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ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Structure for both written and spoken argumentation:

Introduction → Main Idea + Conflict

Development → Exposition of ideas or analysis of pros and cons
Conclusion → End of text with a solution of the conflict or other type of closure.

* Even in conversations, the cycle to prove a point must be completed, otherwise your counterpart won’t
understand your point and communication will be compromised.

Let’s understand the application of the techniques used in argumentation with some examples.

• Analyzing Pros and Cons → Takes positive and negative aspects into consideration.

Albert York is a successful businessman who’s running for president. On one hand, he’s very experienced in
running companies and he does it quite well. (Positive Aspect) On the other hand, he’s never held public
office before. (Negative Aspect) When analyzing the history of presidents without experience in public
administration, it is possible to say that... (Introduction to present data that supports your analysis)

• Rhetorical Strategies

1) Inductive or Deductive Reasoning. 2) Credibility and Reliability of the Source or Speaker

When we look for a job, we are asked about
experience. Being president is a job. Albert York
doesn’t have any experience. He can’t be president.
(Inductive reasoning and oversimplification of
logic)
Successful businessmen are always smart and
responsible men and the country is nothing but a
big enterprise. Albert York is very qualified to be
president. (Deductive reasoning)
According to Global Image Press, Albert York is a
possible choice to run the country.
3) Appealing to the readers’ emotions.
Albert York is humble, friendly to the voters and
one in three ladies say they’d marry him. He’s
probably a good person to run the country.

• Quotations
In writing or speaking: Indirect quotations—usually
In writing: Direct quotations—exact
introduced by phrases.
fragments copied between quotes (“”)—
followed by credits to the original author.
According to (name of the author)...
Mia Horsbury said: “Albert York is not
As (name of the author) states...
even a choice to be considered.”
As stated by (name of the author)...
(Name of the author) states that...

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According to Mia Horsbury, Albert York shouldn’t even be considered for presidency.

Important Note: The use of an author’s words, even if paraphrased, without due credit is
what constitutes plagiarism (appropriation of one’s work and ideas taking them as one’s
own). It is considered an ethical foul and undermines the credibility of an author for good.

• Paraphrase • Narrations

Saying the same thing with different words. The
original author must be credited.
Thomas Lowe usually says that a president
must have the population’s respect, so that is
what guides people’s choice.
• Summary
Exemplify the author’s point related to data collected
in their research. They don’t need to be credited if
they reflect the author’s own experience.
In order to justify aspects in the text or speech, you
can use connectors and then refer to the original
source of information that proves your point.

Short versions of an original text that Finally...

concentrates on its main idea, leaving out Because...
details, and told with your own words. Again, the As...
original author must be credited. Due to...

PAST PERFECT
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Past Perfect → The past perfect often occurs with the simple past. The speaker establishes a connection
between the more distant past action (used in past perfect) and the more recent past action
(used in the simple past).

When Laura arrived, Mark had already left.

What happened first? Mark left.

What happened after? Laura arrived.
Why did the speaker use the past perfect? To emphasize the relation between the more distant past action
(Mark left) and the other past action (Laura arrived).

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

Mark had left Laura arrived

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I met a Russian co-worker yesterday. I had never met anyone from Russia before.

What happened for a long period of time in the past? I didn’t know anyone from Russia.
What happened yesterday? I met a person from Russia for the first time.
Why did the speaker use past perfect? To emphasize the relation between the more distant past action
(I didn’t know anyone from Russia) and the other past action (I met a Russian co-worker).

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

I had never met I met a Russian
anyone from Russia co-worker

• Structure

Past Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Main Verb in the Past Participle
I had met someone from Russia before.
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle
I hadn’t met anyone from Russia before.
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Had you ever met anyone from Russia?

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Visiting the Corcovado

Laura – Oh my! I had never seen such a beautiful

view before!
Robin – Hadn’t I told you we had to come here?
It’s awesome!
Laura – Yes! Imagine what we would have missed if we
hadn’t come. Thank you for bringing me here.
Robin – My pleasure.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I had seen this movie yesterday. I saw this movie yesterday.
I had graduated in 2005 by the time I got my first I had graduated by the time I got my first job in
job in 2006. 2006.
I graduated in 2005 and I got my first job in 2006.

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TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

→ Talking about the future usually refers to plans, predictions, and guesses.
Future → The representation of the future depends on the speaker’s perspective.
→ There are different ways to express future in English.

This chapter focuses on five ways to talk about the future.

• Modal Verb Will

This dress fits me perfectly. I’ll take it.

Used to make predictions about the future based on the

speaker’s opinion. It also reflects a decision made at the
moment of speaking.

Situation: A woman went to a store to buy a dress as

a gift to her daughter. As she was looking for the dress,
she really liked another model and decided to buy one
for herself. She would say...

• Be Going To

Used to refer to plans for the future and predictions made based on physical evidence.
Let’s see two situations that illustrate the possible uses of be going to.

Situation 1: Mike arranged his vacation from work, Situation 2: Larry’s wife is five-months pregnant, it
his partner will also be on vacation, they checked takes approximately nine months for baby to be born.
the prices to go to the Caribbean, they have some One could say by looking at her...
money and there is still time to save up. He’d say...

We’re going to travel to the Caribbean on our She’s going to have a baby in a few months.
vacation.

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• Simple Present
I can’t believe we have classes on
Used to refer to the future when the action in Saturdays for the next three months.
question is part of a schedule, therefore the speaker
considers it a fact. The future reference is normally
made by using time expressions. Take a look.

Situation: Julia is checking her school schedule and

she notices there are classes on a few Saturdays.
She says...

• Future Continuous (Will + Be + Verb in –ING)

Hello. Mark, are you coming?
I’ll be leaving in an hour, please hurry.
Used when the speaker sees the future action as
relevant and intends to emphasize this feature. It is
generally used in excuses or to justify a refusal or
another decision.

Situation: Nick is at his parents’ house until six p.m.

A friend promised to deliver a package before then,
but it’s five p.m. and the friend hasn’t shown. Nick calls
his friend and says:

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

An Invitation

Pete – Sharon, will you come to my farewell party tonight?

Sharon – I’m afraid I can’t. I’ll be flying to Denver then. In fact,
I’m leaving soon.
Pete – Oh, that’s a shame. Why are you going to Denver?
Sharon – My son lives there and I’ll help him with some things.
Pete – Oh cool! When do you come back?
Sharon – My flight is on the fifth, but I’m going to stay there for
as long as he needs and my vacation allows me to.
Pete – I see. Well, safe flight and I’ll see you in a few weeks.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORR ECT

Cindy will to go to New York. Cindy will go to New York.

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VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUND AND INFINITIVE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use
Used as verb complements
Gerunds and Infinitives Used as the subject of sentences
Used as the object of sentences

• Structure

• Gerund and Infinitive as Verb Complements

1. Verbs Followed by Infinitive

I decided to do what you told me. I have to go now.

Verb Phrase: DECIDE + Infinitive Verb Phrase: HAVE + Infinitive

I wanted to see what was going to happen.

Verb Phrase: WANT + Infinitive Verb Phrase: GO + Infinitive

2. Verbs Followed by Gerund

He keeps making the same mistakes. I really enjoy exercising early in the morning.

Verb Phrase: KEEP + Gerund Verb Phrase: ENJOY + Gerund

I can’t help thinking this was a waste of time.

CAN’T HELP + Gerund

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3. Verbs Followed by Gerund or Infinitive

A. No Change in Meaning

I love to work here. = I love working here. I like to have fruit for breakfast. = I like having fruit for breakfast.

B. Changes Meaning

I forgot to talk to you about it.

Forget + Infinitive: I was supposed to do something but I didn’t
because I forgot to do it.

I completely forgot talking to you about this.

Forget + Gerund: I did something in the past but I forgot I did it.

He stopped to help me with the project.

Stop + Infinitive: He interrupted what he was doing to help me.

He stopped helping me with the project.

Stop + Gerund: He used to help me but he won’t help me any longer.

• Gerund and Infinitive Clauses as Subjects

Working out is good for your health.

Gerund Clause used as the subject of the sentence.

To work out is good for your health.

Infinitive Clause used as the subject of the sentence.

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• Gerund and Infinitive Clauses as Objects

There is nothing better than eating ice cream on a hot day.

Gerund Clause used as part of the object.

It’s late and you are tired. The best thing you can do now is
to go home and rest.

Infinitive Clause used as part of the object.

Verbs that take Bare Infinite (Without To) Use Bare Infinitive after LET.

I’ll let you play first.

Infinitive Clause used as part of the object.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Deadline
Jonas – I can’t believe it’s not right again. I’ve been trying to finish
this report for days.
Amanda – Jonas, working this hard will only get you stressed.
You need to rest.
Jonas – But I can’t. It has to be ready tomorrow in the evening.
Amanda – Let me tell you what we’ll do: Go home, relax, get a good
night’s sleep and then, tomorrow, I’ll help you finish it.
Jonas – I think you are right. Thank you, Amanda. You are the best!

:: STAY ALERT

Both gerund and infinitive clauses can be used as subject with the same meaning. However,
nowadays gerund clauses are more frequent and sound more natural in this position.

Working hard is the key to success. → Preferable and accepted in all situations.
To work hard is the key to success. → Correct but less frequent nowadays.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Read is always a great experience. Reading is always a great experience.

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