figure.
Let the distance of points A and B from the charge q be rA
and rB respectively and the distance of midpoint between A and B from q is r.
Δr = distance of final position with respect to initial position
Or Δr = rB − rA
Or rB = Δr + rA
If r represents the distance of mid point of A and B from point charge or we can say r is greater
r
than rA by an amount therefore we can write
2
r
r = rA +
2
By using the value of Δr we get
r -r
r = rA + B A
2
2rA + rB - rA
r =
2
rA + rB
r =
2
The magnitude of electric intensity E at a distance r from point charge q is given by
1 q
E=
4peo r 2
Now we calculate the value of r in terms of rA and rB as follows
r
As r = rA + —
2
æ Dr ö
2

So r = ç rA + ÷
2
è 2ø
æ Dr ö r
2

ç ÷ + 2(rA)
2
r =rA2 +
è 2 ø 2
Here Δr is very small. Its square becomes further small and can be neglect as compared with value of rA2
hence we get
r2 = rA2 + Δr ( rA )
Putting the value of Δr we get
r2 = rA2 + ( rB − rA) ( rA )
r2 = rA2 +rArB − rA2
r2 = rArB
Putting the value of r2 in the formula of electric intensity we get
 24

1 q
E=
4peo rA rB
By definition electric potential difference between two points is equal to work done on unit positive
charge, in moving it against the electric field. This leads us to write the following equation.
VA−VB = −EΔr
VA−VB = −E (rA − rB)
Here rA and rB is the difference of final and initial displacement.
VA−VB =E (rB − rA)
By putting the value of E on R.H.S. we get
1 q
VA−VB = (rB − rA)
4peo rA rB
q rB - rA
VA−VB =
4peo rA rB
This gives us
q æ1 1ö
VA−VB = ç - ÷
4peo è rA rB ø
This is the required formula to calculate electric potential difference between two points in the
electric field due to a point charge.
To find absolute value of electric potential at a point inside the field we assume that B is out of
field due to q and value of potential energy at this point is zero or VB = 0
Therefore, we can put
VA = 0 when rB = ∞
This gives us
q æ1 1ö
VA− 0 = ç - ÷
4peo è rA ¥ ø

q æ1 ö
VA − 0 = ç - 0÷
4peo è rA ø
1 q
VA =
4peo rA
It is formula for the absolute value of electric potential at A due to a point charge q. to generalize
the above relation we drop the subscript A and get
1 q
V=
4peo r
 25

Electron volt:
(Short Questions)
Q. What do you mean by electron volt and how many electron volt are there in one Joule.
The increase in K.E. of an electron when it is made free to accelerate between two points which
are at potential difference of one volt called electron volt.
This change of potential energy is converted into K.E. for such situation we can write
Decrease of P.E. = Gain in K.E.
ΔU = q (VB − VA) = Gain in K.E.
When q = e = 1.6 × 10 −19C
And VB − VA = 1 volt
By using these values in above equation, we get
(1.6 × 10 −19C) (1 volt) = 1.6 × 10 −19J = 1 eV
Electron volt is very small unit of energy. It is usually used in the calculations of nuclear physics
and atomic physics.
 26

Topic:
When a positive charge is made free inside an electric field then it experiences electric force. Due to this
force it is accelerated and its velocity is increased, and it moves from a point at higher potential to
another point at lower potential. The change of electric potential causes increase in K.E.
Similarly, when a negative charge is left free, then it also experiences electric force, due to which
it is accelerated. Its K.E. increases due to increase in its velocity. Its motion is from a point at lower
potential to another point at higher potential.
The increase in K.E.of an electron when it is made free to accelerate between two points which
are at potential difference of one volt called electron volt.
Now we calculate the value of electron volt in joule as follows.
As we know the following equation of electric potential difference
W DU
VB -VA = AB =
qo q
Here ΔU = WAB = change of potential energy of charge q when it is moved from A to B against electric
force. Above equation can also be written as
DU
VB -VA =
q
Or q (VB − VA) = ΔU
This change of potential energy is converted into K.E. for such situation we can write
Decrease of P.E. = gain in K.E.
ΔU = q (VB − VA) = gain in K.E.
When q = e = 1.6 × 10 −19C
And VB − VA = 1 volt
By using these value in above equation we get
(1.6 × 10 −19C) (1 volt) = gain in K.E.
1.6 × 10 −19J = gain in K.E.
This is the K.E. gain by electron moving between two points freely and potential difference
between the points is one volt. It is also called one electron volt. We can write
1ev =1.6 × 10 −19J
Electron volt is very small unit of energy. It is usually used in the calculations of nuclear physics
and atomic physics.
 27

Electric and gravitational force:

(Short Questions)
Q. Describe the similarities and difference between electrical and gravitational force.
The gravitational force between two masses is given by following formula
m1m2
Fg = G
r2
And electrostatic force between two point charges is given by
1 q1q2
Fe =
4pe o r 2
Similarities:
(1) Both forces obey inverse square law, which means that force is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between the two point charges or masses.
Differences:
(1) The electric force between two point charges may be either attractive or repulsive but gravitational
force between two masses is always attractive in nature.
(2) The electric force between two charges depends upon the nature of the medium between the two
point charges. Whereas the gravitational force is independent of the nature of the medium between
the two masses.
(3) The value of gravitational constant G is very small as compared with the electrostatic constant
k=1/4πε0. This proves that gravitational force is of very small magnitude as compared with electric
force.
(4) Electric force is short range but gravitational force is of long range.
 28

Determination of charge on an electron by Millikan oil drop method:

Topic:
R.A. Millikan made the experimental measurement of charge on an electron; in 1909 the principle of the
experiment performed by Millikan is made clear by the following diagram.
Experimental Arrangement:
Two metallic plates p and p' are set horizontal and parallel to each other. These are separated by
a short distance d. the upper plate has a small hole, H at its center, and variable voltage V is applied
across these to plates which produces electric field in the space between them. Plate p is at positive
potential. These plates are set inside a container C to avoid any disturbance.
Derivation:
As we know
V=E×d
V
or E= H
d
W1 P
An atomizer A is used to spray a V
non volatile oil from its muzzle, which S W2
takes the form of small droplets. These are d
electrically charged due to friction when L
P
these come out of muzzle of atomizer, at
large speed.
The oil drops are very small in size
and form mist. Some of these drops pass
through the hole H in the upper plate p and enter into the region between the two parallel plates. Here
these are illuminated by light coming from an arc lamp. These are visible by the help of microscope
placed in front of window W2. Then adjust the electric field between the plates to suspend the drop of oil
between the plates .it is due to the fact that.
Electric force = weight of oil droplet
Fe = Fg
qE = mg
V
As E=
d
So above equation becomes
V
q = mg
d
mgd
or q=
V
It is the required formula to calculate charge on the oil drop. In this formula the values of d, V, and g
are known. The value of mass of droplet m can be determined as follows.
Measurement of Terminal Velocity:
The voltage applied across the plate q and q/ is turn off and allow the droplet falls under the action of
gravity. If the terminal velocity of droplet is measured experimentally, by noting time taken and distance
covered by droplet,
Radius of Oil Droplet:
According to Stoke’s law the force of viscosity experienced by the droplet is given by
F =6πηr vT
As droplet falls with uniform velocity, vT therefore force of viscosity acting upward must be
balanced by the force of gravity acting downward.
Hence downward force is
F =mg
This force has magnitude equal to the force of viscosity. Hence we get
 29

mg = 6πηr vT
Also mass= volume × density
As the drop is like a sphere
4
The volume of sphere = π r 3
3
4
So m= πr3×ρ
3
Putting the value of mass in (a), we get
4
π r 3 ρ g = 6πηr vT
3
This gives us
9hvT
r2 =
2rg
This gives us the value of radius of oil droplet by using this value of r in equation (b) we can get
the mass of oil droplet.
Buy using the calculated value of m in equation (a) we can get the value of charge on oil drop.
Millikan measured value of charge on various droplets. He found that value of q for different oil
droplets is integral multiple of 1.6 × 10 −19C.this amount is taken as charge on one electron.
 30

Capacitor:
Q. What is a capacitor and how can you define capacitance of a Capacitor and its unit.
A device, which is used for storing charge, is called capacitor or a condenser.
Capacitance:
The capability or ability of a capacitor to store the charge is called capacitance of the capacitor.
Unit of the capacitance:
The SI unit of capacitance is Farad
Definition of Farad:
The capacitance of a capacitor is one farad if a charge of one coulomb given to one of the plates
produces potential difference of one volt between them.
Mathematically:
1 Coulomb C
1 Farad = =
1 Volt V
 31

Topic:
Capacitor:
A device, which is used for storing charge, is called capacitor or a condenser.
Construction and working: +Q -Q
A capacitor consist of two conductor placed near to each
other. The medium between the two conductors is air or some
other insulating material, known as dielectric. Usually
conductors used to form a capacitor are in the form of plates. d
Such a capacitor is called parallel plate capacitor.
When the plates of the capacitor are connected to the
terminal of a battery, equal amounts of positive and negative
charges transferred to the plates by the battery. This charge + V - S
remains of the inner surface of the plates due to attraction
between the opposite charges.
It is experimentally observed that the charge stored by the capacitor depends upon the potential
difference between the plates. The greater the potential difference applied across the plates of the
capacitor, greater will be the charge on capacitor.
Let Q be the charge stored in the capacitor when V is the potential difference is applied between
the plates, then
Q∝V
Q = CV
Where C is a constant of proportionality and is called capacitance of a capacitor. Its value
depends upon the geometry of capacitor i.e. area of the plates and the distance between them and the
medium used between the plates.
Definition of capacitance:
The capability or ability of a capacitor to store the charge is called capacitance of the capacitor.
or
The charge stored per unit potential difference is called capacitance.
Unit of the capacitance:
The SI unit of capacitance is Farad
Definition of Farad:
The capacitance of a capacitor is one farad if a charge of one coulomb given to one of the plates
produces potential difference of one volt between them.
Mathematically:
1 Coulomb C
1 Farad = =
1 Volt V
 32

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:

(Short Questions) +Q -Q
Q. On what factors the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
depends?
Ans. As Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is
Ae oe r d
Cmed =
d
This shows that
1) Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of plates A.
2) Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the + V - S
plates.
3) Capacitance is also depending upon the medium between the plates.
Q. Describe the effect on the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, when a dielectric medium is
place between its plates.
If free space is replaced by some other insulating or dielectric medium, then the capacitance of the
capacitor is enhanced.
By definition dielectric constant or relative permittivity
e
εr =
eo
or ε = εo εr
The formula for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with free space between its plates is
Ae o
Cvac =
d
When free space is replaced by some other insulating dielectric medium of permittivity ε. The formula
for the new capacitance of same capacitor
Ae
Cmed =
d
By using the value of ε, we get
Ae oe r
Cmed =
d
æ Ae ö
Cmed = ç o ÷ er
è d ø
Ae o
Cmed = Cvac εr where Cvac=
d
From this equation we see that capacitance of capacitor is enhanced by a factor ε r times due to the
presence of dielectric medium between the plates of capacitor.
This shows that
Cmed
= er
Cvac
This proves that dielectric constant or relative permittivity of dielectric medium is equal to ratio of
capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with dielectric medium between its plates to the capacitance of
same capacitor with free space between the plates.
 33

Topic:
Consider a parallel plate capacitor, which consists of two metal plates separated at a distance d as
shown in fig. Let the area of each plate be A. As the distance +Q -Q
between plates is small as compared to their size, so the electric field
is uniform between the plates. Here we assume air or vacuum
present as a medium between the plates. Such a capacitor is called
vacuum capacitor. If we connect the plates to the terminals of a d
battery, equal amounts of positive and negative charges store on the
plates.
Let Q be the charge stored on the plates when the potential
difference V applied between the plates, then general equation for + V - S
capacitor is
Q = Cvac V
Q
Cvac = --------------------- (1)
V
Since the field E between the plates is uniform. So the relation between electric intensity E and
the potential difference V between the plates is given by
V = Ed --------------- (2)
The magnitude of electric intensity between the two charged plates is given by Gauss’s law

E= --------------- (3)
o
Q
Where σ is surface charge density of the plates =
A
By using the value of σ in (3) equation, we get
Q
E= A
eo
Q
or E =
Ae o
Now using the value of E in equation (2), we get
Qd
V=
Ae o
Now using the value of V in equation (1), we get
Q Q
Cvac = =
V Qd
Ae o
Ae o
Or Cvac =
d
It is the required formula for the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with air or vacuum between the
plates.
This shows that
1) Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of plates A.
2) Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
Effect of dielectric medium (other than air or vacuum) on the capacitance of a capacitance:
If free space is reflected by some other insulating or dielectric medium, then the capacitance of
the capacitor is enhanced. If we denote the relative permittivity by εr.
By definition dielectric constant or relative permittivity
 34

e
εr =
eo
or ε = εo εr
The formula for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with free space between its plates is
Ae o
Cvac =
d
When free space is replace by some other insulating of dielectric medium of permittivity ε. The formula
for the new capacitance of same capacitor
Ae
Cmed =
d
By using the value of ε, we get
Ae oer
Cmed =
d
æ Aeo ö
Cmed = ç ÷e r
è d ø
Ae o
Cmed = Cvac εr where Cvac=
d
From this equation we see that capacitance of capacitor is enhanced by a factor εr times due to the
presence of dielectric medium between the plates of capacitor.
This shows that
Cmed
= er
Cvac
This proves that dielectric constant or relative permittivity of dielectric medium is equal to ratio of
capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with dielectric medium between its plates to the capacitance of
same capacitor with free space between the plates.
 35

Electric polarization of dielectrics:

When a sample of dielectric material is place inside an electric field.
Its molecules become electric dipole. It is called polarization of dielectrics.
The dielectric sample consists of atom and molecules. Each Atom or
molecules is electrically neutral, because number of electrons tightly bound
to their nucleus.
Energy stored in a capacitor:
(Short Question)
Q. What is dipole and what do you mean by electric polarization of dielectrics?
Ans.
Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by small distance make a dipole
Electric polarization:
When a sample of dielectric material is place inside an electric field. Its molecules become electric
dipole. It is called polarization of dielectrics
 36

Topic:
When a capacitor was uncharged then potential difference across its plates was zero. And when
the capacitor is fully charged, then there is definite value of electric potential difference V across the
plates of capacitor, the value of electric potential difference between its plates increase from 0 to V. its
average value can be written as
0 +V 1
= = V
2 2
By using the definition of electric potential difference we can write.
1
V = average value of work done on unit positive charge.
2
If amount of electric charge stored on plates of capacitor is q then
1
q × V = average value of work done on charge q.
2
This work done on charge q to place it on plate of capacitor is converted into potential energy
hence we can write.
By using equation of capacitor
q = CV
By using this value of q in above equation, we get
1
P.E. stored in a capacitor = C V × V
2
1
= CV 2
2
This potential energy is due to electric field between the plates, which is produced due to
electric charge stored on capacitor. Hence the P.E. given by above formula can be regarded as energy
stored in electric field between the plates of capacitor.
In order to write the formula for P.E. stored in terms of electric intensity we use the following formula
for V and C
Ae oer
C=
d
And V=Ed
Putting these values of C and V we get
1 Ae oe r
Energy stored = (Ed)2
2 d
1 Ae oe r 2 2
Energy stored = E d
2 d
1
Energy stored = eoer E2 (Ad)
2
Here A is the area of the plate of the capacitor
And d is the distance between the parallel plates of capacitor
So Ad = volume in which electric field is present between the plates of capacitor.
Dividing both sides of above equation by Ad
Energy stored 1
= eoer E2
Volume 2
1
or energy stored per unit volume = eoer E2
2
 37

Charging and discharging of a capacitor:

(Short Questions)
Q. What do you mean by time constant:
Ans. How fast or how slow the capacitor is charging or discharging, depends upon the product of the
resistance and the capacitance? As the unit of the product RC is that of time, so this product is known as
the time constant and is defined as the time required by “the capacitor to deposit 0.63 times the
equilibrium charge”.
The charge reaches its equilibrium value sooner when the time constant is small. Similarly, smaller
values of time constant RC leads to a more rapid discharge.
Topic:
To discuss charging and discharging of a capacitor through a resistance R in series with a
capacitor C, we take help of the following circuit diagram. Their series combination is connected across
a battery of voltage Vo. A switch S is also provided which may be connected either with A or with B as
required.
Charging of a capacitor: C
+q -q
q CVo= qo

0.63 ●S
B
Large
Small ●
RC
RC
qo ●A

R RC RC t

For charging the capacitor, switch S is connected to terminal

A. the capacitor starts storing electric charge. The maximum
charge is not stored at once. But it takes some time. The equilibrium state reaches when the amount of
charge is stored, whose value is given by the following equation
qo= CVo
The growth of charge is shown by the graph between time t and the amount of charge stored.
For different values of resistance R the shape of this graph is shown in the following fig.
At t =0 charge stored q=0hence the graph starts from origin. During the growth of charge the
instantaneous value of electric charge stored on capacitor is given by the following formula
q = CV
How fast or how slow the process of charging of capacitor is depends upon the value of product
of Rand C.
Time constant: The time required to grow 63% of maximum charge is called time constant.

The graph shows that growth is rapid comparatively when value of time constant is small. The
formula for time constant is
Time constant = RC
 38

Discharging of a capacitor:
R C
+q -q
q
CVo

●S Large RC
●

Small RC
• ●B ●A

Vo t

To study discharging of capacitor the switch is connected with terminal B.

The charge flows in the circuit from positively charge plate towards to negatively charge plate.
This neutralizes the charge and the value of charge stored in a capacitor becomes gradually zero.
The shape of graph between various values of q and corresponding values of time t or the
discharging of capacitor is shown in the figure below
In this case at t = 0, q = qo = CVo .its value gradually decreases with time to zero.
The time constant for discharging is defined as that time in which 63% of maximum charge
decays. Its value is given by t=RC. If time constant is small then the discharging is rapid and vice versa.