Morpho: Joint Forms and Muscular Functions:

Michel
Anatomy for Artists
Lauricella
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ISBN: 978-1- Design
1st Edition(3rdprinting,July
68198-540-4
2022)
Original French title: Morpho: Formes Articulaires
© 2019GroupeEyrolles,Paris
Fonctions
Translation
France copyright©2019Rocky Musculaires
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table of contents
5 foreword
7 introduction
29 drawings
31 head and neck
47 torso
57 upper limb
83 lower limb
96 resources
4
 foreword
This book is about the plifiedshapes,drawnfroma
of form and function of the mechanical
relationship purely vision, to
body.
human Working similarly to natural
explain shapes. Beginningthe
tologists,
paleon- we artists can shapes
with of the joints andthethe
functions
deduce of the bony
the we
bones,will consider them as
observing
structures the sizes of the order
by levers to deduce from them
in
their
bones, joints, and the uneven vements
the that are possible,
mo-
created
shapes ontheirsurfacesby then and construct will the
peated
the traction of the our
re- écorché, way closer to
working the
attach
muscles to them. The highly
that human
loped
deve- mechanisms of the contours
Thoughwefind
silhouette.
of agreatava-
form
human continue to inspire riety of complex shapes in
generation
each of engineers
new shapes
nature, that cannot all be
In
and biomechanics and to a
artists.to reduced mechanistic vision, this
continue
biomimicry, to get closer we ap- proach will allow you to
ral
theseshapes; and knowing new logical proportions,
vels
what of adaptation natu-these imagine
mar- the
beyondones proposed in this
are, we
structures appreciate the imaginary,
book— hybrid, or
poetic
aesthetic potential they and shapes,
fantasticalbut shapes inwhich
In this
represent. book, we are going still
you maintain the
workto backwards. We will rely form and
relationships of
on sim- function.
5
 Fig. 1

6
 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

introduction
The most important A sphere allows
muscle
muscles groups are
and every
movementdirection, while ina
section,
described along with
in their tricts
this pulley movement along one
tion
main points and their
inser- axis.
possible Your shoulder res- joint
goal of
functions.this book is to foster arm to move in all directions
ability
your to draw fromThe your allows
to
due its spherical form.your Your
tion, supporting
imagina- it with the meanwhile,
knee, is of the pulley
a mechanicalfoundation.
study of movement
type is limitedand to a
of
Thethe entire skeleton was
study the rection.
single In the first case (the
di-
of an
focus earlier volume in this we find
sphere), at least two pairs of
(Morpho:
series Skeleton and Bone
sing Refer-
muscles positioned
encePoints );inthisbook,ouroppo- two
along principal axes. Inthe the
is on
focus the joint zones and their case
second (the pulley), there is only
responding
cor- musculature. pair of muscles along the
and
The proportions shape of the one Tocounterbalance
single this
axis.
faces
contact between two bones cal approach,
sur- notmechani- we should
their possiblemovements.
reflect make tolosesightofthesure factthat
structures
The can be seen in a
joint mostof the muscles and bones are
shapes,
variety but for the purposesof in shape of a helix, and that,
the
study,
of wewillreducealmost our they make up an effective
together,
them
all totwomajortypes: ofthe elements
weave that take turns of
(Fig.
sphere2) and the pulley human
shaping silhouette the
(Fig. 3). (Fig. 1).
7
hum hum

Fig. 5: Hip joint.

ulna

ulna
Fig. 4: Elbow.

Thishelicalorientationof and extension (Fig. 4).

muscle
the and bone fibers bone However,shapes do not, the by
complex
reflects movements that explain
themselves, the limits of the
beyond
go the four axes—well The bonesareheldtogether
movements.
right,
front, and left—that we have
back, system
by of links (the a
to look
chosen at here. This participate
ligament) intheformation
that
however,
simplification,will allow you to capsules—fibrous
of sleeves
joint a
yourself
familiarize with these lop
that the joints and provide
enve-
notions. You will then be in a called
morphological synovialfluid,whichis
lubricant
tion,
posi- if need be, to more easily ted by
secre- the cartilages
fect
per- your skills and add The
(Fig. differences
5). in
what
nuancesis presented range
to duals of motion
flexibility between
and
The joints allow, guide,
here. indivi- can have several
mitand
movements. With the li-is babies,
causes. for example,With their
for instance,
elbow, the ulna not yet completely calcified
to movements along a bones
reduced high
and proportionofcartilage are
the
and presses up against
single the their
axis, structureandallowsfor
softens
(hum)
humerus during movements flexibility.
great In adults, the
of flexion bones can
8 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Fig. 6

vary in their proportions, dons. Tendons and

sturdiness,
length, and the joints
and often hard to distinguish
ligaments are
more
can or less be other,
from because theireach fibers
Thesystemofligaments tertwined
enveloping. are witheachother in- at
cribed
des- above can be more or joints. Ligaments connect
restrictive.
less When there is the to
theeach other and arebones part of
flexibility
excessive we speak of joint skeleton, whereas
mobility
hyper- (Fig. 6, right). And the
the muscles to the
tendons bones
connect
the muscles
finally, that operate part of the muscular system.
levers
these can act onlybone upon andtendons
The are not elastic. areIt is
(Fig.
these 7). It is these muscles,
joints fleshy
only muscular fibersthe that
may
which be more or less elastic, property:
have Most of all, they
thisare
first
that enlist when you stretch
you ableto contract, with the result
sustained
after a bring
that together the they bone
The
effort. muscles activate the which
levers they are attached to(Fig.
leton
ske-by attaching to the the
8; inverted axes of
note the
through
bones themediumoftheir the contours of
ten- arm).

introduction - 9
 Fig. 12
Fig. 10

Fig. 9

Fig. 11
Fig. 13

The proportion of These muscular fibers

and muscle
tendon fibers can vary
fibers nected
are in bundles. Several
con-
muscle
from to another, and,
one for clustered
bundles around a single
muscle,
the fromonepersonsame to form
tendonabiceps(twobundles),
A short
another. muscle with a long (three
a bundles), triceps
or a
will be
tendon able to contract more bundles),
quadriceps which gives allthe
(four
but a
quickly,long muscle will have force to the group as a whole
flexibility
more andgreaterrange. more 10).
(Fig.The tendons can form a
playing
Thus, with this parameter outside
sheathe a muscle and/or
you
alone, can make a person’s side
slide another muscle. This
look more
silhouette tense or more structure
pinnate (in the shapein- of a
(see the
flexible two drawings on the will create a powerful
Fig.
left 9andthedrawingson in thefeather)
short
muscle fibers (Fig. 11). Surface
with
opposite).
page cles
mus- can form flat sheets
It is the thickness of the to tendinous plaques (Fig.
connected
that makes one more
muscleas well as the 12, mus dorsi,oftencalled lats).
latissi-
another,
powerful are broken up by tendinous
mber
increased of fibers for athan
given Others
nu- sections,
inter- which tend to
(right-hand
insertion drawing in Fig. 9, elasticity
reduce (Fig. 13, rectus
their
the
and page commonly
on abdominis, known
opposite). as abs).
10 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 4ceps

Last but not least, there is In the following pages,

played
the by gravity. role
Our find ashortreviewofthe
you bone
will
portions
muscular depend on our
pro- tures,
struc- juxtaposed with their
on the
posture Earth’s gravitational
and of mobility. These patterns
patterns
example,
pull. the powerfulFor sited
are in the illustrated plates
revi-of
the leg’s extensor, allows
quadriceps, shown
and through a seriesare
extension
not (the actiononlyof drawings
écorché throughout
straight),
standing but also
up the book.
(sitting
controlled flexion
down).
introduction - 11
 Fig. 2
Fig. 1

Head and Neck pressures,makesitpossible

The skull is made up of a muscular for layers totwo be
bony
number plates. The fontanels of in doubling the force of the
fant
an (thespacebetween the superimposed,
in- bite and responding to the
mouth’s
allow
bones) the skull to change its chewing.
needs AnX-rayoftheof skull
during
shape birth so the baby’s that
shows the openings—the
slip
head through the narrow can nasal
orbitalpits—slide between and
the mother’s
passage pelvis (Fig.of1). bone
the pillars, which encase
face’s
grow
The to be closelyplates joined pressures
these
become
(Fig. welded
2) togetherand There 5).
(Fig. is a bone marker
The
with lower jaw becomes the behind testifies,
ear
age. Its proportions that through
mobile
the bone in the skull.
only its and its
tion allows
articula- for the lifting and its connection with the
ring
lowe- motions (Fig. 3) that orientation,
domastoid
sternoclei- muscle(3).Theto
the
result masseter (1)from and this name muscle is made up of of its
chewing
temporal muscles ments:
(2)a attach- the sternum, the
The zygomatic
(Fig. 4). arch, the mastoidprocess and
clavicle,
buttress
flying that defers some of (Fig. 6).
the
12 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
Fig. 3

1
Fig. 4

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

introduction - 13
 2 Fig. 8
3
4

Fig. 7
1

The cervical spine is a maskedbythefleshymassof

vertebrae
stack and discs withofan back the of the neck. The
core,
elastic in which the large is articulated
cervical belowthe skull
spine
cervical
number vertebrae (seven) level of the jaw joint, in a profile
for great flexibility of of
allows the at
where
view, it finds a favorablethe
culated
neck. surfaces guide the point
Arti- balance forourbipedalposture
sliding
limited movements of one Movements
(Fig. along the
against
vertebra another. It is the (Fig. 8)
four are connected to9).
axesthe
bral discs,
interverte- with their muscles
long of the head and the
cores—veritable
gelatinous elastic (1),
neck of the splenius cervicis (2),
that distribute
mattresses— pressures of the cervical scalenes (3).
sions
and (Fig. 7). Only expan- the and
nocleidomastoids
The (4) are
ster-
vertebrae
bottom of this group— for
two responsible
strongly,
and, the seventh,most Some of these muscles
rotation.
reason
which it is called the vertebra
is be seen along
the itwith thespinalcolumn(1)or
runone
minens—can
pro- reach oftheirextremities
skin, at
beneath the summit ofthe the These
(2). are deep musclesand
marker
spine. coincides with the
Thiswe areof no use for the
of the first
beginning rib; therefore, external
understanding shapes. In whatof
gin
can drawing the volume be- of will try
follows, to illustrate my points
I
cage
the at this point. Above rib only
with the muscles that are
prominences,
these thecervical
bony drawing.
useful for
spine is
14 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 Fig. 10: Posterior view
of the atlas on the axis.

Fig. 9

Fig. 11: Anterior

views: atlas, axis, and
base of the skull.

the atlas—allow the skull to

movements of flexion and
I will allow myself a make The Axis is delegated
extension.
itsto
remark here, about nalrotatio-
parenthetical movement. The atlas,
has no influence
something at all on
that the creates ablockwiththeskull,
therefore,
nal shapes.
exter- The two first they
and pivot together.Younod
deserve
vertebrae this attention head
your “yes” by allowing the
constitute
because a remarkable
they slide
head along the atlas,andto
you
relay system
mechanical between the your
shake head “no” by turning the
the
skullother vertebrae. The and the
and skull 10and atlas together on the
surfaces
articular ofthefirstvertebra (Figs.
axis
—called 11).
introduction - 15
 ster

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Torso intheback,andthepectoral,
The rib cage is made up of front, in inplace.Theupper thepart
pairs
twelve of ribs. The first ten rib
of cage, which is kept rigid
the by
the
connectfront with a bony
in thereduced size of the costal
the sternum (ster);
“necktie” called the and thepresenceatthatlevel
cartilages
each
bottom have one free
two sternum
of andoftheshoulder the
called floating
extremity ribs
and (Fig. 1).
are The (shoulder
girdle blades and
bility
flexi- of the cartilages that fills this function well (Fig.
clavicles), ful-2).
the ribs
connect to the sternum give finally, the rib cage
or lessmobilitytothewhole, And
more lungs’
optimizeschanges in volume the of
that
and mobility increases as breathing,
during playingtherole
down
you from top to bottom.
moveof cuum a chamber. It va- also
on this,
Based we can conceive diaphragm
supports muscle, which
functions
several for this ovoid a dome from belowthe
forms that
The rib
structure. cage protects the downward when
organs,
vital whicharethelungs moves sisting
breathingthecontraction,
in. toBy the
re-
heart,
and but it also allows for
the the allows
rib the lungs fill with
cage air.
plantation
im- of the muscles diaphragm
The plays the role of a
the
that shoulders and arms,
move as in a syringe, while the rib cage
the
wellmuscles that keepas the piston
rigid
is tube (see next the
scapula, page).
16 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 1

2 1
3

1. Exhaling.
2. Inhaling.
3. Action of the diaphragm
muscle.

introduction - 17
 Fig. 5
pub
Fig. 4 Fig. 7

Fig. 8
sacr

coc

Fig. 6

At the back of the rib cage, coccyx (coc) is made up of

below the
just dorsal cervical dalfour vertebrae. The sacrum
twelve
vertebrae, vertebrae
the corner
creates between thecau- twoa
tilted
have spines. Their
long, and
iliac makes up part of
wingsthe
with theribsandthesternum (Fig.
interdependence pelvic 7), which distributes
ringof
ensure
helps the rigidity of the
to the
weightfemurs. The cartilageto
ving
whole.down, the next group Mo- bis
the (orpubicsymphysis, pub)
pu-
of the
consistsfive lumbar vertebrae, the role of a shock
have
which a more dynamic plays If we were simply
absorber.
spines that
character, are notably more
with needhanging from wires, we
marionettes
out
spaced(Fig. 4). The stacked wouldn’t anything else to
brae
lumbar support the weight of trunk
verte- connect to our thighs.
our
body
the and, often, additional
upper der to
However, move the trunk
in above
or-it,
as well. For this reason, they ring,
burdens this and the thighs below
become
tend larger and more to space
more is required. In fact,
they move
resistant downward. The wide
as there plates that complete
are
true
same for the intervertebralis tem
this and offer thenecessary
sys-
Thesacrum
discs (sacr)ismade
(Fig. 5). for
surfaces muscular
fiveupwelded vertebrae (Fig.
of insertions.
6), and the
18 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
4
5

2 3 1

Fig. 10
Fig. 9

These plates are lateral bundles (3) means

either side of the hip joints.
positioned on tion
that is also possible rota-
they
Above, connect with the These
(Fig. muscles arepartof
9).
back,
sacrum below the pubis.
at like twoThe lay
the which system with the
a I mentioned earlier: neck
re-
therefore
pelvis looks muscles,
helixes
connected whose axes nius the cervicis (4) and the
sple-
the hip
correspond joints domastoid
to sternoclei-
The musculature
(Fig. 8). of the Intermsofmechanics,all
(5).
becomes
torso smaller at the theof muscles and bones
belt: the
abdominal rectus abdominis the scapular
(including belt)thatsitatop
front
(abs) (1), spinal muscles (2) at
in theapparatus described here
rear,
the and the large oblique the arm.
belong Their purpose is to
to
on either
muscles side (3). These, the arm,
operate and for this reason I
move the
combined, rib cage, above the then in the section on the
in thefourdirections.Thetilt include
pelvis, limb
upper (Fig.
of the 10).

introduction - 19
The Limbs eachwiththesamenumber
Ifwecomparetheupperand and of the same kindsbones of joints
limbs,
lower starting at the thumb
(with and the big toe each
the
shoulder
scapular blades and one
the pelvicbeltbelt
clavicles)
(thewe having
(thepelvis),
and Itisinterestingtonotethat
phalange
there
can is possibly a shared
see presence
the legoftwo boneseach
system,
organizing which allows us to less).
lower
in and forearmtheof
the
noticeadaptive differences (a is a
means greater amount there
son with other mammals available
compari- surface for the muscles
important
also lessons, but that
carries is rate
that the hands andspacefeet, a
ope-
the scope
outside of this work). Thus, that is revealed
correlation through the
shoulder
the blade whenever
fact the number thatof
iliac wing,
corresponds the humerus
to duced
the digits to two or
is only one re-(asin
to the femur,
corresponds and the radius split hoof of bovines or the
correspond
and to the tibia and the
ulna hoof
single of horses, for
there
fibula. is one single bone in the these
So example), two bones
one is of
segment
first (upper arm and Starting
also with the
lost. two
are
thigh);two in the second
there the forearm we
bones rotation and find a system
of
rearm
segment and lower leg); and combines
(fo- that
series
there of smallisbones at the a one of the two boneswith
flexion, being
at the
wrist instep. And finally, the
and able cross the other to
and
handthe foot each have five (Fig. 1).
digits,
20 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
Fig. 1

Side view of the

little finger/little
toe.

Side view of the

thumb/big toe.

introduction - 21
 Shoulder blade seen
at its outside edge.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Upper Limb surface on the shoulder

The shoulder blades are is bladenot very enveloping, that
that offer
platforms a lovely insertion it great
which mobility ingivesevery
for the arm muscles (Fig. 1). (Figs.
surface 4and
direction
see
You that, in connection with
shall 5). The four axes are mostly
vicles,
the the shoulder blades
cla- and up by
madethe relay system of the
the limb
allow to be completely for a deltoid trapezius muscles(1)for
The
raised. shoulder blade has tion;
eleva- the relay system
blade
bony called a spine that is teres
between major and the
the
ted to
connec-the clavicle. This shape (2) in
latissimusthe back and
dorsi the
creases
in- the insertion for lowering;
pectoral and the
(2)(4)
lowing
surface, the muscular fibers al- (3) and the infraspinatus
pectoral again
shoulder
of tooverlapand thethus ral
for movements. Indeed, late-a
viding
pro- an increase in power muscles,
number like the pectoral,of
correspondence
(Fig. 2, up
are of fan-shaped bundles
made
and muscularthe
between shapes). The low
bony that for the muscleal-to
tion
connec-between the two a variety
participateof functions. Here, in I
the two
clavicles shoulder blades
and on isolated two of the four
num
theTheformsthescapular ster-belt have
this muscle includes. In
bundles the
that
(Fig. shoulder joint is the that follow you will find a
sphericalhumerus3).
ofameeting head plates
tailed
more de-
with a analysis.
22 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 Fig. 4

2
2

Fig. 5

introduction - 23
 Fig. 6
Fig. 7

1
Rear view. 3
2

4
Fig. 8
1 3

2
Front views.
4 5

Fig. 10
6

Fig. 11
Fig. 9 6

5+6 Fig. 12
5+6

5+6

24 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

Fig. 15

From below. From above.

meta phalange

The skeleton allows the antagonisticsystemsface

to forearm
both bend and rotate. At extensors off (5)inand flexors (6)
the
bow,
the we find two 10
el- (Figs. and 11), while the lateral
(Fig. 6):asphere(forrotation)
connected joints of these two groups pull the
bundles
a
andpulley (for flexion and along
hand the sides
The bending
extension). of the arm is The
(Fig. fingers bend on the
12).
thanks
possible to the opposing of the
headsmetacarpals (meta)
the brachial
functions and biceps the
of thanks extensors, the flexors
to
on one side, and the triceps
muscles (1), and
(Fig. 6),andthe11, interosseous
the
(2) other. Rotation on cles
mus- (Figs.13and14);while5the
brachioradial
depends muscles
on (3) between
the joints the phalanges
pronator
and teres (4) (Figs. 7
theand ments
allow of only flexion
move- and
qualify
8). these I points and
will (Fig. 11,
extension extensors [5] and
drawings
refine in some of the
these later The thumb deserves
When it crosses the
plates. ulna, flexors
attention.
particular
[6]).
It has a “saddle”
radius pulls the hand along operated
thewrist joint andby an
is
The
with bones form it. a lar system
independent (Fig. muscu-
shape
rounded(Fig. 9). Two 15).
symmetrical and
introduction - 25
 3
1

Fig. 1

3 6 Fig. 3

1
5

2 Outside view.

Fig. 2 6
5

Lower Limb strong ligaments quickly

At the hip, we find a spherical backward
lock movement. downFor
similar
joint to the shoulder, but in amovement,
complete we need the
enveloping
more and (1), the
quadricepsrelay system of the
(Fig. 1): This
constraining joint has to
versionbear and the
hamstringsgluteus maximus (2),
weight
the of the body and is teus medius (3), and the
ly workingduringwalkingor the
constant- (4) glu-
(Figs. 2, 3, and 4). I will
adductors refine
ning.
run- Movements in most system further
are possible, although the this
directions below.
region’s
26 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
 Fig. 6
Inside view.

Fig. 4
4
5

6 2

5
6

5
Fig. 5

The knee, reduced to a sors (5) and the triceps surae

(Fig. 5),leadstothepresence (6)
pulley on either side. Twisting
flexor
extensors
of and flexors. Here ments
move- are deferred to the
the
we quadriceps (1) and the This
find instep. mechanical solutionis
(2), with
hamstrings these two systems on the
based astragalus bone, or
ting with
intersec- two joints: the hip 6).
talus Lateral twisting
(Fig.leg
knee.
and the due to the action of
movements are
Theankleisalsoreduced echo musclesthe dispositionthat
you
pulley-type
to shape, with the forearm.
a saw on the
exten-
introduction - 27
 7 Fig. 8

Plantar view
(from below).

Fig. 7

From below. From above.

meta phalange

Theendsofthetoesecho cles, 7) allow the same

layout
the of the hand, (Fig. 7). The foot has to
movements
fact that
simplifiedthe big toe is
by (5)the not weight
support ofthebody—you thewill
sable.
oppo- The extensors and significance
see of thea
(6) associated
flexors with the is able to
musculaturemaintain the shape
that
the toes (the interosseous
muscles of plantar
of arch the
mus- (Fig. 8).
28 | morpho - joint forms and muscular functions
drawings
head and neck
 Fig. 1

Fig. 1: Joint cavity for the mandible

below the cranial cavity.

Fig. 2

Fig. 2: Diagram of this joint at the base

of the zygomatic arch (view from
below, without the mandible).
Fig. 3: At the maximum opening of the
mouth, the mandible slides forward
and leaves its joint.

Fig. 3

32 | head and neck - skull

 base

of the
rd
Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Figs. 4 and 5: Simplification of the joint.

One axis, two opposite directions. There
are two antagonistic muscle groups to look
for here: the elevators and the depressors
of the jaw.

skull - head and neck | 33

 Fig. 1

Fig. 2

34 | head and neck - jaw elevators

Fig. 1: Feminine skull on the left; masculine skull on the right. The strength of the
jaw muscles leads to greater or lesser bone structures. The lower arrow points
to the angle of the mandible (for the insertion of the masseter). The upper arrow
points to the frontal hump (the bone brake for pressure). The consequences of this
humped shape are the masculine characteristics of a depression at the bridge of
the nose and a receding forehead. A nose that is within the extension of a more
vertical and curved forehead is a feminine characteristic.

Fig. 2: Insertion zones for the masseter

muscle, elevator of the mandible.
Fig. 3: insertion zones for the temporal
muscle, elevator of the mandible (1).
Fig. 4: The zygomatic arch is cut away to
fully reveal the temporal (2).
1

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

jaw elevators - head and neck | 35

he strength of the
er arrow points
The upper arrow
onsequences of this
n at the bridge of
nsion of a more
1+2
Figs. 1 and 2: The masseter (1) and
temporal (2) muscles are two elevator
muscles for the mandible (1 and 2).
Fig. 3: The zygomatic arch is cut away to
reveal the temporal (2).
Fig. 1

2
2

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
1

2 2

36 | head and neck - jaw elevators

jaw elevators - head and neck | 37
 Fig. 1
3

Fig. 2
4

38 | head and neck - jaw depressors

 Fig. 3
5

There are several muscles involved in the movements of the lower jaw.
The masseter and temporal elevators are powerful chewing muscles
and are significant for the study of shapes. The same is not true for the
depressors, which cover, but do not hide, the larynx and the trachea. I will
mention just three of them here:
Fig. 1: Insertions of the mylohyoid muscle.
Fig. 2: Insertions of the digastric muscle.
Fig. 3: Insertions of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. hy
Fig. 4: The hyoid bone (hy) is a small horseshoe-shaped
bone, shown here in profile. It is located at the junction of
the neck and the bottom of the chin. It serves as a relay
point for the depressor muscles shown on this spread.
These muscles also allow for the suspension of the larynx—thy
represented here by the thyroid cartilage (thy), or Adam's
apple—and its movements during swallowing.
The hyoid bone presents a small horn shape for the
insertion of the digastric muscle (see following pages).

Fig. 4

jaw depressors - head and neck | 39

wer jaw.
scles
for the
chea. I will
1+2

3+4+5
3 + 4
Fig. 1

5
Figs. 1 and 2: The masseter
(1) and temporal (2) are Fig. 2
elevators. The mylohyoid
(3), digastric (4), and
sternocleidomastoid (5) are
depressors.

Fig. 3

4
3

5 Fig. 3: The mylohyoid, between

the jaw and the hyoid bone.

40 | head and neck - jaw depressors

en
 Fig. 4: Digastric (4), hyoid bone (hy),
thyroid cartilage (thy), and beginning
of the trachea (tra).
Fig. 5: The digastric (4) and the
sternocleidohyoid (5).
The digastric, made up of two bundles
on either side of its insertion point
on the hyoid bone, is attached deep
under the skull.

4
Fig. 4
hy

thy

tra

4
Fig. 5

jaw depressors - head and neck | 41

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Approximate position
of the spinal column
and cervical spine
on photographs and
X-rays.

Figs. 1 and 2: The spinal column is articulated with the

middle of the skull in a profile view. The top of the spine is
located just behind the mandible, or just in front of the ear.
This balanced juncture is perfectly suited to our bipedal
stature.
Only the last cervical vertebra (protruding at the level of
the arrow) is interesting from the point of view of drawing.
The rest of the cervical spine is hidden beneath fleshy
masses.

42 | head and neck - cervical spine

 ith the
he spine is
t of the ear.
bipedal

level of
of drawing.
fleshy
6 8

8 7 6
Fig. 3

Fig. 4

6
8 8

Fig. 5 7
7

Fig. 3: The stacking of the seven

cervical vertebrae allows for
movement in all directions.
Fig. 4: The insertions and shape of the
splenius complexus (6).
Fig. 5: Insertions and shape of the
long muscles of the head and neck (7).
8
Note that these muscles, which are Fig. 6
useful for this demonstration, are
plated onto the cervical spine and are
therefore invisible.
Fig. 6: Insertions and shape of the
scalene muscles (8).

movements - head and neck | 43

 Fig. 1: To the system
described on the
previous spread,
we can add the
sternocleidomastoid
(9), which completes
the action of the
scalenes (8) and,
above all, allows for
the rotation of the
head. 6
6
Fig. 1 9
6 8
9
8
8 7 8
9 7

Fig. 2

Fig. 2: Insertions and shape of

the sternocleidomastoid (9),
with its clavicular bundle.

44 | head and neck - movements

 6 6

9
8 9 8

movements - head and neck | 45

torso
 Fig. 2

Fig. 5

Fig. 3

Fig. 1
Fig. 4

sacr

coc
Fig. 1: Dorsal and profile views. The spinal column is composed of 7 cervical,
12 dorsal, and 5 lumbar vertebrae; the sacrum (sacr) is composed of 5 welded
verbetrae; and the tailbone, or coccyx (coc), is composed of 4 vertebrae.
Fig. 2: Cervical vertebra (see page 15).
Fig. 3: Dorsal vertebra.
Fig. 4: Lumbar vertebra.
Fig. 5: Rhythm of the dorsal spines.

48 | torso - spinal column

 of 7 cervical,
ed of 5 welded
vertebrae.
 Fig. 6

Fig. 6: Range of extension and flexion

motion of the spinal column.
The rib cage stabilizes the dorsal region.
Fig. 7: Connection of the ribs at the spinal
column, view from above.
Fig. 8: Side views.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

spinal column - torso | 49

10 12
Fig. 1: The stacking of the vertebrae allows for
movement in all directions.
12
The spinals (10) are extensors; the rectus abdominis
11 (abs, 11) are flexors; and the obliques (12), due to
12 their orientation, allow for lateral tilting and rotation.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

11

12
12

11 12
10
Fig. 2: Three quarters
front view.
Fig. 3: Profile.

50 | torso - movements
 6 5
6
Fig. 5
Fig. 4
5
6
5 8
8

11
10
10
11

11

10 12
12

Figs. 4, 5, and 6: Relay system

between the muscles of the Fig. 6
torso and the muscles of the
neck—the sternocleidomastoid
(5), the splenius and complexus
(6), and the scalenes (8). The
extensors (6 and 10) form a
continuous relay from the base
of the skull to the sacrum.

movements - torso | 51
 6

Fig. 1 Fig. 3

Fig. 2

10

10

10
Fig. 1: Insertions of the
spinal muscles.
Fig. 2: Spinal muscles:
iliocostalis, longissimus, and spinalis.
Fig. 3: Relays of form and function with the
spinals of the neck (splenius and Fig. 4
complexus together).
Fig. 4: Cross section of the rib cage showing
the position of the spinal muscles in the gray area
formed by the angle of the ribs and the vertebral spines.

52 | torso - extension
 5
Fig. 5
Fig. 7
Fig. 6

11

11

Fig. 5: Insertions of the Fig. 7: The

rectus abdominis (abs). sternocleidomastoids
complete the picture.
The relay is a graphic
one, because these
muscles are the
Fig. 6: The rectus abdominis rotators of the head.
are sectioned by transverse
tendons, which limits their elasticity. Their
role as flexors is supported by gravity.

extension - torso | 53
ds
e.
c

.
 5
6
Fig. 1 8 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

11
10 12

Fig. 1: Insertion points of the obliques.

Fig. 2: Relays with the neck muscles.
Figs. 3 and 4: On each side, the oblique muscles pass in front of the rectus
abdominis and reconnect by crisscrossing their tendinous fibers along the
median line (white line), which they thus help to form.

54 | torso - tilt and rotation

f the rectus
along the
 Fig. 5

Fig. 4

10
12
Fig. 5: The musculature of the trunk. The
top of the rib cage is open so that it can
receive the scapular belt (shoulder blades and
clavicles) and the muscular attachments of
the arm.
Fig. 6: Cross section of the abdomen showing
the muscle belt. The obliques shown here
occupy only the outermost layer of Fig. lateral 11
the 6
muscles.

tilt and rotation - torso | 55

upper limb
 Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3 14

13

Fig. 4

14

13

Fig. 5

Fig. 1: Scapular belt seen from above. Mechanically speaking, the clavicles and
shoulder blades can be considered as the first bones of the upper limb.
Fig. 2: On the left is a more masculine, more robust shoulder blade, adapted to
a more powerful musculature; on the right is a more feminine, more delicate
shoulder blade.
Fig. 3: Range of motion of the clavicles and shoulder blades seen from above.
Figs. 4 and 5: Synergy between the deltoid (13) and the trapezius (14).

58 | upper limb - scapular belt

e clavicles and
er limb.
ade, adapted to
more delicate

en from above.
s (14).
 The deltoid and the trapezius muscles alternate with each other on either side of
the scapular belt.
Fig. 6: Insertion points of the deltoid.
Fig. 7: Insertion points of the trapezius, which starts from the shoulder blade and
clavicle to join the spinal column and the skull.

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

14

13

scapular belt - upper limb | 59

on either side of

oulder blade and

 Fig. 1

13

Fig. 2

14

60 | upper limb - lifting of the arm

 13

14

Fig. 3

Fig. 1: Insertions of the

deltoid (13).
Fig. 2: Insertions of the
trapezius (14).
Fig. 4
Fig. 3: Muscular synergy.
Fig. 4: Range of motion.
In order to elevate the arm,
the shoulder blade must be
tilted.

lifting of the arm - upper limb | 61

 15

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 1: Insertions of the anterior serratus.

Fig. 2: Serratus anterior muscle (15).
Connections between the serratus anterior and the large oblique (see page 54).
Figs. 3 and 4: Synergiy between the deltoid (13), the trapezius (14), and the
serratus anterior (15). The clavicle, attached to the sternum, forces the shoulder
blade to tilt and makes it possible to completely raise the arm.

62 | upper limb - lifting of the arm

e (see page 54).
4), and the
es the shoulder
14

Fig. 3
15

15
Fig. 5
13
14
13 14

15
Fig. 4
15

Fig. 5: Lower border of the

serratus anterior (rear view).
Fig. 6: Serratus anterior
(front view). Fig. 6
On the left, the sides of the
armpit have been replaced.

lifting of the arm - upper limb | 63

 Fig. 1
14

19 +
20 16 Fig. 2
14
13 17 13
20 21
17

Figs. 1 and 2: The spherical head of the

humerus allows movement in all directions;
the deltoid and trapezius elevators (13 and 14)
take turns.
Note that weight is often involved in lowering and
these muscles, therefore, also control the lowering
of the arm.
It remains for us to position the
coracobrachialis (17), which brings the arm 19 +
back in; the depressors, which make up the 20
walls of the armpit—the pectoral (17) in front,
the latissimus dorsi and the teres major (19 and
20) in back; and the rotators, which are the teres
major (20), already mentioned, and the
infraspinatus (21), described on the Fig. 3
following pages.

Fig. 4
Fig. 3: Shoulder blade, seen from its external edge.
Figs. 3, 4, and 5: Insertions and shape of the
coracobrachialis (16).
16

Fig. 5

64 | upper limb - lowering of the arm

Figs. 6 and 7: Insertions and shape of Fig. 6
the pectoral (17).

Fig. 8: Insertions on the humerus of

the teres major and latissimus dorsi,
which are joined here (19 and 20).

Fig. 9: The teres major and

latissimus dorsi make up the
posterior wall of the armpit. Thus,
they begin at the back and are
detailed in the following pages.

17
Fig. 7

Fig. 9

Fig. 8
19 +
20

lowering of the arm - upper limb | 65

Fig. 1: Action of the teres 20
major (20) and infraspinatus
(21) rotators.

21 21
Fig. 2: Insertions of the 20
infraspinatus (21). Fig. 1
Fig. 3: Insertions of the teres major
(20), which connects with the
anterior surface of the humerus
starting from the back of the Fig. 2
shoulder blade.

Fig. 3

21
20

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

18

Figs. 4 and 5: Insertions and shape of the

rhomboid muscle (18). It is the antagonist
of the serratus anterior (p. 62, 15) and
brings the shoulder blade back toward
the spinal column.

66 | upper limb - rotation and lowering of the arm

 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Fig. 6

21

20 18

19
19 +
20

Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Figs. 6 and 7:Insertions and shape of the latissimus

dorsi (19).
Fig. 8: Action of the depressors. Synergy between the
latissimus dorsi (19) and the teres major (20).
Fig. 9: Diagram of the latissimus dorsi, which wraps
around the teres major to reattach close to the same
spot on the humerus.
Fig. 10: The large oblique is bound at the back, on the rib
cage, by the serratus anterior and three bundles of the
latissimus dorsi.

rotation and lowering of the arm - upper limb | 67

mus

en the

raps
same

on the rib
of the
 Fig. 1
22

22

Fig. 4
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

68 | upper limb - extension of the forearm

 Fig. 9

22the ulna,
Fig. 1: The triceps (22) is inserted on
which is articulated with the pulley of the humerus.
Fig. 2: The pulley allows movements only of flexion Fig. 10
and extension.

22

Fig. 3: The ulna at the level of the elbow, from the back (left) and
from the front (right).
Fig. 4: Flexion/extension.
Fig. 5: Insertions of the triceps.
Figs. 6, 7, and 8: The three bundles of the triceps, united by a shared tendon
attached to the elbow.
Fig. 9: The triceps (22) seen from the front (with the flexors pulled back, the
humerus is visible).
Fig. 10: Shoulder blade visible at its external blade. The insertion of the triceps.

22

extension of the forearm - upper limb | 69

ared tendon
d back, the
of the triceps.
 22
23 +
24 +
25

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

24
Fig. 3
25

23

24
23 25
Fig. 1: Range of motion.
Fig. 2: Note the inverted contours at the level of Fig. 4
the elbow.
Figs. 3 and 4: The brachialis (23), the biceps (24), and the
brachioradialis (25) are all flexors.

70 | upper limb - flexion of the forearm

 Fig. 5

23
Fig. 6

Figs. 5 and 6: Insertions and shape of the brachialis (23).

Figs. 7, 8, and 9: Insertions and shape of the biceps (24).

Fig. 7
Fig. 8: The shoulder blade,
visible at its outer blade.
Fig. 8

24
Fig. 9

Fig. 10

25

Fig. 11
Figs. 10 and 11: Insertions and shape of the
brachioradialis (25).

flexion of the forearm - upper limb | 71

Fig. 1 Fig. 4
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

26 24 + 25

Fig. 1: Extremity of the humerus at the level of the elbow.

Fig. 2: The two joint types (sphere and pulley) are joined together. The movements
associated with the two types are therefore associated with the two bones of the
forearm: the radius for rotations (sphere) and the ulna for flexions and extensions
(pulley).
Fig. 3: The head (cup) of the radius.
Fig. 4: The radius at the elbow, from the back and from the front.
25 24

Fig. 5
26

Fig. 6
26

Fig. 7

Fig. 8
26

72 | upper limb - pronation and supination

er. The movements
two bones of the
ns and extensions
 Fig. 9
25
24
22

Fig. 5: All the muscles that attach to the radius play a role in the
rotational movements: the biceps (24) and the brachioradialis (25),
which are powerful flexors, and their antagonist the pronator teres.
Fig. 6: Action of the pronator teres.
Figs. 7, 8, and 9: Insertions and shape of the pronator teres (26).
Fig. 10: In pronation (the act of extending), the biceps contracts and its tendon
wraps around the radius.
Fig. 11: In supination (the act of supporting), the biceps contract and shorten.
Fig. 12: The amplitude of the rotation is estimated at 120 degrees. With the
shoulder taking part in the full movement, the hand can turn 3/4 of a full-circle
rotation, the forearm 1/2, and the upper arm 1/4.

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

pronation and supination - upper limb | 73

and its tendon

and shorten.
. With the
of a full-circle
 Fig. 1: The extremity of the humerus. Insertion of the
extensors.

Fig. 1

27

27
Fig. 2

28
Fig. 2: Antagonistic action of the extensors (27) and the flexors (28).
Fig. 3: Insertion points of the extensors.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4: The hand's extensors.

Fig. 5: The thumb's extensors.
Fig. 6: Connections between these two groups.
Fig. 7: The fingers' extensors.

74 | upper limb - extension of the hand and fingers

28).

oups.
 Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7
27

28

Fig. 8
27

Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Fig. 8: All these muscles can be

considered as one set.
Fig. 9: Overview of the extensors (27).
Fig. 10: Range of motion.

extension of the hand and fingers - upper limb | 75

 Fig. 1
27

28

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 5

Fig. 6 Fig. 4

Fig. 1: The extremity of the humerus. The extensors (27) and

flexors (28) connect to the points of the bone. Note that the
flexors, which are more powerful, are inserted on the more
salient of the two.

76 | upper limb - flexion of the hand and fingers

rs (27) and
te that the
the more
 24 25 27
22
26 28

Fig. 7

Fig. 8
25
27
28

27
25
24
28 26 22
22

Fig. 2: Insertions of the flexors.

Fig. 3: The fingers' shared flexors. Note the
bracelet of ligaments.
Fig. 4: The hand's flexors. 27
25
Fig. 5: The flexors of the fingers are divided
28
into two layers that take turns, in a lovely
way, to the tips of the fingers. 24
23
Fig. 6: Range of motion. 22
Figs. 7 and 8: Muscular action, overviews.

flexion of the hand and fingers - upper limb | 77

 27 Fig. 1

28

27 +
28

Fig. 1: The lateral bundles of the

extensors (27) and the flexors
(28) lead the hand along the
sides.
Fig. 2
Figs. 2 and 3: Range of motion.
Fig. 4: The small bones of the
wrist make up the articulation of
the hand with the radius.

27 + 27
28
27 +
28
28 Fig. 4
Fig. 3

78 | upper limb - lateral tilt of the hand

 Dorsal view. Plantar view.

28

27

29 28

Phalange
27
28

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 29 +
28 + 27 29

meta
29
27
Fig. 7

29

Figs. 5 and 6: Two series of interosseous

muscles (29) fill the spaces between the
metacarpals and make it possible to spread
the fingers.
Fig. 7: The heads of the metacarpals (as seen in a fist) are spherical and thus
allow movement in all directions: The extensors and flexors complement and
follow their action to the phalanges.

lateral tilt of the hand - upper limb | 79

cal and thus
mplement and
 29
27 Fig. 1
30 30

30
Fig. 2

31

30
Fig. 3

31
Fig. 4

Fig. 1: At the base of the thumb, a saddle-shaped

articulation allows movement along two axes.
Fig. 2: The action of the muscles of the thumb
(thenar eminence, 30) and the little finger
(hypothenar eminence, 31).

80 | upper limb - opposition of the fingers

 shaped
axes.
umb
 29

30

Figs. 3 and 4: Insertions and

shape of these two muscular
systems.
Fig. 5: Morphological diagram.

31
30

Fig. 5

opposition of the fingers - upper limb | 81

lower limb
 Fig. 1

Fig. 4
ep Fig. 3 32
32
pub

Fig. 2

Fig. 1: Action of the adductors.

Fig. 2: Helical shape of a half
pelvis. A ligament connects
the spine (sp) to the pubis
(pub) and completes
the helix shape.
32
Figs. 3 and 4: The
insertions and
shape of the
adductors
(32).

Fig. 5

Fig. 5: Range of motion.

84 | upper limb - thigh adduction

 32
Fig. 7
33

ep
33
sacr
Fig. 8

Fig. 6 pub
isc

Fig. 6: The spherical hip joint

allows movement in every
direction. 33

Fig. 9

32

Fig. 10

33

Fig. 7: The pelvis in profile. Insertions of

the adductors and of the abductor, or
gluteus medius. In the back, a ligament connects
the sacrum (sacr) to the ischium (isc).
Fig. 8: Action of the gluteus medius abductor.
Figs. 9 and 10: Insertions and shape of the gluteus medius (33).

thigh adduction - upper limb | 85

medius (33).
 34

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

34

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 1: Action of the gluteus maximus.

Fig. 2: Insertions of the gluteus maximus.
Fig. 3: Shape of the gluteus maximus (34). Note that its lower boundary does not
merge with the buttock, which owes its shape to fat.
Fig. 4: From the back, you can again see the helix shape of the pelvis.
Fig. 5: Range of motion.

86 | lower limb - thigh extension

oundary does not
pelvis.
 Fig. 6: Three muscles take
part in the flexion of the
thigh. They cross the hip and
37
knee joints, and, therefore,
Fig. 6 35 act on the following
segment, the actual leg.
36 These three are the tensor
of the fascia lata (35), the
sartorius (36), and the rear
bundle of the quadriceps
(37), detailed on the
following page.
35

36

37

36

35

37
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 7: Insertions of the fascia lata (35) and the sartorius (36).
Fig. 8: Their action on the thigh.
Fig. 9: The rear bundle of the quadriceps (37).

thigh extension - lower limb | 87

 37 Fig. 3: The first
deep bundle.
Fig. 4: There are
two other bundles
38 above, joined
together.
Fig. 5: The final
bundle starts at
the pelvis and
Fig. 1 connects with the
tibia.
Fig. 1: The knee is
a joint that allows
movements along
a single axis only.

Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Fig. 3
Fig. 2
Fig. 2: Insertion points of
the quadriceps (there are 374
bundles to be found).

37
Fig. 6

Fig. 6: It should be noted that

the kneecap (rotula) is fully
enveloped by the tendon.
It serves as a pulley and
reinforces the action of the
quadriceps (37).

88 | lower limb - leg extension

Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12

Fig. 9

Fig. 7: Action of the hamstrings.

Fig. 8: Their insertions.
33 Fig. 9: Diagram of the inner bundle, at depth.
Fig. 10: Deep bundles.
34 35 Fig. 11: Surface bundles.
Fig. 12: The two layers joined together.
37
Fig. 13: Here the hamstring (38)
38 is working in tandem with the
38 32 gluteus maximus (34).

Fig. 13

leg extension - lower limb | 89

pth.

38)
e
 39
41 +
42

39 + 39
42

41 + 39 + Fig. 1
42 42
39

Fig. 7

Fig. 6
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Fig. 1: The talus is a bone that

combines a pulley and a sphere.
The various movements of the foot
are thus independent: flexion at the
heel and torsion at the instep.
Fig. 2: Cutaway of the tibia and
fibula, joined to the talus.
Three-quarter front view.
Fig. 3: The calcaneus
(heel) under the
previously listed bones. Dorsal view.
Three-quarter
rear view.

Plantar view.

90 | lower limb - extension of the foot and toes

Fig. 6: Insertions of the extensors of the foot and toes.
Fig. 7: Shape and action of the
extensors (39). 39
Figs. 7 and 8: As with the forearm 40
(p. 78), the shorter, lateral bundles
are responsible for tilting
movements. Fig. 9

Fig. 8

40
Fig. 10

Fig. 9: Insertions and shape of the extensor

digitorum brevis muscles (40). These little
muscles support the extensors of the toes.
Fig. 10: The relay system
of the lumbrical muscle
and the extensors of
the toe.

Fig. 11
Fig. 12

39

Fig. 11: Range of motion. 39

Fig. 12: The extensors remain in
front of the bone markers. Internal
view of the tibia and the extremities
of the fibula on the outside.

extension of the foot and toes - lower limb | 91

 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

37
41
Fig. 4

Fig. 1: Action of the triceps surae. Three bundles

are attached to the heel by the Achilles tendon.
Fig. 2: Insertions and shape of the deep bundle
(the soleus).
Fig. 3: Insertions and shape of the two other
bundles (the gastrocnemius). Fig. 5
Fig. 4: Relay system of the quadriceps (extensors,
37) and triceps surae (41) during full extension
(e.g., the splits).
Fig. 5: Range of motion.

92 | lower limb - flexion of the foot and toes

 Fig. 6

38

42
41
Fig. 7

41 Fig. 8
Fig. 6: Relay system between the gemellus muscles and the hamstrings
39 the back of the knee.
at
Fig. 7: Insertions and shape of the flexors of the foot and toes.
Fig. 8: Action of the flexors.
39
Fig. 9: Extensors and flexors on either side of
the tibia.
Fig. 10: Internal view. 42

41
Fig. 9

Fig. 10

flexion of the foot and toes - lower limb | 93

nd the hamstrings

nd toes.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1: Metacarpal and
phalanges of the second
toe.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2: The previous
muscles work in relay with
the plantar flexor (43).
Fig. 3: Tendinous relay 43
system that echoes the
system in the hand (p. 76).
Fig. 4: Action of the plantar
and dorsal interosseous
muscles.
Fig. 5: Insertions and
shape of the interosseous
muscles (44).

42 Fig. 3

43

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

From above.From below. From above.

94 | lower limb - flexion and spreading of the toes

 Fig. 6

Fig. 7 46

45

45

Fig. 6: Action of the big

toe adductors (45) and
the little toe abductors
Fig. 8 (46).
Figs. 7 and 8: Insertions
and shape of the above-
mentioned.
Fig. 9: The fat on the
bottom of the foot
hides and protects the
musculature. 45
Fig. 9

Fig. 10 Fig. 10: These muscles stretch

the plantar arch, like the string
of a bow.
45

flexion and spreading of the toes - lower limb | 95

h
g
 resources
George B. Bridgman, The Human For French speakers (from the
Machine, Dover Publications, Inc.,
original French edition):
New York, 1972
Georgette Bordier, Anatomie
Frederic Delavier, Strength Training
appliquée à la danse, Éditions
Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Human Amphora, Paris, 1980
Kinetics Publishers, Illinois, 2010
Alain Bouchet and Jacques Cuilleret,
Paul Richer, Artistic Anatomy, Anatomie topographique et fonction-
Watson-Guptill, New York, 1986 nelle, Simep, Paris, 1983
Stephen Rogers Peck, Atlas of Werner Platzer, Atlas de poche Anato-
Human Anatomy for the Artist,mie, Lavoisier médecine, France, 2014
Oxford
University Press, New York, 1951
Henri Rouvière and André Delmas,
Anatomie humaine, Paris, Masson,
1984

abbreviations
4ceps: quadriceps pub: pubis
abs: rectus abdominis sacr: sacrum
coc: coccyx sp: spine
hum: humerus ster: sternum
hy: hyoid bone thy: thyroid cartilage
isc: ischium tra: trachea
meta: metacarpal

96
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