LESSON 2

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

METALS
INTRODUCTION

To be of value to the engineer, a metal must have suitable mechanical

properties.
These properties include hardness, strength and toughness, the values
of which vary greatly from metal to metal and are dependent upon the
metallurgical condition of the material.
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to withstand (menahan) an
applied load.
Ductility is a term which is related to the ability of a material to deform, or
stretch (meregang), under load without failing.
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy.
Material with low toughness will fail at low value with little evidence of
deformation.
A tough material will fail at high value with a significant amount of
permanent deformation.
HARDNESS AND HARDNESS TESTING

Definition The hardness of a metal is its resistance to surface indentation

(lekukan permukaan) under standard test conditions. Three main test
methods are used: Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell.

Purposes • To evaluate resistance of a material to permanent indentation.

• To obtain fitness (kemampuan) of a material to the service
condition.
• To evaluate effect of heat treatment to the hardness
properties.
• Quick approximation of tensile strength (3yHv 3uts)
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Indentation is performed using:

• HARDENED STEEL BALL up to 450 HB
• TUNGSTEN CARBIDE BALL up to 650 HB
• Standard Ball Diameter 10 mm

Mean diameter of the indentation (two readings at right angle to each other)
is measured to obtain BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER.
BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER

Where:
P = applied load [kg]
D = ball diameter [mm]
d = average diameter of indentation [mm]

350 HB 5/750/20
Hardness number 350 HB
Ball diameter 5 mm
Applied load 750 kg
Indentation time 20 sec.
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

INDENTER
136o SQUARE-BASED-PYRAMIDE DIAMOND
VICKERS HARDNESS NUMBER

Where:
P = applied load [kg]
d = average diagonal of indentation [mm]
 = face angle (136o)

640 HV 30
Hardness number 640 HV
Applied load 30 kg
Indentation time 10 – 15 sec.

520 HV 20/12
Hardness number 520 HV
Applied load 20 kg
Indentation time 12 sec.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Rockwell hardness Testing is the most widely used method for

determining hardness because:

1. Simple, no need highly skilled operators.

2. By using different loads and indenters, Rockwell can be used to determine
the hardness of most metals and alloys, ranging from the softest to the
hardest.
3. Hardness number can be read at a second.
4. Direct reading on the dial, no need optical measurement.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

The Principle

1. Hardness value is obtained by determining the depth of penetration using

a diamond point or a steel ball.

2. A minor load of 10 kgf is first applied which causes an initial penetration.

3. A major load of 60, 100, or 150 kgf is applied increasing the depth of
indentation.

4. The major load is removed (dihapus/dilepaskan) and, with the minor load
still acting, the Rockwell number, which is proportional to the difference in
penetration between the major and minor loads is directly shown on a
dial.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL
HARDNESS TEST
 Selection of Hardness Testing Method

• Copper, aluminium, magnesium alloys Rockwell B

• HRB exceed 100 HRC
• Annealed, hot rolled, cold finished,
forged, cast carbon & alloy steels Brinell or Rockwell B
• Fully hardened, hardened, tempered
carbon, alloy, tool & stainless steels HRC or Vickers
• Cast, annealed gray, ductile, compacted
graphite, malleable iron Brinell or Rocwell B
• Quenched & tempered iron Rockwell C
•Note:
•Annealing: memanaskan sedikit di atas suhu kritis Ac3 (9000C),
dibiarkan sampai suhu merata dan disusul dengan pendinginan secara
perlahan-lahan sambil dijaga agar suhu di bagian luar dan dalam kira-kira
sama.
•Hardening: pemanasan baja sampai suhu di daerah atau di atas daerah
kritis disusul dengan pendinginan cepat.
•Quenching: pemanasan sampai di bawah suhu kritis atas ditahan
kemudian disusul dengan pendinginan cepat.
•Tempering: pemanasan kembali baja yang telah dikeraskan pada suhu di
bawah suhu kritis, disusul dengan pendinginan.
Universal Hardness Testing Machine
 Portable Hardness Tester
In case of using stationary hardness tester is not possible, a portable
hardness tester shall be used.
 TENSILE TEST

“Tensile strength is an important material

property to design any constructions”

For both raw and product materials, the purposes of tensile

test are as follow:

(1) Material and welding procedure qualification

(2) To obtain important information from a material
(3) As acceptance criteria and quality control
(4) R&D
TENSILE TEST
 Typical Tensile Specimens

RECTANGULAR

ROUND
Typical Tensile Machine (Universal testing Machine)
Typical Tensile Machine (Universal testing Machine)
Stress-strain Curves
Stress-strain Curves
 Stress-strain Curves

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE

The area under the curve in the elastic range is a measure of the energy
per unit volume which can be absorbed by the material without permanent
deformation.

TOUGHNESS

Toughness is the capacity of a metal to absorb energy and deform

plastically before fracturing.
The energy per unit volume that can be absorbed by a material (the area
under the entire stress-strain diagram) up to the point of fracture.
 HOOKE’S LAW

In elastic behavior, the strain produced in a stressed material is completely

removed as soon as the stress is removed, so that the material returns to its
original dimension.
Some metallic materials show elastic properties up to fairly high stresses, while
others have little elasticity.
When an elastic material is loaded progressively in tension, the elastic strain
produced is directly proportional to the stress causing it. This relationship is known
as Hooke's law.
 HOOKE’S LAW

The graph of stress against strain (fig. 3.7) will be a straight line passing through the
origin.
The slope of this straight line (stress/strain) is a constant for a
given material. This constant is known as Young's modulus, or
the modulus of elasticity, and is denoted by E, so that

Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, E has the same units

as stress.

The value of E is governed by the nature of the material; for steel it is about 2.07 x
105 MPa, while in aluminum is 0.69 x 105 MPa. An aluminum bolt will stretch three
times as much as a similar steel one.
The higher the value of E the more rigid a material is.
 Load-extension Curves

Load-extension curve typically Load-extension curve for

of many metallic materials. unhardened low carbon steel.
 Load-extension Curves

YIELD POINT
YIELD POINT

Load-strain curves for DUCTILE materials

 Load-extension Curves

OFFSET OFFSET
YIELD YIELD
POINT POINT

Load-strain curves for BRITTLE materials

 Yield Point Determination by Offset Method

Yield point 0.2% offset (PROOF STRESS 0.2%)

A
N OA MN

c
Yield point 0.2% offset = 0.2 x c/ 

O M
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

1. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

[MPa]

Original C.S.A
Rectangular =wxt
Round = ¼ π D2
Turbular = ¼ π( OD2 - ID2 )

REMEMBER! 1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2. Yield Strength

[MPa]

3. Elongation

[%]

[%]
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

4. Reduction of Area

[%]

[%]
Fracture Appearance & Material Properties

Ductile Material

 Deformation at fracture plane

 Angle of fracture 45o to the primary load
 Fibrous (berserat)/shear fracture
 Cup & cone
Fracture Appearance & Material Properties

Brittle Material

 Little or no deformation at fracture plane

 Angle of fracture 90o to the primary load
 Granule (butiran) /cleavage (pembelahan)
fracture
 Flat cleavage
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

An engineering designer seeks to ensure that a component will neither fracture nor
suffer permanent change (tidak patah atau mengalami perubahan permanen) in its
dimensions under the applied load.
Therefore the stress developed must not exceed the elastic limit of the material.
However, for ductile materials, the yield stress or proof stress is often used for
design purposes.
Furthermore, because the tensile strength of a material can be conveniently
determined, it is common practice to use this figure, together with a factor of
safety, as the basis for design.
A factor of safety which enables (memungkinkan) a safe working stress to be
calculated is defined by the relationship:
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

The factor of safety used in any particular case depends on the circumstances and
is influenced by
a) The type of loading, i.e. whether it is static or dynamic.
b) The type of material.
c) The possibility of defects in the material.
d) The likely rate of deterioration (kemerosotan/kemunduran) of the material (due
to wear or corrosion).
e) the consequences of failure.

For steel, factors of safety may vary from about 3 for static load conditions up
to about 15 for shock loads. Higher safety factors (e.g. 20) may be used where
there are alternating stresses with a consequent danger of metal fatigue.
 IMPACT TEST

PURPOSES
• To evaluate the effect of impact/sudden loading to the
ductility of a material.
• To evaluate resistance of a material due to surface notch.
• To obtain the effect of temperature to the absorbed
energy.
• To analyze the appearance of surface fracture.
 The Principle
“Notches at a material surface may obstruct (menghalangi) the
flow lines of stress and cause stress concentration at the
adjacent (berdekatan) areas.”
The Principle
 The Principle

On release (pelepasan), the pendulum weight falls under gravity,

striking the test-piece at the bottom of the swing with considerable
kinetic energy.
This breaks the test-piece and, since some energy is absorbed in the
fracture, the pendulum will not swing up to the same height on the
other side.
The difference in height of the swing is a measure of the energy used
to break the test-piece.
A dial (lempeng pengukur) which measures the height of the follow-
through swing of the pendulum is calibrated in joules so that the
energy absorbed in fracture can be read off directly.
The higher the value of "energy to fracture" the greater is the notch
toughness of the material.
 Types of Impact Test
 Charpy V-notch, U-notch, keyhole
 Izod
IMPACT
IMPACT LOADING
LOADING

CHARPY V-NOTCH IZOD

Charpy V-notch is the most well known test

method in our country
 Types of Impact Test

CHARPY V-NOTCH IZOD

Charpy Impact Testing Machine
Charpy Impact Testing Machine
Specimen Dimension
Specimen Dimension

PROFILE PROJECTOR
 Impact Strength

Absorbed Energy
Impact Strength = [Joule/mm2]
C.S.A under the notch

For practical application, absorbed energy is mostly used to

determine acceptance of a material rather than impact strength.
 Lateral Expansion

Difference between width, at notch, before and after testing.

Bt – Bo
LE = x 1000 [Mils]
25.4

1 mils = 1/1000 inches

LE Absorbed Energy

LE Absorbed Energy
 Determination of Material Ductility
Impact strength and absorbed energy cannot be used to
determine ductility of a material.

Ductility may be obtained by observing fracture surface

appearance.

Type of Fracture Surface:

1. Shear Fracture
- Dull (kusam/tumpul), showing ductile material
2. Cleavage Fracture
- Shiny (licin/kemilau), showing brittle material
 Determination of Material Ductility

4o C 38oC 100oC

Temperature Effect
Hot Glycerin(tanpawarna)
Temperature DUCTILE Furnace/oven

Temperature BRITTLE Dry ice + alcohol

Liquid Nitrogen, CO2
Conclusion
So far, you already understood the mechanical
properties of metals and basic material testing to obtain
those properties. In the next lesson you will be
introduced to further mechanical properties.