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Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121

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Brief Paper
On-line performance optimisation of aero engine control system

O.D. Lyantseva , T.V. Breikinb;∗ , G.G. Kulikova , V.Y. Arkova
a Department of Automated Control Systems, Ufa State Aviation Technical University, K.Marx Street 12, Ufa 450000, Russia
b Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, University of She&eld, Mappin Street, She&eld S1 3JD, UK

Received 13 November 2002; received in revised form 17 March 2003; accepted 1 July 2003

Abstract

This paper is focused on on-line performance optimisation of gas turbine engine control systems. Practical problems of optimal engine
control design and implementation are considered. An algorithm for on-line resolution of the engine control optimisation problem is
proposed. The example of turbo-jet engine on-line speci7c fuel consumption minimisation is presented.
? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Aero engine optimal control; On-line performance optimisation; Numerical algorithms

1. Introduction the fact that 1.5% of engine SFC reduction is estimated to

The continuously increasing requirements for :ight vehi-
cles necessitate improvements in power plant performance.
This drives reduction of speci7c fuel consumption, increase
of speci7c thrust and reduction of speci7c weight. Increas-
ing or optimising the absolute values of the parameters of
the working process and using more complex geometry is
used to ful7ll these requirements. Geometric variation has a
strong e<ect on gas turbine engine performance (Walsh &
Fletcher, 1998).
The programs of gas turbine engine control are deter-
mined with respect to the aircraft requirements. For exam-
ple, a controller may include programs for the maintenance
of maximum manoeuvrability of the aircraft, for maximum
engine eAciency and speci7c programs for take-o< and
landing. Each program is determined via optimisation of
some criterion or a group of criteria. In practice for the
optimisation of engine performance it is usual to quote
engine speci7c fuel consumption (SFC) rather than eA-
ciency (Cohen, Rogers, & Saravanamuttoo, 1996). The
importance of engine SFC optimisation can be shown by

This paper was not presented at any IFAC meeting. This paper was
recommended for publication in revised form by Associate Editor Pedro
Albertos under the direction of Editor Mituhiko Araki.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-0-114-222-5634; fax: +44-0-114-
222-5138.
E-mail address: t.breikin@sheAeld.ac.uk (T. Breikin).
be equal to a reduction of aircraft direct operational costs
by 1%, engine price by 8%, and engine weight by 5%. If
the implementation of new technology leads to reducing
engine SFC by 4% this can be a reason for a new engine
design.
Nowadays frequency domain methods of classical con-
trol theory are usually used for design of gas turbine engine
control laws. Digital algorithms for engine control are
implemented in modern engine control systems. Usually
digital algorithms are used for the digital realisation of clas-
sical control laws but, in recent years, many research projects
have focused on the application of optimal control methods
for aero engines. These methods are usually based on the
variations of linear optimal control methodologies (Athans,
Kapasouris, Kappos, & Spang, 1986; Moorhouse & Citurs,
1994; Garg, 1993; Frederick, Garg, & Adibhatla, 2000;
Harefors, 1997). Further details about the engine control
problem can be found, for example, in Harefors (1997).
All these designs are based on linear engine models,
which are derived from the full thermodynamic model of the
engine using di<erent linearisation procedures. Full thermo-
dynamic model allows modelling of engine characteristics
very accurately and this type of model is widely used in
industry for validation of control laws and testing of engine
control systems. At the moment engine performance
optimisation is being done o<-line using the engine full
thermodynamic model and does not take into account engine

0005-1098/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0005-1098(03)00224-3
2116 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121

Fig. 1. Generalised schematic of twin-shaft turbo jet: I—fan (LP com-

pressor); II—HP compressor; III—bypass duct; IV—main combustion
chamber; V—HP and LP turbines; VI—mixing chamber; VII—variable
jet nozzle.

to engine parameters variations that can be up to 2%, engine

degradation, and other uncertainties.
The objective of the work presented in this paper is to
develop and investigate a numerical approach for the on-line
optimisation of engine speci7c fuel consumption, accounting
for individual characteristics of the engine. The practical
problems of on-line engine SFC optimisation are addressed
and a real-time optimisation algorithm is designed.

2. Problem formulation

Consider the problem of optimal control of a particular
propulsion plant by the criterion of minimum speci7c fuel
consumption at cruise :ight. This problem is very important
because of the weight composition of modern aircraft. Fuel
weight usually represents up to 60% of the take-o< weight,
whereas useful load is less than 10%. Therefore, a slight in-
crease in eAciency of the power plant and fuel consumption
substantially a<ects overall aircraft eAciency.
Thrust of modern turbo jets at steady-state conditions is
usually controlled indirectly. The controller maintains the
demanded values of the main measurable engine parameters,
e.g. shaft speed (Harefors, 1997). A generalised schematic
of a turbojet engine is shown in Fig. 1. The main compo-
nents of the engine are high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure
(LP) compressors, a combustor, turbine stages, and a vari-
able nozzle. The main control factors include fuel :ow into
the combustion chamber Wf and output nozzle area An . An
example of calculations of these parameters by the crite-
rion of minimum speci7c fuel consumption (SFC) is given
in Fig. 2. Engine performance is presented as thrust F and
SFC, being functions of shaft speed n and jet nozzle area An .
For any particular turbo jet engine, the optimal values of
SFC are connected with values of shaft speed n. However,
the value of shaft speed n delivering optimal SFC di<ers
with the value of nozzle area An . Therefore, the control law
should maintain a minimum of SFC = f(n) at each An .
Optimal values of thrust and speci7c fuel consumption are
approximated by the straight lines Fopt and SFCopt in Fig. 2.
According to the control law implemented in controllers
currently in service, the thrust value F
is achieved with
shaft speed n
and nozzle area A
n . In this case, speci7c fuel
consumption SFC
is maintained. However, the same thrust
F
can be obtained with lower SFC. A number of
di<erent values of n and A are presented in Fig. 2, which
Fig. 2. Optimal engine performance with minimum SFC.
determine the same thrust F
(see the lines marked A
n , A

n ,
A







n and An ).
The line SFC0 determines the corresponding values of
speci7c fuel consumption. According to Fig. 2, the minimum
speci7c fuel consumption is achieved at the point SFC∗ .
The value SFC∗ is less than SFC
achieved with the general
optimal program Fopt . Hence, the existing control law Fopt
does not maintain the minimal possible value of SFC for
demanded thrust F. In other words, the general law is not
optimal. It should be noted that the demanded values of en-
gine parameters are calculated from a general engine model.
Also, during the engine’s in-service life, its characteristics
are degrading because of wear of the engine components.
Therefore, the fuel consumption necessary for maintaining
demanded thrust di<ers from that calculated for each engine
in the :eet. Moreover, this value is di<erent from a possible
minimum.
This leads to solving the problem of non-searching op-
timal control with the criterion of minimum SFC for each
engine at current :ight conditions at cruise operation with
the required levels of stability, control quality and accuracy.
A possible method for a real-time solution of the problem is
described in the following section based on analysis of gas
turbine engine characteristics.
3. Turbo jet specic fuel consumption minimisation
Thrust of a turbo jet engine is known to be characterised
with the set of parameters
F = An pt =pin ; (1)
 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121
Fig. 3. Thrust of twin-shaft bypass engine depending on fuel consumption
and nozzle area.
where pt is full gas pressure behind the turbine or full gas
pressure in the mixing chamber, if an engine with a mixture
of gas :ows is considered; An is the jet nozzle area and pin
is the full inlet air pressure.
The general shape of the relation between thrust, fuel
consumption and nozzle area for a twin-shaft bypass engine
is presented in Fig. 3. The ABC line is the geometric place of
points, where F =100%. The a
b
c
line is the place of points,
where F = 85%. The Aa
line determines the steady-state
values of Wf and An given by a control law. The Bb
line
is the geometric place of points, where Wf = min for given
F = const.
Fig. 4. Relation between fuel consumption and nozzle area at constant thrust.
2117
Fig. 4 presents projections of the lines F =100% and 85%
at the plane {Wf ; An }. The points a
and a show the values of
Wf and An according to the existing control law. The points
b and b
correspond to minimum fuel consumption at F =
100% and 85%. The solution of the optimal control problem
can be presented as transition from the point a
along the line
An pt =pin = const to the point b
and stabilisation of engine
parameters there.
Transforming Eq. (1) to a form operating with the
co-ordinates Wf and An , using a linear discrete mathemati-
cal model of the plant
QnLP; i+1 = f11 QnLP; i + f12 QnHP; i + t11 QWf ; i + t12 QAn; i ;
QnHP; i+1 = f21 QnLP; i + f22 QnHP; i + t21 QWf ; i + t22 QAn; i ;
Qpt; i+1 = s11 QnLP; i + s12 QnHP; i + p11 QWf ; i + p12 QAn; i ;
QnLP; i = nLP; i − n0LP ;
(2)
QnHP; i = nHP; i − n0HP ;
Qpt; i = pt; i − pt0 ;
QWf ; i = Wf ; i − Wf0 ;
QAn; i = An; i − A0n :
The actuators are integrators and their dynamics are
described by the equations


Wf = KW UW dt;

(3)
A = KA UA dt;
where UW and UA are control signals passed from the control
computer to corresponding actuators and KW and KA are
integrator gains.
The control signals UW and UA are of impulse-width type
and the sampling interval is . Subtract Eq. (2) for time i
2118 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121

from Eq. (2) for i+1 The following equation determines change in pressure pt
at the static line with reference to the point b
:
nLP; i+1 = nLP; i + f11 nLP; i
pt; i+1 = KpW Wf + KpA An ; (10)
+ f12 nHP; i + t11 Wf ; i + t12 An; i ;
where KpW and KpA are static gains. Substituting Eq. (10)
nHP; i+1 = nHP; i + f21 nLP; i into Eq. (7) gives
+ f22 nHP; i + t21 Wf ; i + t22 An; i ; F − pt; i An; i − (KpW An; i + KpA An )Wf

pt; i+1 = pt; i + s11 nLP; i + s12 nHP; i −(pt; i + KpA An; i )An − KpA A2n = 0: (11)

+ p11 Wf ; i + p12 An; i ; (4) Explicit relationship between Wf and An is found from
Eq. (11)
nLP; i = nLP; i − nLP; i−1 ; F − pt; i An; i − (pt; i + KpA An; i )An − KpA A2n
Wf = :
nHP; i = nHP; i − nHP; i−1 ; KpA (An; i + An )
(12)
Wf ; i = Wf ; i − Wf ; i−1 = KW (UW; i − UW; i−1 );
Following from analysis of the graphs in Fig. 4, minimum
An; i = An; i − An; i−1 = KA (UA; i − UA; i−1 ): fuel consumption corresponds to zero of the derivative
dWf =dAn . An expression for this derivative can be obtained
The expression for pt; i+1 takes the form
by dividing both parts of Eq. (12) by An :
pt; i+1 = pt; i+1 − pt; i = p0 + pW Wf + pA An ; (5)
Wf F − pt; i An; i − (pt; i + KpA An; i )An − KpA A2n
= :
where An KpA (An; i + An )An
(13)
p0 = s11 (nLP; i − nLP; i−1 ) + s12 (nLP; i − nLP; i−1 );
pW = p11 ; (6) Supposing ful7lment of equality F − pt; i An; i = 0 in Eq. (13)
gives the value of the derivative at the minimum of fuel
pA = p12 :
consumption
If inlet air pressure is considered constant, then the require-
Wf pt; i + KpA An; i + KpA An
ment of the operating point being at the line F = An pt =pin = =− : (14)
const can be written in the form An KpA (An; i + An )

F = pt; i+1 An; i+1 = (pt; i + pt; i+1 )(An; i + An ): (7) The condition for the derivative to be zero from Eq. (14)

Accounting for Eq. (5) gives the value of thrust deviation e2 = pt; i + KpA An; i + KpA An = 0: (15)
from demand e1 . With a requirement for zero deviation
Find the limit of Eq. (14) with An → 0
e1 = F0 − TW Wf − TA An
dWf pt; i + KpA An; i
− PW Wf An − PA A2n = 0; (8) =− : (16)
dAn KpA An; i
where
Hence, the condition of the derivative being zero is the
F0 = F − pt; i An; i − p0 An; i ; following:
TW = PW An; i ; (9) pt; i
= −KpA : (17)
TA = pt; i + PA An; i + p0 : An; i

Eq. (8) shows the relationship between deviations of fuel
consumption Wf and nozzle area An . This information
is used to maintain demanded thrust and to compensate its
random deviations from demand.
Determine the conditions of the operating point where
minimum fuel consumption is achieved at the required
demanded thrust. This is the point b
in Fig. 4, left.
Finally, the condition of minimum fuel consumption with
demanded thrust is equality of turbine pressure pt divided
by nozzle area An to the static gain of An in:uence to pt ,
taken negative.
Hence, changes of fuel consumption Wf and nozzle area
An at each time instant must satisfy the conditions Eqs. (15)
and (8). Also, the following constraints are applied upon the
 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121
values Wf and An :
|Wf | 6 Ẇ f max ;
|An | 6 Ȧn max ;
which are obtained from existing limitations of maximum
speed of change determined by physical properties of ac-
tuators. The objective function is built by considering only
linear parts of Eqs. (8) and (15)
J = (F0 1 − TW Wf − TA An )2
+[(pt; i + KpA An; i )2 + KpA An ]2 :
The values Wf and An are determined as delivering min-
imum to Eq. (19) and ful7lling the constraints Eq. (18).
The objective function J Eq. (19) has a simple physical
sense. The 7rst term of the expression determines the di<er-
ence between demanded and actual thrust. The second term
re:ects the “distance” from the current operating point to
the point with minimum fuel consumption. The weighting
coeAcients 1 and 2 change the corresponding di<erences
and so regulate dynamic properties of the system.
The proposed algorithm is able to account for individ-
ual characteristics of the engine. The engine operation with
minimum SFC is determined by the coeAcient of in:uence
KpA . Its value is continuously obtained during the :ight, ac-
counting for individual engine characteristics.
Engine transition for demanded thrust onto more eAcient
operation increases eAciency of the engine as a thermal
machine. This is accompanied by increase in air pressure
in :owing parts of the engine, shaft speeds and gas tem-
perature. During transition toward minimum SFC, some
critical engine parameters, e.g. gas temperature, can achieve
the maximum limit allowed. In this case, the control law
changes and control is determined as the minimum of the
following objective function:
J1 = (F0 1 − TW Wf − TA An )2
+(Ttmax − Tt; i − aW Wf − aA An )2 :
The parameter to be limited is determined by comparison
of current values with their limits. The control law changes
automatically using a selector. When gas temperature has
reached its limit, the control law changes as follows. The
values ri are determined by the equations:
r1 = 1 |pt; i + KpA An; i |;
r2 = 2 |Ttmax − Tt; i |;
r = min(r1 ; r2 ):
If r = r1 , then the objective function J Eq. (19) is used.
When r = r2 , the objective function J1 Eq. (20) is used.
In order to make the method adaptive to variation of the
engine static characteristics, recurrent identi7cation of
the parameter KpA is necessary.
2119
Analysis of the engine mathematical model reveals that a
10% error in estimation of the parameter KpA leads to 0.82%
(18) change in fuel consumption at maximum thrust operation
and 0.2% at nominal operation. This makes requirements for
accurate determination of this parameter high, in particular
at maximum thrust operation.
Identi7cation of the parameter KpA using methods of
correlation analysis is not acceptable because of high com-
putational load and low accuracy. Previous research has
shown that error of estimation of static coeAcients of a gas
turbine engine by methods of correlation analysis is usually
(19) greater than 12%. Passive identi7cation of dynamic model
parameters is diAcult because of the feedback in:uence.
Methods for active identi7cation and optimal control with
test signals are not acceptable in principle. Hence, the use of
other methods is necessary for taking into account individual
engine characteristics. A possible solution is to monitor time
drift of the extreme of the engine characteristic presented in
Fig. 3.
Using observation of the variables Wf (An ), an optimisa-
tion algorithm is constructed, which determines a sequence
{KpA ; },  = 0; 1; : : : , for which {Kp;
A A
 − Kp; opt } → min if
 → ∞.
Successfully solving the problem of tracking the drift of
the extreme is connected with assumptions about the drift
character and properties of the function Wf (An ) or its gradi-
ent. The extremal relationship can often be assumed poly-
nomial. Suppose that the following relationship 7ts well the
extremal dependency shown in Fig. 4:
Wf = a0 + a1 An + a2 A2n ; (23)
where a0 , a1 and a2 are unknown coeAcients to be estimated.
The optimal value of nozzle area delivering minimum fuel
consumption is calculated from the equation:
dWf
= 0; (24)
dAn
a1
An opt = − : (25)
2a2
(20)
The coeAcient KpA in Eq. (17) is determined from the ratio
as
pt; i 2a2 pt; i
KpA = − = : (26)
An opt a1
Recurrent procedures for estimating the parameters a0 , a1
and a2 are preferable because of real-time operation. A com-
parative study of accuracy, convergence and computational
(21)
load of recurrent algorithms for parametric identi7cation
leads to the following conclusion.
(22) Under conditions of small observation time and highly
intensive noise, all recurrent methods possess similar qual-
ity of parametric estimation, except the method of stochas-
tic approximation. Therefore, preference is usually given
to the recurrent least squares method because of its rela-
tive simplicity compared with other methods and reliable
convergence of estimates.
2120 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121

Fig. 5. Engine fuel :ow minimisation at maximum thrust operation.

The recurrent least squares method is applied for estima- because the extremal characteristic Wf =f(An ) at maximum
tion of the parameters a0 , a1 and a2 in Eq. (23). The vector thrust is approximated by
of estimates A = [a0 ; a1 ; a2 ]T is determined by the equation
Wf = 16 990 − 11:282An + 24:83 × 10−4 A2n : (33)
A(i) = A(i − 1) + (i − 1)[Wf (i) − F T (i)A(i − 1)]; (27)
Finally, the algorithm accounting for individual engine char-
when vector of correction is determined by ratio
acteristics during optimal control by the criterion SFC →
P(i − 1)F(i) min is as follows:
(i − 1) = T ; (28)
F (i)P(i − 1)f(i) + 1
• the engine parameters Wf , An , pt , nLP , nHP are measured;
where
• the parameters a0 , a1 , a2 are estimated via Eqs. (27), (30)
P(i) = [E − (i − 1)F T (i)]P(i − 1): (29) and (31);
• the value of KpA is calculated from Eq. (26).
The algorithm should follow slow changes in parameters
of a non-stationary process. As a result, new measurements The period of operation of the algorithm should ensure that
receive greater weights than previous data. A mechanism at the moment of measurements of engine parameters the
of gradual forgetting is introduced into the identi7cation transitional process due to change in KpA is complete and the
algorithm. In the least squares method, this is realised by engine operation is steady-state.
introducing into the loss function a multiplier dependent on
time. Then Eqs. (28) and (29) change:
P(i − 1)F(i) 4. Simulation experiments
(i − 1) = T ; (30)
F (i)P(i − 1)f(i) + 
1 A set of simulation experiments with the full thermo-
P(i) = [E − (i − 1)F T (i)]P(i − 1) ; (31)
 dynamic model of the twin-shaft bypass turbo-jet engine
where the fade parameter  is chosen as a compromise be- and its nominal control system was done to evaluate the
tween best tracking of changing parameters and highest de- performance of the designed algorithm. Fig. 5 shows tran-
gree of noise suppression. Usually, the value of  is selected sient responses of the engine fuel :ow and thrust during
in the range 0:90 ¡  ¡ 0:995. the engine speci7c fuel consumption minimisation at the
The recurrent least squares method Eqs. (27) – (29) maximum thrust operation without using the after burner.
applied to the full thermodynamic model of the twin-shaft The nominal engine control system is in operation during
bypass engine at maximum thrust operation (without using the 7rst 8 s. At the eighth second of simulation the designed
after burner) gives the following initial conditions: algorithm is activated. The value of KpA is recalculated every
  8 s. It can be seen from the graphs that time for transition
 16 990 
  to a new steady state operation is approximately 30 s. The
 
A(i − 1) =  −11:282 

; maximal deviation of the engine thrust from the demanded
  value during the transient process is 0.06%. The engine fuel
 0:002483 
  :ow is reduced by 0.98% of its value during the operation
1 0 0 (32) with the nominal control system. At cruse operation of the
 
  engine the proposed control method enabled 0.7% reduction
P(i − 1) = 0 1 0;

  of the engine speci7c fuel consumption.
0 0 1 To investigate the robustness of the designed algorithm,
 T the same experiment was done with simulation of distur-
F(i) =  1 Fi Fi2  ; bances that can potentially a<ect the algorithm performance.
 O.D. Lyantsev et al. / Automatica 39 (2003) 2115 – 2121
Statistically independent random disturbances with Gaus-
sian distribution were simulated on the following engine pa-
rameters Wf , An , pt , nHP , and nLP . Standard deviations were
chosen to correspond to the real operation of the engine. In
this experiment, the engine fuel :ow was reduced by 0.9% at
the maximum thrust operation, which is just 0.08% less then
reduction achieved without considering the disturbances.
5. Conclusions
This paper presents an approach for aero engine control
system performance optimisation. Most digital on-board
engine control systems today represent mere digital reali-
sation of analogue control laws used in hydro-mechanical
control systems. However, existing control computers pos-
sess enough computing power to be used in the optimisa-
tion of engine performance through new types of control
laws and algorithms. The implementation of optimal en-
gine control leads to more eAcient operation of the aircraft
power plant via targeting global optimisation criteria and
by accounting for individual engine characteristics. In the
example discussed, a real-time algorithm was presented for
on-line optimisation of engine SFC. It was shown that the
method developed allows on-line optimisation of engine
performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of EU
INTAS programme under the INTAS-2000-757 project.
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Oleg Lyantsev received his Control
Engineering degree from Moscow Physical
Technical Institute and Ph.D. degree from
Central Institute for Aviation Motors,
Moscow, Russia. He is presently Docent
of the Department of Automated Control
and Management Systems, Ufa State Avi-
ation Technical University (USATU), Ufa,
Russia. His research interests are auto-
matic control, digital 7ltration and real-time
optimisation.
Timofei Breikin received his Electrical En-
gineering degree and Ph.D. degree both from
USATU, Ufa, Russia. He is presently Re-
search Associate at the Department of Auto-
matic Control and Systems Engineering, the
University of SheAeld, UK. His research in-
terests are industrial application of control
theory and system identi7cation.
Gennady Kulikov received his Mechanical
Engineering and Control Engineering de-
grees, Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees, all from US-
ATU, Ufa, Russia. He is presently Professor
and Head of the Department of Automated
Control and Management Systems, USATU.
His research interests are system identi7ca-
tion and system analysis in the 7eld of gas
turbines.
Valentin Arkov received his Electrical En-
gineering, Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees, all from
the USATU, Ufa, Russia. He is currently
Professor of the Department of Automated
Control and Management Systems, USATU.
His research interests are system identi7-
cation and industrial application of control
theory.