Lecture 1: Waves for Diagnosis and Treatment

Learning Goals

❏ To identify the main characteristics of a wave (harmonic waves)

❏ To define wave sources and intensities (how energy is transported)
❏ To describe and recognize reflection, absorption and dispersion processes
❏ General concepts about interaction with matter

CENTRAL IDEA

● Different wave types are applied in diagnostic and treatment methods

● Generate wave with a source → direct at patient → observe interaction with patient
○ Ultrasound: wave is reflected
○ Radiotherapy (RT/RTx): wave is absorbed
■ High doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors
○ X-rays: wave is transmitted

CONCEPT OF A WAVE

● Oscillation in a physical variable which transports energy and is periodic in space/time

○ Physical variable: concluding that a wave propagates and transports energy
○ Oscillates: runs through successively different states (phases: max, min, origin)
that repeat cyclically (repeat in time and propagate)
● Example image: waves on the water surface after impact by object
○ Begins with “alteration” of some measurable variable
○ “Change” propagates to other regions → crests of the same height at equal
distances from center r)
○ At any point, periodic oscillation over time (waxes and wanes)

● Perceivable examples: waves of pressure, temperature, of an electrical field, of

compression of a metal spring
● Unperceivable examples → most interesting in medical applications
○ Sound wave: atom displacement by mechanical forces (MECHANICAL WAVE)
○ Electromagnetic radiation: oscillation of an electric/magnetic field
■ Without the necessity for matter to be present
PARAMETERS OF ONDULATORY BEHAVIOUR

Periodicity
1. A variable with phase W is periodic in TIME (t) when it conforms with:
● W (t0 + mT) = W(t0)
● T: period of the signal, distance in TIME to find variable W in same situation it
was at t0 → time taken for one complete oscillation (unit: s)
○ T (period) = 1 / f
● m: any whole number
● This relationship must be maintained during time in which the wave is active
2. By analogy, a variable U that is periodic in SPACE complies with:
● U(x0 + nλ) = U(x0)
● λ: wavelength, distance in SPACE to find U again with same value as in x0
● n: any whole number
● This relationship must be maintained in the region where the wave exists

Reciprocal Variables
● Periodicity can be characterized by its period or the reciprocal of that period
○ Inverse of wavelength or period = reciprocal variables
○ Wave number, angular frequency → determine frequency
● Reciprocal variable of space (x):
○ Wavelength (λ) → wave number (number of waves per unit distance)
■ k = 2π / λ → [k] = m−1
■ In circular motion, units are: [k] = rad/m (angular wavenumber)
● Reciprocal variable of time (t):
○ Period (T) → angular frequency (rotation per unit time)
■ ω = 2π / T → [ω] = radians/s
■ Angular displacement per unit time - larger than frequency by factor 2π
● Dependant reciprocal variable: frequency (Hz, 1/s)
○ Number of complete oscillations/cycles per unit time
○ f = 1 / T = ω / 2π
○ Frequency also = c / λ

If a physical variable oscillates simultaneously in space AND time, it will be determined by the
corresponding periods in space (λ) and time (T)

Phase Velocity
● Variable oscillating in space and time propagates in all directions
○ Combining periodicity in time and periodicity in space
● Wave travels a distance λ in time T → phase velocity (c) of the wave (units: [c] = m/s)
○ Velocity (c) = wavelength (λ) / wave period (T)
○ c = λ / T = ω / k = f λ → also product of its wavelength and frequency (m/s)
HARMONIC OSCILLATION OF WAVES

● Atoms in body in defined positions because of interactions between them

○ Solid: robust interactions
○ Fluid: weaker forces
● Displacement of an atom/ system by applying a force
○ Causes different forces (F)
■ Repulsive forces: displaces atom to a new position (due to electric or
magnetic field, pressure)
■ Restoring force (FR): tries to place atom
back to original position
● Harmonic oscillator: system that when displaced from its
equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force F
proportional to the displacement x where k is a positive
recovery constant
○ F = –kx ; when x is positive, restore force is
negative, and when x is negative restoring force is
positive (hence “–”k)
○ F = ma → Newton’s second law: acceleration
depends on the position/displacement
■ Second derivative of x with respect to time
○ Quite accurate model → SPRINGS

Propagating Harmonic Wave

● Harmonic wave = wave that can be described with sinusoidal behavior

● P (position of the article) is oscillating and depends on the time (t) and space (k)
○ WAVE EQUATION → P = P0 * sin (ω0t - k0x)
○ P0 is the amplitude
○ What is inside the sinus is called a phase (state of the wave)
■ Maximum, minimum, through origin, increasing, decreasing
○ ω0 = how quickly the wave oscillates (being the inverse of the period)
○ k0 = spatial periodicity, if replaced by –k0 then wave propagates to the left

SPHERICAL WAVES

● Source is characterized by the energy it can deliver per second to the wave
○ POWER [Watts] = energy (E) / time (t) → directly related to energy production
○ I.e. ultrasound source of 10 Watts
● Propagation in wavefronts: spheres/ circumferences with a common original source
 ○ In the same constant phase (e.g: max) → difference between them is the
wavelength λ and difference in time in the period T
● Huygen’s principle: waves propagate in every direction, joined in one direction by an
interference (explained by the sinus equation)
● Rays (R): straight line joining a wavefront to the source, representing its trajectory/
distance from the source
● Area (A): the further the wavefront moves away, the bigger its surface area
○ Largest wave/circle generated at t = 0
■ Second circle at t = T
■ Third circle at t = 2T, etc
● Intensity of the wave (I) decreases over time and space: R1 < R2, A1 < A2 → I1 > I2
○ Intensity of the wave (I) = Power (P) / Area (A)
■ Nothing to do with electrical current
■ Unit: W / m2
○ The more the distance → the more
spread out the energy is
■ The LOWER the intensity
● Patient position: patient 1 closer to energy
source receives more energy (more intensity)

INTERACTION WITH PATIENT

● Source of waves: devices like X ray tube, ultrasound transducer

● Interaction when wave propagating in medium A arrives at interface with medium B
● Two mediums: air and patient
○ Incident wave has a certain intensity = II
○ Incident wave penetrates a person and II
becomes I0 (transmitted) → IT ≠ I0
● Incident intensity is split into transmitted and reflected
○ II = IT + IR
○ Combining IT and IR will give you incident
intensity
○ % of incident intensity that is transferred OR
reflected depends on the physical properties of
the material (acoustic impedance!)
■ Allows us to predict characteristics of the interacting mass
● Inside body (I0) → two possibilities
1. Absorption → energy lost in absorption has 2 further effects
a. Released as heat, body temperature ↓ (important for ultrasound)
b. Breakage of chemical bonds (important for ionizing radiation)
2. Dispersion/scattering
● Characterize reflection (ionizing radiation), absorption/dispersion (ultrasound) and
transmission (MRI - RF)
REFLECTION

● Specular reflection: reflected rays forms an angle equal to incident angle (to a line
perpendicular to surface)
○ Reflection off of smooth surfaces such as mirrors (clear image)
○ θi (angle of incidence to the normal to the surface) = θr (angle of reflection to the
normal of the surface)
○ Waves are parallel (incident and specular) → just like a mirror
● Diffuse reflection: reflected rays do not maintain a clear angle with respect to the normal
to the surface
○ Non-smooth surfaces
○ Rays of reflected rays are not parallel → LESS sharp images
○ Irregular reflection → irregular Inhomogeneous

TRANSMISSION: Absorption of waves

● Snell’s Law of Refraction: formula used to describe the relationship between the angles
of incidence and refraction
○ When waves passing through a flat boundary between two different isotropic
media → such as water, glass, or air
○ Valid for sound waves and electromagnetic waves (light)
● Transmitted ray is deviated/ refracted from the original trajectory of incident wave
○ Route: sin (θi) / Ci = sin (θr) / Cr → C is velocity of the wave
○ OR sin (θi)ni = sin (θr)nr
■ nr = the refractive index of the medium that light is passing into
○ Rewritten form below: ni = c0 / ci (where c0 is the speed of light in a vacuum)

Characteristics of the material

● If the interfering material is thick enough it might absorb the entire wave
○ Energy is transferred to material
● Intensity is lost as it propagates through material (depending on its thickness d)
○ I0 = intensity does not change as it does not interact with its medium
○ Is = wave that interacted with its medium so some of its energy is absorbed
 ■ Leaving wave intensity from a material, always less than entering I
■ Is = k*I0 where k < 1
● Characterizing absorption
○ Thin material (thickness d): I0 → IS
■ IS < I0
○ Thick material (thickness 2d)l: I0 → IS → I2S
■ Superposition of 2 identical layers
■ Intensity arriving at the second layer is IS
■ I2S = k*IS = k (k*I0) = k2*I0
○ Absorption depends exponentially on the
thickness of material traversed
■ For n layers, In = kn*I0
○ ONLY electromagnetic and ultrasound waves
obey this exponential behaviour

The absorption of a wave is an exponential process

● Graph: Intensity of the wave (I) over material thickness (x(m))
○ I decreases in an exponential way as x (m) increases
● Property of the material and the wave → absorption
or attenuation coefficient differs
○ I(x) = I0*e−αx
■ α: absorption or attenuation coefficient
■ High value, material absorbs a lot; low
value, material absorbs little
○ x0 = 1/α → how deep electromagnetic
radiation can penetrate into a material
■ Penetration depth: distance at which
the intensity of the radiation inside
material falls to 1/e (37%)
○ x1/2 → distance to half the incident wave (half layer)
■ I (x=x1/2) = I.. / 2 = 1/2

DISPERSION / SCATTERING

● Wave interacts with each atom and ray is deviated from original trajectory
○ Each interaction → small deviation
● Final trajectory of the transmitted wave is not well defined → BLUR image of wave
○ Due to “scattering” (dispersion)
● Forward scattering: radiation is scattered in the same direction as the original trajectory
of the wave
● Back scattering: when part of the
wave is transmitted backwards
○ Is NOT a reflection, as it
occurs inside the material