Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional

healers in silent valley of Kerala, India
J.E. Morvin Yabesh, S. Prabhu, S. Vijayakumar n
PG and Research Department of Botany and Microbiology, AVVM Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous) Poondi, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Medicinal plants are treating and preventing a variety disease. There is
Received 10 April 2014 urgency in recording such data. This is the first ethno botanical study in which statistical calculations
Received in revised form about plants are done by ICF method. The present study was aimed to identify plants collected for
1 May 2014
medicinal purposes by the traditional healers of silent valley, located in Palakad district of Kerala, India
Accepted 4 May 2014
Available online 14 May 2014
and to document the traditional names, preparation and uses of these plants.
Materials and methods: Field study was carried out a period of 2 years in Kerala. The ethno medicinal
Keywords: information was collected through interviews among traditional healers. The collected data were
Ethnoplants analyzed through use value (UV) informant consensus factor (Fic) and fidelity level (FL).
Traditional healers
Results: A total of 102 species of plants distributed in 95 genera belonging to 53 families were identified
Silent valley
as commonly used ethno medicinal plants by traditional healers in silent valley for the treatment of 19
Folk medicine
ailment categories based on the body systems treated. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts
and most of the medicines were prepared in the form of paste and administrated orally. Fic values of the
present study indicated that dermatological infections/diseases and gastro-intestinal disorders had
highest use reports and 7 species of plants has the highest fidelity level of 100%. The most important
species according to their use value were Moringa oleifera (2.62), Curculigo orchioides (2.5) Amorpho-
phallus paeoniifolius, Vitex negundo (each 2.37), Carica papaya (2.12), Annona squamosa (1.87).
Conclusion: Gathering the present study, we can recommended the plants Moringa oleifera, Curculigo
orchioides, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Vitex negundo, Carica papaya, Citrus hystrix, and Tribulus terrestris
(with high use values), Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Aloe vera, Carum capticum and Discorea pentaphylla
(newly reported claims with highest FL) for further scientific investigation based upon the traditional
knowledge of medicinal plants can be an approach in the discovery and development of novel drug leads.
Crown Copyright & 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction inadequate provision of modern medicine (Savikin et al., 2013).

Traditional herbal medicine is still an important component of
human healthcare in world-wide. According to the world health
organization (WHO), about 80% of the world’s people depend on
traditional indigenous medicines, since a large majority of rural
people in the developing countries still use these medicines as the
first defense in healthcare (Goleniowski et al., 2006). The reliance
of people an ethno-medicine has been for seasons of cost-effec-
tiveness, acceptability, biomedical benefits and accessibility. There
has been a continuous growth of demand for herbal medicines
globally (Haile et al., 2008). The demand has been increasing as a
result of growth of human population, habitat loss and alteration,
over exploitation, overgrazing, deforestation and the frequently
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 4374293523.
E-mail address: svijaya_kumar2579@rediff.com (S. Vijayakumar).
In recent years, use of ethnobotanical information in medicinal
plant research has gained considerable attention in segments of
the scientific community (WHO, 2008).
During the last two decades, some notable progress has been
made in the field of medicinal plants and their traditional use in
different parts of India (Nimasow et al., 2012). Indigenous use of
medicinal plants all over the world precedes the origin of modern
medicine in healthcare system (Aburai et al., 2007). The flowering
plants used for medicinal purpose worldwide are estimated to be
about 50,000 out of total 422,000 flowering plant species
(Govaerts, 2001; Schippmann et al., 2002). World Health Organi-
zation (WHO) estimated that prescribed drug (25%), consider drug
(11%) and precursor compound produced as a result of various
synthetic drugs are of plant origin (Rates, 2001). Treatment of
diseases with medicinal plants is more beneficial than synthetic
and modern medicines as, ease of use, treatment efficacy, afford-
able cost and minimal side effects.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.004
0378-8741/Crown Copyright & 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789
Silent valley is located in the Palakkad district of Kerala.
Palakkad is one of the 14 districts in Kerala and also the richest
state in India in terms of plant diversity; traditional healing
systems are still popular here. The richness of silent valley flora
is based on geographic, climatic, topographic and edaphic factor.
The tribal region (traditional healers) is the remote area of Kerala
where the people have no urgent access to modern medicinal
facilities. Therefore, the traditional medicines are the preferred for
such people. There is no hospital for intimate treatment of people
in the remote area of silent valley, and people rely on indigenous
medicinal plant for basic health care treatment. So far no
systematic ethno botanical survey has been made in this area
and this is the first report on the medicinal plants used by the local
traditional healers. Life styles of people are poor and economically
they depend on cattle grazing, agriculture and use of natural
resources. The current study was aimed to explore and document
the indigenous knowledge of plants and to evaluate the impor-
tance of medicinal plants used in local healthcare system. This
study was also aimed to educate the traditional healers about
conservation status of medicinal plants.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. The study area and ethanobotanical survey
Silent valley occupy Palakad districts of Kerala (Southern
western Ghats) and cover an area of 236.74 km2 and lies between
110 03″ to 110 13″N latitude and 760 2″ to 760 3″E longitude (Fig. 1).
The vegetation is floristically rich compared to other regions of
Western Ghats and represents several unique habitats. The study
was conducted in 5 villages of silent valley (Agali, Kottathara,
Mannarkad, Padavayal, Sholayur in palakkad district). The com-
munities adjust to the forest have access right over the forest as
stipulated in the village forest management plan by- laws.
2.2. Data collection
The study area was investigated to get information from local
traditional healers having practical knowledge of medicinal plants
were interviewed in 5 villages during September 2011 to August
2013. During the course of the study, six field trips were carried
out in the study area totally 60 days were spent with their local
traditional healers. Methods of selecting informants depended
upon the distribution of local people having sound knowledge.
They were requested to collect specimens of the plants they know
or to show the plant species on site. These informants were
traditional healers themselves or had tradition of healing in their
families and had knowledge of the medicinal use of the plants. The
wealth of medicinal plant knowledge among the people of this
district is based on hundreds of years of beliefs and observations.
This knowledge has been transmitted orally from generation to
generation. However it seems that it is vanishing from the modern
society since younger people are not interested to carry on this
tradition.
2.3. Interview with traditional healers
In the total of eight informants or traditional healers six men
and two women were identified between the ages of 42 to 75 to
get the ethno-medicinal information through direct interviews or
oral conservations (Appendix A). They were selected based on
their knowledge of medicinal plants within their families and
neighbors. The questionnaires were used to obtain information on
medicinal plants with their local names, parts used any other
plants/agents used as ingredients mode of preparation and
775
administration etc, were recorded for each collected ethno-
medicinal plants. A field data sheet has been prepared to record
the plant details with ethno-medicinal information gathered from
the traditional healers (Fig. 2).
2.4. Preservation of plant specimens
Standard method was followed with record to collection of
plant materials, drying, mounting, preparation and preservation of
plant specimens (Jain, 1964). Voucher specimens of medicinal
plants in triplicate were collected prepared and identified. Plants
with their correct nomenclature were arranged alphabetically by
family name, vernacular name ethno medicinal uses. The identi-
fication and nomenclature of the listed plants were based on The
Flora of Presidency of Madras (Gamble, 1935) and The Flora of
Tamil Nadu Carnatic (Matthew, 1983). They were later verified at
Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, and Coimbatore, India.
All the preserved specimens were deposited at the Herbariam of
AVVM Sri Pushpam Medicinal unit, Poondi.
2.5. Ailment categories
Based on the information obtained from the traditional healers
in the study area, all the reported ailments were categorized
into15 categories (Table 1) viz. gastro-intestinal ailments (GIA),
dermatological infections/diseases (DID), respiratory systems dis-
eases (RSD), genito-urinary ailments (GUA), fever (FVR), skeleto-
muscular system disorders (SMSD), poisonous bites (PB), circula-
tory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD), endocrinal disorders
(ED), liver problems (LP), dental care (DC), hair care (HC), ear, nose,
throat problems (ENT), cooling agents (CA) and general health
(GH). Several diseases were placed in one ailment category based
on the body systems treated.
2.6. Data analysis
2.6.1. Informant consensus factor (Fic)
The informant consensus factor (Fic) was used to see if there
was agreement in the use of plants in the ailment categories
between the plant users in the study area. The Fic was calculated
using the following formula (Heinrich et al., 1998)
N ur  N t
F ic ¼
N ur  1
where Nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular
ailment category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a
particular ailment category by all informants. The product of this
Factor ranges from 0 to 1. A high value (close to 1.0) indicates that
relatively few taxa are used by a large proportion of the infor-
mants. A low value indicates that the informants disagree on the
taxa to be used in the treatment within a category of illness.
2.6.2. Use value (UV)
The relative importance of each plant species known locally to
be used as herbal remedy is reported as use value (UV) and it was
calculated using the following formula (Phillips et al., 1994)
∑U
UV ¼
n
where UV is the use value of a species, U is the number of use
reports cited by each informant for a given plant species and n is
the total number of informants interviewed for a given plant. The
UV is helpful in determining the plants with the highest use (most
frequently indicated) in the treatment of an ailment. UVs are high
when there are many use-reports for a plant and low when there
are few reports related to its use.
776 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

Fig. 1. Location map of silent valley in Kerala, India.

2.6.3. Fidelity level (FL) calculated using the following formula (Friedmen et al., 1986)
To determine the most frequently used plant species for
treating a particular ailment category by the informants of the Np
FL ð%Þ ¼  100
study area, we calculated the fidelity level (FL). The FL was N
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 777

Fig. 2. Format of field datasheet used to record the plant details with ethnomedicinal information.
778 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

Table 1
Ailments grouped by different ailment categories.

Ailment categories Biomedical terms Tamil terms

Circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD) Blood purification Rattha sutthigarippu

Heart strength Idhaya valimai
Memory power Gnabaga sakthi
Cooling agents (CA) Body cooling Udal kulircchi
Dental care (DC) Foul odour Vai thurunatram
Teeth strength Pal valimai
Toothache Pal vali
Worms in gums and teeth Pal sotthai
Dermatological infections/diseases (DID) Burns Theekayam
Cuts Vettukkayam
Felon Nagacchutthi
Fungal infection on head Poochikkadi
Itching Arippu
Pimples Mugapparu
Scabies Sirangu
Skin disease Sarumanoi
Wounds Kaayam
Ear, nose, throat problems (ENT) Ear ache Kaadhu vali
Eye cooling Kan kulircchu
Throat pain Thondai pain
Endocrinal disorders (ED) Diabetes Sarkkarai noi
Fever (FVR) Fever Kaicchal
Gastro-intestinal ailments (GIA) Dysentery Seethabaethi
Gastric problem Vayvu kolaru
Stomach ulcer Vayitruvali
Genaral health (GH) Body shining Udal palapalappu
Body strength Udal valimai
Disease resistant Noi ethirppu sakthi
Genio-urinary ailments (GUA) Abortion Karu kalaippu
Delivery pain Pirasava vali
Male fertility Aanmai sakthi perukkuthal
Sperm production Uyiranu urpathi
Hair care (HC) Dandruff Podugu
Hair growth Mudi valardhal
Hair loss Mudi uthirdhal
Hemorrhoids (HEM) Piles Moolam
Kidney problem (KP) Stone formation Kal adappu
Liver problem (LP) Jaundice Majal kamalai
Oncology (ONC) Cancer Kattigal
Pills (PI) Contraception Karuthadai
Poisonous bites (PB) Poison bites Vishakkadi
Scorpion sting Thaelkadi
Snake bite Pambukkadi
Respiratory systems diseases (RSD) Asthma Moocchu thinaral
Bronchitis Chali and irumal
Chest pain Nenju vali
Cold Jalathosham
Cough Irumal
Skeleton-muscular system disorders (SMSD) Body pain Udal vali
Head ache Thalai vali
Rheumatism Mootu vali
Swellings Veekam

where Np is the number of use-reports cited for a given species
for a particular ailment category and N is the total number of use
reports cited for any given species. Generally, high FLs are obtained
for plants for which almost all use-reports refer to the same way of
using it, whereas low FLs are obtained for plants that are used for
many different purposes (Srithi et al., 2009).
3. Result and discussion
In the study, 102 ethno medicinal plants species belonging to
53 families distributed in 95 genera which were commonly used
by the most of the local traditional healers for the treatment of 52
types of ailments. Among the families, Euphorbiaceae has the high
number of species (7) followed by Fabaceae with six species,
Rutaceae and Solanaceae with each five species and Lamiaceae
with four species. For each reported species we provide botanical
name of the plant, family, voucher specimen number, local name
(Tamil), life form, use value, parts used, ailment treated, and
method of preparation and mode of administration (Table 2).
The earlier studies of medicinal importance corroborates well
with information’s collected from various regions of India. We
found that there were 34 claims from the plants were reported for
the first time from the study area (New claims were given with
asterisk mark in Table 2). However, no plants were reported as a
new medicinal plant as all plants were reported with different
uses.
Herbs (37.0%) were found to be most used plants followed by
tree (28%) and climbers in descending order (12%) (Fig. 3). The
frequent use of herbs among the indigenous communities is a
result of wealth of herbaceous plants in their environs (Ayyanar
and Ignacimuthu, 2011; Giday et al., 2010; Uniyal et al., 2006) and
Agasthiyar hills harbours more number of herbs as compared
to trees, shrubs, and climbers (Prakash et al., 2006). The most
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 779

Table 2
List of medicinal plants used by local traditional healers in Silent valley, Palakkad district of Kerala.

No Botanical name/family name Local name Life form Use Parts used Ailment category: no Preparation Application
value of use reports

1. Abrus precatorius. Linn. PHC-5 Kundumani Climber 0.87 Root PB:7 (scorpion sting, Powder Topical
FABACEAE snake bite)
2. Acorus calamus. Linn. PHC-63 Vasambu Herb 1.62 Root RSD:2 (cough)a Juice Oral
ONC:8 (cancer)a Juice Oral
ARACEAE FVR:3 (fever) Juice Oral
3. Acalypha indica. Linn. PHC-43 Kuppaimeni Herb 1.25 Leaves DID:2 (fungal infection Paste Topical
on head, itching)
LP:4 (jaundice) Paste Oral
EUPHORBIACEAE RSD:4 (chest pain) Paste Oral
4. Achyranthes aspera. Linn. PHC-54 Nayuruvi Herb 1.87 Leaves PB:3 (scorpion bits) Paste Topical
Leaves DID:3 (cuts, wounds) Paste Topical
Seed GH:6 (body strength) Decoction Oral
Root PB:2 (dog bits)a Paste Oral
AMARANTHACEAE Whole KP:1 (kidney stone)a Decoction Oral
plant
5. Adathoda vasica. Nees. PHC-59 Adathoda Shrub 0.75 Leaves RSD:1 (asthma, cough, Paste Oral
bronchitis)
Whole ENT:2 (ear ache) Juice Topical
plant
ACANTHACEAE Root GIA:3 (intestinal Decoction Oral
worms)
6. Aegle marmelos. Linn. PHC-88 Vilvam Tree 1.37 Leaves CSCD:1 (blood purifier) Juice Oral
Fruit SMSD:7 (swellings) Paste Topical
RUTACEAE Fruit DID:3 (heal wounds) Paste Topical
7. Allium cepa. Linn. PHC-25 Vengayam Herb 0.37 Bulb CSCD:1 (blood purifier) Juice Oral
LILIACEAE GIA:2 (indigestion) Soup Oral
8. Aloe vera. Linn. PHC-4 Katralai Herb 1.75 Leaves CA:8 (body cooling)a Paste Oral
DID:2 (pimples, burns) paste Topical
LILIACEAE SMSD:1 (rheumatism) Paste Topical
ONC:2 (cancer)a Paste Oral
GIA:1 (constipation) Raw Oral
9. Amaranthus spinosus. Linn. PHC-39 Mulluchedi Shurb 0.25 Leaves DID:2 (skin allergy) Decoction Bath
AMARANTHACEAE
10. Alternanthera sessilis. Linn. (R.Br) PHC-62 Ponnankanni Herb 0.62 Leaves HEM:3 (piles) Soup Oral
AMARANTHACEAE Flower GH:2 (increasing Soup Oral
energy)
11. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst) Ni PHC-96 Karnaikilangu Herb 2.37 Rhizome RSD:4 (cough) Paste Oral
CSCD:8 (heart disease)a Juice Oral
ARACEAE LP:7 (liver pain)
12. Anacardium occidentale. Linn. PHC-11 Munthiri Tree 1.37 Fruit RSD:2 (asthma) Raw Oral
SMSD:2 (head ache)
Seed DID:2 (burns)a Paste Topical
ANACARDIACEAE GUA:5 (male fertility) Raw Oral
(endosperm)
13. Ananas comosus (L) Merr. PHC-73 Annachi Herb 0.37 Fruit GUA:3 (abortion, Raw Oral
BROMELIACEAE venereal disease)
14. Andrographis paniculata. Burm. F Nilavembu Herb 1.75 Leaves PB:8 (scorpion bite, Paste Topical
snake bite)
PHC-79 Leaves ED:6 (diabetes) Powder Oral
ACANTHACEAE
15. Annona squamosa. Linn. PHC-1 Seetha pazham Tree 1.87 Whole SMSD:2 (body pain) Juice Oral
plant
Fruit GH:7 (body Raw Oral
refreshment)
ANNONACEAE HC:6 (hair growth) Raw Oral
16. Areca catechu. Linn. PHC-82 Kottaipakku Tree 0.5 Fruit GH:2 (body Raw Oral
refreshment)
ARECACEAE DID:2 (burns) Paste Topical
17. Azadirachta indica A. Juss PHC-10 Vembu Tree 1.62 Stem PB:6 (insect bites)a Infusion Topical
Flower GIA:2 (stomach ache, Decoction Oral
ulcer)
Leaves GH:4 (disease resist) Paste Topical
MELIACEAE DID:1 (scabies) Paste Topical
18. Bambusa arundinacea (or) bambos (Retz) wild. PHC-55 Moongil Shrub 0.75 Seed SMSD:6 (rheumatism) Paste Topical
POACEAE
19. Boerhavia diffusa. Linn. PHC-40 Mookarattai Shrub 0.62 Root DID:3 (scabies) Paste Topical
NYCTAGINACEAE Leaves CSCD:2 (blood purifier) Juice Oral
20. Cardiospermum halicacabum. Linn. PHC-87 Mudakkathan Climber 1.00 Leaves GUA:1 (delivery pain) Decoction Oral
SMSD:4 (body pain) Juice Oral
SAPINDACEAE GH:3 (body
refreshment)
21. Carica papaya. Linn. PHC-53 Pappali Tree 2.12 Latex GUA:6 (easy delivery) Raw Oral
Leaves FVR:5 (viral fever) Juice Tropical
CARICACEAE Fruit ENT:6 (eye cooling) Raw Oral
780 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

Table 2 (continued )

No Botanical name/family name Local name Life form Use Parts used Ailment category: no Preparation Application
value of use reports

22. Carum capticum. Benth and Cook. PHC-62 Omam Shrub 1.75 Leaves GIA:8 (indigestion)a Juice Oral
UMBELLIFERAE ONC:6 (cancer)a Raw Oral
23. Cassia auriculata. Linn. PHC-80 Avaram poo Shrub 1.37 Fruit HC:3 (dandruff)a Paste Topical
GIA:3 (stomach ache) Juice Oral
CAESALPINIACEAE DID:5 (skin irritation, Paste Topical
Itching)
24. Cassia alata. Linn. PHC-2 Seemai agathi Shrub 0.5 Flower GUA:4 (abortion) Decoction Oral
CAESALPINIACEAE
25. Delonia elata. Linn. PHC-61 Vadhanarayananan Tree Leaves HEM: 4 (piles)a Paste Topical
CAESALPINIACEAE
a
26. Catharanthus roseus G. Don PHC-36 Nithya kalyani Shrub 0.37 Whole ED:3 (diabetes) Paste Oral
APOCYNACEAE plant
27. Centella asiatica PHC-18 Vallarai Shrub 1.62 Leaves CSCD:4 (memory Paste or juice Oral
power)
SMSD:2 (headache) Paste Topical
APIACEAE GIA:4 (stomachache)a Paste Oral
GIA:3 (indigestion)
28. Cissus quadrangularis. Linn. PHC-19 Pirandai Shrub 1.12 Stem GH:5 (bone breakage) Paste Topical
VITACEAE Leaves GIA:4 (stomach ache) Juice Oral
29. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm and swingle. L) sw PHC-49 Elumitchai Tree 0.75 Leaves FVR:2 (fever) Juice Oral
SMSD:3 (headache) Paste Topical
RUTACEAE RSD:1 (cold) Boiled Inhalation
30. Citrus hystrix. DC PHC-69 Kaffir elumitchai Tree 2.00 Fruit ONC:6 (anti-cancer) Juice Oral
DID:3 (skin generation) Juice Topical
RUTACEAE HC:4 (dandruff, hair Juice Topical
loss)
31. Cleome viscosa. Linn. PHC-83 Naaikadugu Herb 0.75 Leaves DID:6 (wounds) Paste Topical
CAPPARIDACEAE
32. Coccinia indica. Linn. (voigt) PHC-26 Kovaipazham Climber 1.62 Leaves ED:4 (diabetic)a Juice Oral
Fruit LP:2 (jaundice) Juice Oral
DID:2 (skin disease)a Paste Topical
GH:3 (body strength) Raw Oral
CUCURBITACEAE GUA:2 (sperm Raw Oral
production)
33. Coleus aromaticus. Benth PHC-65 Karpura valli Herb 0.87 Tuber RSD:4 (heavy cold, Juice Oral
cough, asthma)
LAMIACEAE FVR:3 (fever)
34. Commelina benghalensis. Linn. PHC-86 Thenga chedi Herb 0.25 Stem DID:2 (wounds) Paste Topical
COMMELINACEAE
35. Curculigo orchioides S. Gaerth Nilapanai Herb 2.5 Root PB:1 (snake bite) Paste Topical
PHC-20 CSCD:2 (anemic)a Juice Oral
AMARYLLIDACEAE GIA:3 (stomach ache) Infusion Oral
DID:4 (leprosy)a Juice mixed Bath
with water
FVR:3 (fever) Inhalation Nose
GUA:4 (urinary Soup Oral
disease)a
LP:3 (jaundice) Paste Oral
36. Curcuma domestica. Valeton. PHC-41 Manjal Shrub 0.37 Rhizome DID:3 (skin eruption) Paste Topical
ZINGIBERACEAE
37. Cyclea peltata. Arn. ex wight PHC-66 Seenthil kodi Climbing 0.25 Stem FVR:2 (fever) Decoction Oral
MENISPERMACEAE herb
38. Datura metal. Linn. PHC-56 Oomathai Herb 0.37 Leaves ENT:2 (ear ache) Juice Topical
SOLANACEAE PB:1 (dog bite)a Paste Topical
39. Discorea pentaphylla. Linn. PHC-51 Kattu kilangu Climber 1.25 Tuber RSD:2 (asthma) Juice Oral
DISCOREACEAE GH:8 (body
refreshment)a
40. Eclipta prostata. Linn. PHC-52 Karisalankanni Herb 1.37 Root CA:5 (reduce body heat) Paste Topical
ASTERACEAE Leaves SMSD:2 (head ache)
HC:4 (hair growth)
41. Euphorbia hirta. Linn. PHC-37 Amman pacharisi Herb 1.5 Leaves RSD:2 (asthma, cough) Paste Topical
EUPHORBIACEAE Leaves PB:1 (snake bites)a Paste Topical
Latex DID:3 (lip cracks) Infusion (Latex Topical
mixed with
water)
Leaves GIA:2 (anti-ulcer) Juice Oral
FVR:4 (cholera) Soup Oral
42. Ficus benghalensis Linn. PHC-13 Alamaram Tree 1.37 Latex DID:4 (heel cracks) Paste Topical
MORACEAE Fruit GUA:3 (sperm Powder Oral
production)
Root DC:2 (teeth strength) Raw Tooth brush
Young bark DID:2 (wound healing) Paste Topical
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 781

Table 2 (continued )

No Botanical name/family name Local name Life form Use Parts used Ailment category: no Preparation Application
value of use reports

43. Ficus racemosa. Linn. PHS-70 Athithimaram Tree 1.00 Stem DID:1 (heal cracks) Paste Topical
MORACEAE Latex GUA:2 (sperm Juice (Mixed Oral
production) with milk)
Fruit ONC:5 (cancer) Paste Oral
44. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Linn. PHC-30 Athimadhuram Herb 1.25 Root SMSD:2 (body pain) Decoction Oral
FABACEAE Leaves CA:1 (cooling agent) Decoction Bath
RSD:3 (cough) Juice Oral
ENT:4 (throat pain)
45. Gymnema sylvestre. R.Br. PHC-96 Sakkaraikolli Woody 1.25 Leaves ED:4 (diabetes) Paste Oral
climber
ASCLEPIADACEAE Root PB:2 (poison bite) Paste Oral
Leaves LP:4 (jaundice) Juice Oral
46. Heliotropium indicum.. Linn. PHC-38 Thelkodukku Shrub 0.62 Whole DID:5 (wound, skin Paste Topical
BORAGINACEAE plant disease)
47. Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. PHC-64 Nannari Climber 1.00 Root LP:3 (jaundice) Juice Oral
Whole CA:2 (cooling agent) Paste Oral
ASCLEPIADACEAE plant SMSD:3 (body pain) Decoction Oral
48. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Linn. PHC-67 Chembaruthi Herb 1.12 Leaves HC:5 (hair growth, Paste Topical
dandruff)
MALVACEAE Flower GUA:4 (over bleeding) Juice Oral
49. Hybanthus enneaspermus F. Muell PHC-57 Orithal thamarai Shrub 0.25 Whole RSD:2 (cough) Paste Oral
VIOLACEAE plant
50. Hygrophilla auriculata. Heine. PHC-71 Neermulli chedi Shrub 1.12 Root PB:2 (scorpion bite) Paste Topical
Leaves GIA:1 (indigestion) Juice Oral
ACANTHACEAE Stem CSCD:6 (heart strength) Juice Oral
51. Ipomea batatus. Linn. PHC-68 Sakkara valli Climber 1.00 Tubers FVR:1 (fever) Paste Oral
kizhangu
CONVOLVULACEAE RSD:3 (bronchitis) Raw Oral
GH:4 (body strength)
52. Jatropha gossypiifolia. Linn. PHC-31 Shrub 0.25 Latex and GIA:2 (ulcer) Juice Oral
EUPHORBIACEAE Stem
53. Lantana camera. Linn. PHC-78 Unni chedi Shrub 0.37 Leaves SMSD:3 (head ache, Paste Topical
swellings, rheumatism)
VERBENACEAE ONC:5 (cancer)
54. Cleodendrum inerme. Linn. (Gaertn) PHC-29 Pieinari sangu Herb 0.37 Leaves FVR:3 (fever) Juice Oral
VERBENACEAE
55. Lawsonia inermis. Linn. PHC-21 Maruthani Shrub 0.87 Leaves DID:4 (wounds) Paste Topical
LYTHRACEAE HC:3 (hair growth) Paste Topical
56. Leucas aspera. Spreng. PHC-44 Thumbai Herb 1.12 Leaves DID:3 (chronic skin Paste Topical
eruption, Psoriasisa)
LAMIACEAE RSD:4 (cough, cold) Juice Oral
SMSD:2 (head ache) Paste Topical
57. Lippia nodiflora. Mich. PHC-14 Poduthalai Shrub 1.12 Leaves DID:5 (wounds) Paste Topical
VERBENACEAE SMSD:4 (swellings) Paste Topical
58. Mangifera indica. Linn. PHC-58 Maamaram Tree 0.25 Young ED:1 (anti-diabetes) Juice Oral
ANACARDIACEAE leaves RSD:1 (cough)
59. Manihot esculenta. Crantz. PHC-22 Maravalli kizhangu Shrub 0.37 Rhizome GH:2 (body strength) Raw Oral
EUPHORBIACEAE Leaves, GIA:1 (stomach ache, Paste Oral
Stems and diarrhea, indigestion)
Twigs
60. Mimosa pudica. Linn. PHC-84 Thotta sinungi Herb 0.75 Leaves DID:6 (cuts, wounds) Paste Topical
MIMOSACEAE
61. Acacia nilotica. Linn. PHC-12 Karuvelam Tree 1.00 Stem DC:4 (foul odor, teeth Raw Tooth brush
strength)
Bark GIA:2 (dysentery) Juice Oral
MIMOSACEAE Leaves RSD:2 (cough) Decoction Oral
62. Moringa oleifera. Lampk. PHC-23 Murungai Tree 2.62 Leaves ENT:2 (eye cooling) Decoction Oral
MORINGACEAE RSD:2 (cold, cough) Juice Oral
Bark GUA:4 (uterine disorder Juice Oral
Bark PI: 4 (female Juice Oral
contraception)
Leaves ONC:6 (cancer) Decoction Oral
Seed CA:1 (cooling agent) Juice Oral
Flower GUA:2 (sperm Raw Oral
production)
63. Mukia maderaspatana. Linn. Roenar PHC-32 Musu-Musukkai Climber 0.37 Leaves RSD:1 (cold, cough) Paste Oral
CUCURBITACEAE HC:2 (hair growth) Paste Topical
(Mixed with
coconut oil)
64. Murraya koenigii. (L). Spreng PHC-91 Karuvaeppillai Tree 1.25 Leaves HC:5 (hair growth) Paste Topical
RUTACEAE ENT:5 (eye disorders) Juice Oral
65. Nelumbo nucifera. Linn. PHC-45 Thamarai Aquatic 0.37 Rhizome GIA:1 (stomach ache, Paste Oral
herb diarrhea)
NYMPHACEAE GUA:2 (abortion) Juice Oral
66. Nerium oleander. Sol. PHC-90 Arali Herb 0.12 Stem, Bark ENT:1 (ear ache) Paste Topical
APOCYNACEAE
782 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

Table 2 (continued )

No Botanical name/family name Local name Life form Use Parts used Ailment category: no Preparation Application
value of use reports

67. Ocimum tenuiflorum. Linn. PHC-85 Thulasi Herb 1.75 Leaves RSD:3 (cough, cold) Paste Topical
SMSD:5 (head ache) Paste Topical
LAMIACEAE Seed GIA:1 (dysentery, Juice Oral
diarrhea, stomach ache)
Leaves RSD:4 (asthma, Juice Oral
bronchitisa)
DID:1 (skin diseases) Paste Topical
68. odina wodier. Roxb. FL PHC-98 Uthiyam Tree 0.37 Leaves GUA:3 (venereal Juice Oral
ANACARDIACEAE diseases)
69. Opuntia dillenii. Linn. PHC-102 Sappathi kalli Herb 0.87 Stem DID:3 (burns) Paste Topical
CACTACEAE ED:4 (diabetes) Decoction Oral
70. Passiflora foetida. Linn. PHC-97 Mupparisavalli Climbing 0.12 Whole SMSD:1 (head ache)a Paste Topical
PASSIFLORACEAE Herb plant
71. Pedalium murex Linn. PHC-6 Yanai nerinchil Herb 1.25 Seed GUA:5 (in continuous of Decoction Oral
urine)a
PEDALIACEAE ENT:5 (gleets)a Infusion Oral
72. Phyllanthus amarus. Schum and Thnn. PHC-74 Keelanelli Herb 1.00 Leaves LP:1 (jaundice) Juice Oral
Leaves ENT:4 (eye cooling) Powder Oral
EUPHORBIACEAE Fruit CSCD:3 (anemic Decoction Oral
disease)a
73. Phyllanthus emblica. Linn. PHC-9 Periya nelli Tree 1.5 Fruit RSD:3 (cold, cough) Powder Oral
HC:5 (hair growth) Juice Topical
EUPHORBIACEAE GIA:4 (gastric complaints) Raw Oral
74. Piper betle. Linn. PHC-24 Vetrilai Climber 0.62 Leaves FVR:1 (fever) Raw Topical
RSD:2 (cough) Raw Oral
PIPERACEAE SMSD:2 (head ache) Raw Topical
75. Piper nigrum. Linn. PHC-92 Milagu Climber 0.37 Fruit GIA:3 (stomach ache, Powder Oral
PIPERACEAE indigestion)
76. Polyalthia longifolia. (Sonn) Thwaits PHC-46 Netilingam Tree 0.62 Stem, Bark, GIA:5 (indigestion, Juice Oral
ANNONACEAE Flower dysentery)
77. Pongamia glabra. Vent. PHC-72 Punga maram Tree 0.62 Bark and DID:5 (skin disease) Paste Topical
FABACEAE seed
78. psidium guajava. Linn. PHC-94 Koyya Tree 0.75 Leaves DC:6 (worms in gums Decoction Oral
MYRTACEAE and teeth)
79. Punica granatum. Linn. PHC-33 Maadhulai Tree 0.37 Root GIA:3 (intestinal warms)a Infusion Oral
PUNICACEAE
80. Ricinus communis. Linn. PHC-34 Amanakku Shrub 0.75 Leaves GIA:1 (stomach ache) Paste Topical
EUPHORBIACEAE GUA:3 (increase breast Juice Oral
milk)a
Seed GIA:2 (constipation) Juice Oral
PB:1 (scorpion sting)a Paste Topical
81. Ruta graveolens. Linn. PHC-99 Aruvatham thalai Herb 0.25 Seed RSD: 2 (bronchitis) Decoction Topical
RUTACEAE
82. Santalum album. Linn. PHC-93 Santhanam Tree 1.12 Stem FVR:6 (fever) Paste Oral
SANTALACEAE Root RSD:3 (asthma)a
83. Sesamum indicum. Linn. PHC-75 Ellu Herb 1.25 Seed CA:5 (cooling agent) Oil Topical
PEDALIACEAE GIA:5 (stomach ache) Oil Topical
84. Sesbania grandiflora. Pers. PHC-15 Agathi Tree 1.12 Bark DID:4 (small pox)a Decoction Bath
Leaves RSD:3 (sore throat) Juice Oral
FABACEAE Flower GIA:2 (dysentery) Soup Oral
85. Sida acuta. Burn. PHC-16 Arival manai Shrub 0.62 Leaves SMSD:3 (head ache)a Paste Topical
MALVACEAE poondu DID:2 (cuts, wounds) Paste Topical
86. Solanum nigrum. SW. PHC-27 Manathakkali Herb 0.5 Whole RSD:1 (cough) Juice Oral
plant
SOLANACEAE Leaves HEM:1 (piles)a Juice Oral
ED:2 (diabetes) Juice Oral
87. solanum surattense. Bumr. f PHC-47 Kanda kathiri Herb 1.12 Whole GIA:5 (stomach ache) Juice Oral
plant
SOLANACEAE RSD:1 (asthma) Paste Oral
ENT:3 (throat pain) Paste Oral
88. Solanum trilobatum. Linn. PHC-7 Thoothuvalai Climber 0.87 Leaves RSD:1 (asthma)a Juice Oral
SOLANACEAE ENT:2 (throat pain) Paste Oral
GH:3 (body strength) Paste Topical
DID:1 (itching)a Paste Topical
89. Solanum torvum SW. PHC-76 Sundaikaai Shrub 0.12 Leaves CA:1 (body cooling) Juice Oral
SOLANACEAE
90. Strychnos nux-vomica. Linn. PHC-50 Ettimaram Tree 0.5 Seeds ONC:4 (liver cancer)a Powder Oral
LOGANIACEAE
91. Syzygium cumini. Walp. PHC-100 Naaval Tree 0.62 Fruit ED:1 (diabetes) Raw Oral
MYRTACEAE Bark CA:2 (body cooling) Raw Oral
SMSD:2 (swelling) Paste Topical
92. Zingiber officinale. Linn. PHC-48 Puliya maram Tree 1.00 Fruits ENT:1 (eye infection)a Raw Oral
(Unripe
pods)
GUA:2 (abortion) Powder Oral
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 783

Table 2 (continued )

No Botanical name/family name Local name Life form Use Parts used Ailment category: no Preparation Application
value of use reports

FABACEAE Bark DID:3 (wound healing, Paste Topical

skin irritations)
Leaves SMSD:2 (joint pain) Paste Topical
93. Tectona grandis. Linn. PHC-94 Thekku maram Tree 0.75 Seed HC:6 (dandruff) Powder Topical
VERBENACEAE
94. Terminalia chebula. Retz PHC-28 Kadukkaai Tree 0.75 Fruit GIA:6 (dysenterya, Powder Oral
COMBRETACEAE indigestion)
95. Trianthema portulacastrum. Linn. PHC-89 Saaranai Herb 1.00 Root GIA:1 (constipation)a Decoction Oral
AIZOACEAE RSD:7 (asthma) Juice Orals
96. Tribulus terrestris. Linn. PHC-35 Nerinchil Herb 2.00 Whole CA:4 (body cooling) Juice Oral
plant
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Fruit CSCD:6 (heart Soup Oral
strength)a
Fruit KP:5 (stone formation, Powder Oral
urinary trouble, liver
disease)
Root GUA:1 (venereal Juice Oral
disease)a
97. Tridax procumbens. Linn. PHC-101 Vettu kaaya Herb 0.87 Whole DID:7 (wounds) Paste Topical
ASTERACEAE poondu plant
98. Vetiveria zizanoides, Nast. PHC-17 Vetiver Shurb 0.87 Root GIA:7 (stomach ache) Juice Oral
POACEAE
99. Cynodon dactylon. Linn. (Pers) PHC-60 Arugam pul Herb 0.62 Whole GIA:2 (gastric problem) Juice Oral
plant
POACEAE Leaves CSCD:3 (blood purifier) Juice Oral
100. Vitex negundo. Linn. PHC-77 Notchi Tree 2.37 Leaves SMSD:8 (head ache) Paste Topical
VERBENACEAE Root RSD:4 (cold, cough) Juice Oral
FVR:2 (fever) Paste sTopical
PB:3 (snake bite)a Juice Oral
SMSD:2 (rheumatism) Paste Topical
101. Zingiber officinale Linn. PHC-81 Zinger Herb 1.12 Root SMSD:1 (swellings) Juice Oral
ZINGIBERACEAE ONC:8 (cancer) Decoction Oral
102. Zizyphus jujupa. Linn. PHC-95 Elanthai Tree 1.62 Leaf SMSD:7 (body pain) Decoction Oral
RHAMNACEAE Bark DID:6 (wounds) Powder Topical

a
New claims.

Fig. 3. Life forms of reported common medicinal plants.

frequently utilized medicinal plant parts were Leaves (36%) used

for the preparation of medicine solely or mixed with other plant
parts. It was followed by Fruit (12%), Root (11%), Stem (8%), Stem
bark, Whole plant and Seed (each 7%), Flowers (4%), Latex (3%),
tubers and Rhizome (each 2%) and Bulb (1%) as show in Fig. 4.
All over the world tribal communities, utilized for the preparation
of herbal medicine using leaves (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011;
Ezekiel and Daniel, 2012; Gidey et al., 2011; Srithi et al., 2009;
Teklehaymanot et al., 2007; Ullah et al., 2013). The reason why
leaves were mostly is that they are very easy to collect when
compared to other parts of plants (Giday et al., 2009) and the
scientific reason is that the photosynthetic activity and secondary
metabolite production more in leaves than other (Ghorbani, 2005).

3.1. Mode of preparation and administration of plants

Fig. 4. Percentage of plant parts used for the preparation of medicine.

Plant parts were grouped into eight categories for preparation Decoction (10%), Powder (5%), Soup (3%), Infusion (2%) and Inhala-
and utilization. Among these majority of the plant remedies were tion (1%) (Fig. 5). According to the informants, preparation of paste
prepared by paste (39%) followed by Juice (29%), Raw (11%), for the treatment of ailments is a common method of the tribal
784 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789
Fig. 5. Catagories of local Traditional healer’s mode of utilization for the prepara-
tion of medicine.
communities in global level (Amri and Kisangau, 2012; Giday et al.,
2010; Rajkumar and Shivanna, 2009; Ullah et al., 2013). The paste
was prepared by grinding the fresh or dried plant parts with oil or
water. The juice was taken as orally along with water or milk or
honey, Raw (taken as raw plant parts orally), Decoction was obtained
by boiling the plant parts in water until the volume of water reduce
to required amount. Powder was prepared by the grinding of shade
dried plant parts. Infusion was prepared by fresh plants parts are
soaking into water through over night; inhalation was done by the
burning of plant parts and inhaled the smoke through nose.
The most frequently used mode of remedy administration is
oral ingestion (62%), followed by topical uses (35%), bath (2%),
tooth brush (1%), and nasal applications (1%) (Fig. 6). Today, most
of the medicines were given orally which is an agreement with
some other studies (Andrade-Cetto, 2009; Lee et al., 2008; Ullah et
al., 2013). For topical uses still an important way of remedy
administration to treat diseases like skin disorders, wounds,
poison bites, rheumatism, body pain, body strength, burns and
head ache (Fernadez et al., 2003; Manual et al., 2005; Seyid et al.,
2013).
Herbal medicines prescribed by local traditional healers were
either preparation based on single plant or a combination of
several plant parts. In the present study reveals most of the
preparation involved in multiple modes (74 plants). Only few
plants (36 plants) were taken as medicine without ingredients. In
some cases, the added ingredients may be other plant parts or
some other products like oils, goat milk, salt and honey (Table 3).
Most of the reported, preparations were prepared by mixture of
plant parts (Ignacimuthu et al., 2008; Upadhyay et al., 2010).
In this study mostly fresh plant parts were used for the prepara-
tion of medicine. Similar findings were reported by Asase et al.
(2010), Revathi et al. (2013). Gidey et al. (2011) reported, local
traditional healers too frequently use other adjuvant like honey,
milk, sugar, salt and oil to improve the acceptability and medicinal
property of certain remedies. The preparation of paste/medicated
oil were commonly used by the oil caster of coconut, gingelly,
mustard, neem and pongam. Depending upon the diseases and age
Fig. 6. Catagories of Traditional healer’s mode of remedy applications.
they were using specific plant parts and specific dosages for the
treatment of patient to improve the health conditions.
3.2. Use values
The most commonly used species was Moringa oleifera with 21
use reports by 8 informants, giving the highest use value of 2.62
Moringa oleifera is attributed to its use in the treatment of various
diseases and it is well recognized all the informants as an cancer.
From the ethno pharmacological approach of Thai traditional
healers Moringa oleifera in treatment of cancer, to consume five
leaf a day (Itharat and Ooraikul, 2007) followed by Curculigo
orchioides (20 use reports by 8 informants with UV of 2.5)
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Vitex negundo (each 19 use reports
by 8 informants with a UV of 2.37), Carica papaya (17 use reports
by 8 informants with a UV of 2.12), Citrus hystrix, Tribulus terrestris
(each 16 use reports by 8 informants with a UV of 2.0), Achyranthes
aspera, Annona squamosa (15 use reports by 8 informants with a
UV of 1.87), Aloe vera, Andrographis paniculata (14 use reports by
8 informants with a UV of 1.75), Acorus calamus, Azadirachta indica,
Centella asiatica, Coccinia indica, Ziziphus zizyphus (13 use reports
by 8 informants with a UV of 1.62). Generally these plants were
frequently used by traditional healers Eastern ghats of Tamilnadu
(Samydurai et al., 2012) and local health care practices of Sikkim
(Badola and Pradhan, 2013), India for treatment of various
diseases.
The very low use value Solanum torvum, Nerium oleander and
Passiflora foetida which is reported by only one informants with a
UV of 0.12 of which Passiflora foetida was a new claim and also
used in headache, others are regularly using this plant in the
treatment of body cooling and ear ache. Similar were supported
(Chellaiah et al., 2006; Itharat and Ooraikul, 2007; Seyid et al.,
2013)
Badola and Pradhan (2013) reported that plants in the study
area leads to them low use value as in the case of Khangchend-
zonga Biosphere reserve, Sikkim. In the present study plants
reported with a low use value (2 use reports by 8 informants with
 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 785

Table 3
Ingredients added for the preparation of herbal medicines by the local traditional healers.

No. Botanical name Other plants added in medicinal preparation Other ingredients added

1. Achyranthes aspera Gloriosa superb Coconut oil

2. Acorus calamus Myrstica dactloides Honey/milk
3. Areca catechu – –
4. Allium cepa Aegle marmelos Pepper (indigestion), (curd)
5. Ananas comosus – –
6. Acalypha indica Orthosiphon thymiflorus Salt (chest pain)
7. Azadirachta indica Piper lognum Turmeric (scabies)
8. Aegle mermelos Commiphora mukal –
9. Acacia nilotica Plectranthus nilgherricus –
10 Anacardium occidentale – –
11. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Coleus aromaticus Coconut oil (cough)
12. Andrographis paniculata Commiphora caudate Honey/milk
13. Abrus precatorius Cinnamom tamala –
14. Alternanthera sessilis – Salt þwater (abortion)
15. Amaranthus spinosus Ruta graveolens –
16. Annona squamosa Utileria salicifolia –
17. Adathoda vasica – Honey (bronchitis)
18. Aloe vera – Rheumatism, constipation (ghee, bulb, sugar and wheat flour)
19. Bambusa arundinacea Sesbania grandiflora Gingelly oil
20. Boerhavia diffusa Rubia cordifolia –
21. Centella asiatica Cymbopogan racemosus Salt (memory power)
22. Cassia alata Artemisia parviflora –
23. Coleus aromaticus – Milk (asthma)
24. Cassia auriculata – –
25. Commelina benghalensis Tinospera cardiafolia Turmeric (wounds)
26. Carum capticum Alpina galangal –
27. Cynodon dactylon Euphorbia hirta Sugar (gastric problem)
28. Curcuma domestica Curcuma aromaticum –
29. Cardiospermum halicacabum – Honey
30. Citrus hystrix Aloe vera Sugar (cancer)
31. Coccinia indica Costus specious Milk (anti–diabetes)
Sugar (jaundice)
32. Cleodendrum inerme Ocimum sanctum Milk (fever)
33. Curculigo orchioides Hemidusmus indicus Ginger (poisonous bite)
34. Carica papaya Achyranthes aspera Salt (viral fever)
35. Cyclea peltata Cissus quardraguris Milk (fever)
36. Catharanthus roseus Tridax procumbens Water (diabetes)
37. Cleome viscosa Hyptis suaveolens –
38. Cissus quadrangularis Cyperus rotundus Egg (bone breakage)
39. Citrus aurantifolia – –
40. Delonia elata – Coconut oil (piles)
41. Datura metal Cassial tora Coconut oil (dog bite)
42. Discorea pentaphylla Citrus lemon Sugar (body refreshment)
43. Euphorbia hirta – Sugar þ milk (anti-ulcer)
44. Eclipta prostata Decalepis hamiltonii Honey (reduce body heat)
45. Ficus benghalensis Eugenia singampattina Milk þhoney (sperm production)
46. Ficus racemosa – Sugar þ gingerþmilk (sperm production)
47. Ficus religiosa – –
48. Gymnema sylvestre Coriandrum sativum Milk (jaundice)
49. Hygrophilla auriculata Allium cepa Coconut oil (scorpion bite)
50. Hybanthus enneaspermus Zingiber officinale Waterþextract (cough)
51. Heliotropium indicum Azadirachta indica –
52. Hemidesmus indicus – Honeyþ whole plant (jaundice)
53. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Moringa oleifera Coconut oil (hair growth)
54. Ipomea batatus – Salt (bronchitis)
55. Jatropha curcas Euphorbia hirta –
56. Leucas aspera plectranthus nilgherricus Castor oil
57. Lantana camera – (Head ache)
58. Lawsonia inermis commiphora caudate Coconut oil (hair growth)
59. Lippia nodiflora Eucalyptus globules Turmeric (wound, swelling)
60. Manihot esculenta – Milk (body strength, indigestion)
61. Mangifera indica Curculigo orchioides Food (diabetes)
62. Murraya koenigii Garcinia indica –
63. Moringa oleifera Leucas biflora –
64. Mimosa pudica – Castor oil
65. Mukia maderaspatana Hibiscus rosa sinensis Coconut oil (hair growth)
66. Nelumbo nucifera Anninus cosmes Sugar (abortion)
67. Nerium oleander – Coconut oil
68. Opuntia dillenii commiphora mukul –
69. Ocimum tenuiflorum –
70. Odina wodier Moringa oleifera Waterþsalt (venereal disease)
71. Phyllanthus amarus – Honeyþ cowmilk (jaundice, anemic patient)
72. Piper betle Vitex negundo –
73. Phyllanthus emblica Cynodon dactylon Coconut oil (hair growth)
74. Passiflora foetida Carum capticum –
786 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789

Table 3 (continued )

No. Botanical name Other plants added in medicinal preparation Other ingredients added

75. Pongamia glabra Daucas carota Milkþ ginger (cooling agent, throat pain)
76. Punica granatum Solanum nigrum –
77. Psidium guajava – –
78. Polyalthia longifolia Citrus aurantifolia Goat’s milk (indigestion)
79. Pedalium murex – –
80 Piper nigrum Vetiveria zizanoides Honey (stomach ache)
81. Ricinus communis odina wodier Gingerþ bark (constipation)
82. Ruta graveolens Costus speciosus –
83. Sida acuta Hyptis suaveolens Castor oil (cuts, wounds)
84. Santalum album Canarium strictum –
85. Syzygium cumini Lanta camara –
86. Sesbania grandiflora – (Leucorrhea)
87. Sesamum indicum Moringa oleifera Coconut þlemon (cooling)
88. Solanum nigrum Delonia elata Seed extractþ hot waterþ honey (diabetic)
89. Solanum surrattense Discorea pentaphylla Black pepper þsalt (indigestion, fever, cough and asthma)
90. Solanum torvum Decalepis hamiltonii –
91. Solanum trilobatum Phyllanthus amarus Honey (asthma, body strength)
92. Strychnos nux-vomica – –
93. Terminalia chebula Alpina calcarata Ghee
94. Tectona grandis – Coconut oil (dandruff)
95. Tamarindus indica Lawsonia inermis Flowerswith asafetida (contraception)
96. Trianthema portulacastrum Cinnamom zeylanicum –
97. Tridax procumbens Hibiscus abelmoschus Pungam oil (wounds)
98. Thomasia purpurea – –
99. Tribulus terrestris Christitonia bicolor –
100. Vitex negundo Trachyspermum ammi Seeds þsalt (cholera)
101. Vetiveria zizanoides ocimum sanctum –
102. Zingiber officinale Coriandrum sativum Gingerþ seed (indigestion)

Fig. 7. Catagories of ailments treated Traditional healer’s arranged by number of use-reports.

 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789 787

Table 4 Table 5
Informant consensus factor for commonly used medicinal plants. Fidelity level (FL) values for common medicinal plants used by local traditional
healers by ailment category.
Ailment category Number of use- Number of Informant
reports (Nur) taxa (Nt) consensus factor Ailment categories Most preferred species FL (%)
(Fic) with specific ailment

Circulatory system/ 36 10 0.74 Circulatory system/ Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (heart 100.00

cardiovascular cardiovascular diseases disease)
diseases Hygrophilla auriculata (heart strength) 75.00
Cooling agents 29 9 0.71 Centella asiatica (memory power) 50.00
Dental care 12 3 0.82 Cooling agents Aloe vera (body cooling) 100.00
Dermatological 114 34 0.71 Eclipta prostata (reduce body heat) 63.00
infections/diseases Dental care psidium guajava (worms in gums and 75.00
Ear, nose, throat 37 12 0.69 teeth)
problems Acacia nilotica (foul odor, teeth strength) 50.00
Endocrinal disorders 26 8 0.72 Dermatological infections/ Tridax procumbens (wounds) 87.50
Fever 35 12 0.68 diseases Mimosa pudica (cuts, wounds) 75.00
Cassia auriculata (skin irritation, itching) 62.50
Gastro-intestinal 89 30 0.67
Heliotropium indicum (wound, skin 62.50
ailments
disease)
General health 47 12 0.76
Sesbania grandiflora (small pox) 50.00
Genito-urinary ailments 53 18 0.67
Curculigo orchioides (leprosy) 50.00
Hair care 43 10 0.79
Ear, nose, throat problems Carica papaya (eye cooling) 75.00
Hemorrhoids 8 3 0.71
Murraya koenigii (eye disorders) 62.50
Kidney problem 6 2 0.8
Gymnema sylvestre (throat pain) 50.00
Liver problem 24 7 0.74 Endocrinal disorders Andrographis paniculata (diabetes) 75.00
Oncology 50 9 0.84 Coccinia indica (anti-diabetic) 50.00
Pills 4 1 1.00 Fever Santalum album (fever) 75.00
Poisonous bites 37 12 0.69 Carica papaya (viral fever) 62.50
Respiratory systems 73 28 0.63 Euphorbia hirta (cholera) 50.00
diseases Gastro-intestinal ailments Carum capticum (indigestion) 100.00
Skeleto-muscular 82 24 0.72 Vetiveria zizanoides (stomach ache) 87.50
system disorder Terminalia chebula (dysentery, indigestion) 75.00
Polyalthia longifolia (indigestion, 62.50
dysentery)
a UV of 0.25) were Amaranthus spinosus, Cyclea peltata, Hybanthus Phyllanthus emblica (gastric complaints) 50.00
General health Discorea pentaphylla (body refreshment) 100.00
enneaspermus, Mangifera indica, Ruta graveolens, of them Mangifera Achyranthes aspera (body strength) 75.00
indica, is reported to have a very low UV of 0.11 among the local Cissus quadrangularis (bone breakage) 6 2.50
people south west khangchendzonga, Sikkim for treating cough Azadirachta indica (disease resist) 50.00
Genito-urinary ailments Carica papaya (abortion) 75.00
and sore throat (Badola and Pradhan, 2013). This report conformed
Pedalium murex (gleets) 62.50
with on present study. Anacardium occidentale (male fertility) 62.50
Moringa oleifera (uterine disorder) 50.00
3.3. Informant consensus factor Curculigo orchioides (urinary disease) 50.00
Hair care Annona squamosa (hair growth) 75.00
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (hair growth, 62.50
The reported ailments were grouped into 19 categories based dandruff)
on the information gathered from the interviews. The Fic values in Citrus hystrix (dandruff, hair loss) 50.00
our study are ranged from 0.63 to 1.00. The highest ICF value of Eclipta prostata (hair growth) 50.00
Hemorrhoids Delonia elata (piles) 50.00
dermatological infections/diseases (114 use reports,34 species)
Kidney problem Tribulus terrestris (stone formation, urinary 62.50
followed by gastrointestinal ailments (89 use reports,30 species) trouble, liver disorder)
skeleton muscular disorder (82 use reports, 24 species) and Achyranthes aspera (kidney stone) 50.00
respiratory systems diseases (73 use reports, 28 species) (Fig. 7). Liver problem Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (liver pain) 87.50
Acalypha indica (jaundice) 50.00
In this study oncology and pills had highest Fic 1.00 among the
Gymnema sylvestre (liver problem) 50.00
noorails tribes in erode district and cuts and wound has the Oncology Zingiber officinale (cancer) 100.00
highest Fic of 0.91 among the limbo health care practices in Sikkim Citrus hystrix (anti-cancer) 75.00
(Badola and Pradhan, 2013). Achyranthes aspera, Mimosa pudica, Strychnos nuxvomica (liver cancer) 62.50
Pills Moringa oleifera (female contraception) 50.00
Sida acuta were very commonly used for the treatment of cuts and
Poisonous bites Andrographis paniculata (scorpion bite, 100.00
wound in these studies. snake bite)
The lowest Fic value was observed in respiratory system Abrus precatorius (scorpion sting, snake bite) 87.50
disorders with a Fic of 0.63 followed by genitor-urinary ailments Azadirachta indica (poison bites) 75.00
Achyranthes aspera (dog bits) 50.00
with a Fic 0.68 (Table 4). An observation Seyid et al. (2013) the Respiratory systems Trianthema portula castrum (asthma) 87.50
highest Fic is 0.21 on the contrary our survey exemplified the diseases Acalypha indica (chest pain) 50.00
lowest Fic is 0.63. This confirms the present findings were Coleus aromaticus (heavy cold, cough, 50.00
supported by Revathi et al. (2013). asthma)
Ocimum tenuiflorum (asthma, bronchitis) 50.00
In this study observed dermatological infections, gastrointest- Skeleto-muscular system Annona squamosa (body pain) 100.00
inal ailments and respiratory system diseases were used most disorder Aegle marmelos (swellings) 87.50
plants with 34, 30 and 28 species respectively which was sup- Bambusa arundinaceae (rheumatism) 75.00
ported by Revathi et al. (2013). Respiratory system diseases had Ocimum tenuiflorum (head ache) 62.50

the lowest Fic of 0.63 but ailment category third rank in the
number of use reports (73) and number of taxa (28) attributed to
this category. It may be due to the lack of communication among
the informants in the study area who are practicing this ailment
category (Rokaya et al., 2010). Seyid et al. (2013) reported that
gastrointestinal, dermatological and respiratory diseases have a
high informant consensus among the Alasehir people in Turkey. In
the present study also confirmed their observation that these
788 J.E. Morvin Yabesh et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 154 (2014) 774–789
ailment categories had high number of use reports among local
traditional healers with moderate Fic values.
3.4. Fidelity level
From the available information, fidelity level of each of the
species was calculated with each category. As part of this study,
7 species had highest fidelity level of 100%, most of which were
used in single ailment category with multiple informants. In this
study less than three use reports were not considered (Table 5).
The plant with highest FL of 100% were Amorphophallus paeonii-
folius (CSCD), Aloe vera (CA), Carum capticum (GIA), Discorea
pentaphylla (GH), Zingiber officinale (ONC), Andrographis paniculata
(PB), Annona squamosa (SMSD). In support to our study, 100% FL
was reported in Discorea pentaphylla for respiratory system disease
among the hooralis tribe in sathyamangalam forest, Tamil Nadu
(Revathi et al., 2013).
4. Conclusion
The survey indicated that, the study area has plenty of
medicinal plants to treat simple and complicated human ailments.
Many local traditional people in the studied part of Palakkad
district is still continue to depends on medicinal plants, because
well-knowledge healers have good interactions with patients and
this would improve the quality of healthcare delivery. Further
attention is necessary on plant species which are having high
fidelity level. The plants with high use value and informant
consensus factor in the study recommended that, they can be
ethno botanically useful and provide the researches with a
quantitative tool to examine the relationship between taxonomic
groups based on their ethno pharmacological uses.
There is no doubt that the 34 new recorded plant species are
awaiting search for new uses. So, further scientific assessment of
these medicines for phytochemical, biological and clinical studies
is however greatly needed. The present research work indicates
that research projects should be designed in priority on this area
for the pharmacological evaluation and conservation of medicinal
plants of this area.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the UGC Major Research project,
New Delhi, India (MRP R.No: 41-472/2012(SR)) for providing
financial assistant in this project. We specially express our thanks
to the management of A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College (Autono-
mous), Poondi, for providing them necessary facilities and support
to carry out this work and also Traditional healers of Silent valley
especially Sahanam and his relatives of Palakkad District, Kerala.
We are also grateful to two anonymous referees for their critical
reviews and useful comments on the manuscript.
Appendix A
1. Participant’s name and surname.
2. Age and gender of the participant.
3. Pen telephone and address of the participant.
4. Educational qualification of the participant.
5. Date of interview.
6. Name of the participant’s residential address place.
7. How long do you live in the residential place?
8. Name the used local plant.
9. Mention the disease cured by the plant.
10. Mention the part of the plant would you use.
11. How can you make the plant for use?
12. Do you know how and when will you use the plant?
13. Name the dose do you use approximately.
14. Mention the duration taken by the convalescence period.
15. Is there any complication occurred from the plants used by
you?
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