Comparative Medicine Vol 55, No 2

Copyright 2005 April 2005

by the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science Pages 156-161

Reference Cardiopulmonary Values in Normal Dogs

Steve Haskins, DVM,1,* Peter J. Pascoe,1 Jan E. Ilkiw,1 James Fudge, DVM,2 Kate Hopper,1 and Janet Aldrich, DVM3

The purpose of this project was to collate canine cardiopulmonary measurements from published and unpublished
studies in our laboratory in 97 instrumented, unsedated, normovolemic dogs. Body weight; arterial and mixed-venous
pH and blood gases; mean arterial, pulmonary arterial, pulmonary artery occlusion, and central venous blood pres-
sures; cardiac output; heart rate; hemoglobin; and core temperature were measured. Body surface area; bicarbonate
concentration; base deficit; cardiac index; stroke volume index, systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance indices;
left and right cardiac work indices; alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) ; alveolar–arterial pO2 gradient (A-a
pO2); arterial, mixed-venous, and pulmonary capillary oxygen content; oxygen delivery; oxygen consumption; oxygen
extraction; venous admixture; arterial and mixed-venous blood CO2 contents; and CO2 production were calculated.
In the 97 normal, resting dogs, mean arterial and mixed-venous pH were 7.38 and 7.36, respectively; partial pres-
sure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), 40.2 and 44.1 mm Hg, respectively; base-deficit, –2.1 and –1.9 mEq/liter, respectively;
pO2, 99.5 and 49.3 mm Hg, respectively; oxygen content, 17.8 and 14.2 ml/dl, respectively; A-a pO2 was 6.3 mm Hg; and
venous admixture was 3.6%. The mean arterial blood pressure (ABPm), mean pulmonary arterial blood pressure
(PAPm), pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP) were 103, 14, and 5.5 mm Hg, respectively; heart rate was 87
beats/min; cardiac index (CI) was 4.42 liters/min/m2; systemic and pulmonary vascular resistances were 1931 and
194 dynes·sec·cm-5, respectively; oxygen delivery, consumption and extraction were 790 and 164 ml/min/m2 and 20.5%,
respectively. This study represents a collation of cardiopulmonary values obtained from a large number of dogs (97)
from a single laboratory using the same measurement techniques.

In anticipation that use of the thermodilution cardiac output
catheter will become more frequent in veterinary intensive care
units in the management of critically ill patients, we were inter-
ested in establishing a set of cardiopulmonary reference values
from normal dogs with which to compare measurements made
in critically ill, clinical patients. Baseline information for nor-
mal dogs is variously available in the research literature and is
widely distributed across many publications which use differ-
ent research models to accomplish their specific goals. A consoli-
dated list of such information is difficult to access, and the data
often are not exactly comparable because the information was
collected under different circumstances using different research
protocols. We have, over the course of several years, conducted
several published (8, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 40, 41) and unpublished
investigations in which we have made these measurements in
normal, unsedated, recumbent, quiet, resting dogs. We herein
collate measurements from a large number of dogs (97) from a
single laboratory using the same measurement techniques.
Materials and Methods
The experimental protocols were approved by the campus ani-
mal care and use committee. The Association for the Advance-
ment of Laboratory Animal Science guidelines for the humane
care and use of laboratory animals were followed. We obtained 97
Received: 7/31/04. Revision requested: 9/3/04. Accepted: 10/5/04.
1University of California–Davis, Department of Surgery and Radiological Sciences,
School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616; 2United States Army In-
stitute of Surgical Research, Veterinary Support Branch, Research Division, Fort
Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas 78234-6315; 3University of California–Davis,
Veterinary Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California
95616.
*Corresponding author.
random-source dogs, which were vaccinated against distemper,
hepatitis, and leptospirosis, and maintained in an indoor run
facility for 1 month prior to the study. All animals were heart-
worm-negative. All animals were young to middle-aged adults
(exact ages were not known) judged to be healthy by physical
examination. Gender was not recorded. Subjects were weighed
and then placed in left-lateral recumbency on a fleece-padded
table. Mild manual restraint and verbal and physical reassur-
ance was used to quell any nervousness. A subcutaneous and
intradermal dilute lidocaine solution (0.5%) was deposited at
each catheterization site to desensitize the area for the catheter-
ization procedures. A 2-in. (ca. 5-cm), 20-gauge catheter (Insyte
or Angiocath, Becton Dickinson, Sandy, Utah) was placed percu-
taneously into the dorsal metatarsal artery for measurement of
arterial blood pressure (ES 1000 recorder, Gould Inc., Cleveland,
Ohio) and for obtaining blood samples for the measurement of
arterial pH and blood gases (IL 1306 pH and blood gas analyzer,
Instrumentation Laboratory Inc., Lexington, Mass. or ABL pH
and blood gas analyzer, Radiometer, Copenhagen, Denmark).
A 7-French, balloon-tipped, thermodilution output catheter (4-
lumen, 110 cm, Edwards, Irvine, Calif. or Arrow International,
Reading, Pa.) was placed, via the right jugular vein, into the pul-
monary artery for the measurement of core temperature, cardiac
output (Model 701 cardiac output computer, Instrumentation
Laboratories, Waltham, Mass., or model Com-1 cardiac output
computer, American Edwards Laboratories, Irvine, Calif.), cen-
tral venous pressure, pulmonary artery pressure, and pulmonary
artery occlusion pressure and for obtaining mixed-venous blood
samples for the measurement of pH and blood gases. Pressure
transducers were calibrated with a mercury column manometer
and zeroed to the level of the thoracic inlet.

156
 Cardiopulmonary values in normal dogs

Table 1. Formulas for calculated variables

Symbol Unit Formula

Alveolar partial pressure of oxygen pAO2 mm Hg [(barometric pressure in –50) × 0.21] – (paCO2/RQ), where 50 is the saturated
water vapor pressure at 38.5°C, 0.21 is the fractional inspired oxygen, and
RQ = 0.9 (25)

Base deficit BD mEq/liter [16.2 × (pH – 7.4)] – (24.8 + HCO3) – [0.2 × Hb × (1 – SO2/100)] (24)

Bicarbonate concentration HCO3 mEq/liter (0.03 × pCO2) × 10(pH – 6.1) (53)

Body surface area BSA m2 (10.1 × kg0.67)/100 (14)

Carbon dioxide content CaCO2 ml/dl (2.226 × 0.0299 × pCO2 × (1 + 10(pH – 9.085))) × (1 – ((0.0289 × Hb)/((3.352 –
(arterial or mixed-venous) CmvCO2 (0.456 × SO2/100))) × (8.142 – pH))) (10)

Carbon dioxide production VCO2 ml/min/m2 or (CaO2 – CmvCO2) × CI × 10 (26)

ml/min/kg

Cardiac index CI liters/min/m2 or CO/BSA (m2) or CO/body weight (kg) (49)

ml/min/kg

Cardiac work index (left or right) LCWI kg × min/m2 or CI × aBPm × 0.0144 (49)
RCWI mm Hg/ml/min/kg CI × PaPm × 0.0144 (49)

Hemoglobin saturation (arterial, SaO2 % {[38848/(202 × pO2 + 1.17 × pO22 + pO23)] + 1} × 100%, where pO2 is paO2,
mixed-venous, or capillary) SmvO2 pmvO2, or pcO2, as appropriate (43)
ScO2

Left or right ventricular rate pressure LVRPP beats/min × mm Hg HR × aBPm

product RVRPP HR × PaPm

Oxygen content (arterial, CaO2 ml/dl (1.34 × Hb × SO2) + (0.003 × pO2), where 1.34 is 100% saturated hemoglobin oxygen
mixed-venous, or capillary) CmvO2 oxygen content; SO2 is hemoglobin saturation in arterial, mixed-venous, or
CcO2 capillary blood; and pO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial,
mixed-venous, or capillary blood. (25, 26, 29)

Oxygen consumption VO2 ml/min/m2 or (CaO2 – CmvO2) × [CI (m2) × 10] or (CaO2 – CmvO2) × [CI (kg)/100] (25, 26, 49)
ml/min/kg

Oxygen delivery DO2 ml/min/m2 or CaO2 × (CI (m2) × 10) or CaO2 × (CI (kg)/100) (25, 26, 49)
ml/min/kg

Oxygen extraction O2 extrac % VO2/DO2 or (CaO2 – CmvO2)/CaO2 (25, 26, 49)

Pulmonary vascular resistance index PVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 (PaPm – PaOP) × 79.92/CI (m2) or (PaPm – PaOP)/CI (kg) (49)
or mm Hg/ml/min/kg

Stroke volume index SVI ml/beat/m2 or CI/HR (49)

ml/beat/g

Stroke work index LVSWI kg × min/m2 or SVI × aBPm × 0.0144 (49)

(left or right ventricular) RVSWI mm Hg/ml/min/kg SVI × PaPm × 0.0144 (49)

Systemic vascular resistance index SVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 (aBP – CVP) × 79.92/CI (m2) or (aBP – CVP)/CI (kg) (49)
or mm Hg/ml/min/kg

Venous admixture Ven admix % (CcO2 – CaO2)/(CcO2 – CmvO2) × 100 (25)

A, alveolar; a, arterial; aBPm, mean arterial blood pressure; c, capillary; CO, cardiac output; Hb, hemoglobin concentration; HR, heart rate; m, mean; mv, mixed-venous;
p, partial pressure; PaOP, mean pulmonary arterial occlusion pressure; PaPm, mean pulmonary arterial blood pressure; CVP, central venous pressure.

Measurements and calculations. After instrumentation,
the animals were calmed for 30 to 60 min, and then the follow-
ing measurements were made: arterial (a) and mixed-venous
(mv) pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (paCO2 and pmvCO2,
respectively), and partial pressure of oxygen (paO2 and pmvO2,
respectively); mean arterial (aBPm), pulmonary arterial (PaPm),
pulmonary artery occlusion (PaOP), and central venous (CVP)
blood pressure; heart rate; hemoglobin (cyanmethemoglobin
method; Hb); and core temperature. All blood gas measurements
were corrected to the body temperature of the dog. Cardiac out-
put (CO) was measured via the injection of 5 ml of room-tem-
perature saline. Three to five measurements were made, values
that exceeded a range of 20% discarded, and the remaining
measurements were averaged. Body surface area; bicarbonate
concentration (HCO3); base deficit (BD); arterial–mixed venous
pH, pCO2, pO2, HCO3, and BD; cardiac index (CI); stroke volume
index (SVI); systemic (SVRI) and pulmonary (PVRI) vascular
resistance indices; left (LCWI) and right (RCWI) cardiac work
indices; left (LVSWI) and right (RVSWI) ventricular stroke work
indices; left (LRPP) and right (RRPP) rate-pressure products;
alveolar pO2 (pAO2); alveolar–arterial pO2 gradient (A-a pO2); ar-
terial (CaCO2), mixed-venous (CmvO2), and pulmonary capillary
(CcO2) oxygen contents; oxygen delivery (DO2); oxygen consump-
tion (VO2); oxygen extraction (O2 extr); venous admixture; arte-
rial (CaCO2) and mixed-venous (CmvCO2) blood carbon dioxide
content; arterial–venous carbon dioxide gradient (Ca-mvCO2);
and carbon dioxide production (VCO2) were calculated (Table 1).
Statistical evaluation. The mean, standard deviation, and
95% confidence interval were determined for each parameter
(NCSS 200 Statistical Software, Number Cruncher Statistical
Systems, Kaysville, Utah).
Results
The mean ± 1 standard deviation and 95% confidence interval of
each measured and calculated value are reported in Table 2. The
values in the present canine study were similar to those report-
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Table 2. Cardiopulmonary values in normal dogs Table 3. Comparison of values for normal dogs (mean ± 1 SD; this study)
with reported normal reference ranges for people (26, 39, and 49)
Unit Baseline 95% Confidence
(n = 97; mean ± 1 SD) interval Unit Dogs People

pHa not applicable 7.381 ± 0.025 7.360 to 7.440

Body weight kg 20.5 ± 6.9
paCO2 mm Hg 40.2 ± 3.4 36 to 44
BSA m2 0.74 ± 0.17
paO2 mm Hg 99.5 ± 6.8 85 to 100
Temperature °C 38.4 ± 0.6 38.3 to 38.5
HCO3 mEq/liter 23.1 ± 2.0 22 to 28
pHa not applicable 7.381 ± 0.025 7.376 to 7.387 BD mEq/liter –2.1 ± 2.3 –3 to 3
paCO2 mm Hg 40.2 ± 3.4 39.5 to 41.0
pHmv not applicable 7.362 ± 0.027 7.34 to 7.42
HCO3a mEq/liter 23.1 ± 2.0 22.7 to 23.5
pmvCO2 mm Hg 44.1 ± 3.8 42 to 50
BDa mEq/liter –2.1 ± 2.3 –1.7 to –2.6
pmvO2 mm Hg 49.3 ± 5.8a 37 to 42
pHmv not applicable 7.362 ± 0.027 7.356 to 7.367
HR beats/min 87 ± 22a 60 to 80
pmvCO2 mm Hg 44.1 ± 3.8 43.3 to 44.9
aBPm mm Hg 103 ± 15 80 to 95
HCO3mv mEq/liter 24.2 ± 2.1 23.7 to 24.6
CVP cm H2O 3.1 ± 4.1 0 to 6
BDmv mEq/liter –1.9 ± 2.3 –1.4 to –2.3
PaP mm Hg 14.0 ± 3.2 10 to 20
pHa-mv not applicable 0.020 ± 0.012 0.018 to 0.022 PaOP mm Hg 5.5 ± 2.9 6 to 12
pa-mvCO2 mm Hg –3.9 ± 1.6 –3.6 to –4.2
CI liters/min/m2 4.42 ± 1.24a 2.4 to 4.0
HCO3a-mv mEq/liter –1.1 ± 0.7 –0.9 to –1.2
SVI ml/beat/m2 51.9 ± 13.5 35 to 70
BDa-mv mEq/liter 0.2 ± 0.7 0.1 to 0.4
SVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 1931 ± 572 1600 to 2500
paO2 mm Hg 99.5 ± 6.8 98.1 to 100.8 PVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 194 ± 78 100 to 300
SaO2 % 96.3 ± 0.9 96.1 to 96.5 LCWI kg × min/m2 6.6 ± 2.3 3.2 to 6.6
Hb g/dl 13.6 ± 1.8 13.3 to 14.0 LVSWI g × min/m2 76.7 ± 24.5 40 to 90
CaO2 ml/dl 17.8 ± 2.3 17.4 to 18.3 RCWI kg × min/m2 0.91 ± 0.41a 0.48 to 0.72
RVSWI g × min/m2 10.4 ± 3.9a 4 to 8
pmvO2 mm Hg 49.3 ± 5.8 48.2 to 50.5
SmvO2 % 77.1 ± 5.5 75.6 to 78.2 DO2 ml/min/m2 790 ± 259a 520 to 720
CmvO2 ml/dl 14.2 ± 2.2 13.8 to 14.7 VO2 ml/min/m2 164 ± 71 110 to 180
Ca-vO2 ml/dl 3.6 ± 1.0 3.4 to 3.8 O2 extrac % 20.5 ± 5.7 20 to 30
pA-aO2 mm Hg 6.3 ± 6.9 5 to 20
pAO2 mm Hg 105.8 ± 3.7 101.5 to 103.8 Ven admix % 3.6 ± 4.1 < 10%
pA-aO2 mm Hg 6.3 ± 6.9 0.9 to 3.7
ScO2 % 96.9 ± 0.5 96.8 to 97.0 Abbreviations as defined for Table 1.
aValues fall outside the reference range for people.
CcO2 ml/dl 18.0 ± 2.3 17.5 to 18.5

Ven admix
CaCO2
%
ml/dl
3.6 ± 4.1
45.8 ± 4.3
2.8 to 4.4
44.9 to 46.6
Discussion
CmvCO2 ml/dl 48.5 ± 4.4 47.6 to 49.4 The baseline arterial and mixed-venous acid–base values are
Ca-mvCO2 ml/dl 2.7 ± 1.4 2.5 to 3.0 similar to those previously reported for normal dogs (2, 3, 5, 11,
CVP cm H2O 3.1 ± 4.1 2.3 to 4.0 17, 19, 22, 23, 27, 28, 33, 42-45, 56). Compared with arterial val-
PaOP mm Hg 5.5 ± 2.9 4.8 to 6.2 ues, pmvCO2 averaged about 4 mm Hg higher, HCO3mv aver-
HR beats/min 87 ± 22 83.0 to 91.0
aBPm mm Hg 103 ± 15 99.9 to 106.0
aged about 1 mEq/L higher, and BDmv was almost identical.
PaPm mm Hg 14.0 ± 3.2 13.4 to 14.7 The increased pmvCO2 and decreased BDmv are attributed to
CO ml/min 3360 ± 1356 3086 to 3633
metabolic production of carbonic and noncarbonic acids. The in-
CI liters/min/m2 4.42 ± 1.24 4.17 to 4.67 creased HCO3mv is attributed to carbon dioxide buffering by the
ml/min/kg 165 ± 43 156 to 174 red blood cell. Carbon dioxide is converted to hydrogen (which
SVI ml/beat/m2 51.9 ± 13.5 49.2 to 54.7
ml/beat/kg 1.93 ± 0.46 1.84 to 2.02 binds to the hemoglobin) and HCO3 (which diffuses out of the red
blood cell in exchange for chloride). Most of the carbon dioxide is
SVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 1931 ± 572 1815 to 2045
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 0.641 ± 0.173 0.606 to 0.676 carried from the tissues to the lungs in the form of bicarbonate
PVRI dynes × sec × cm–5/m2 196 ± 78 179 to 210 in the plasma (25). The pHmv averaged 0.02 lower than pHa, a
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 0.065 ± 0.026 0.060 to 0.070 difference that is attributed to the higher pmvCO2.
LCWI kg × min/m2 6.7 ± 2.3 6.2 to 7.1 The average pAO2 was 99.5 mm Hg and oxyhemoglobin satu-
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 17045 ± 5393 15957 to 18132 ration of arterial blood (SaO2) was 96.3%. Average pmvO2 was
LVSWI g × min/m2 76.7 ± 24.5 71.7 to 81.6
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 199 ± 54 188 to 210 49.3 mm Hg and oxyhemoglobin saturation of mixed venous
LVRPP beats/min × mm Hg 9057 ± 2937 8465 to 9649 blood (SmvO2) was 77.1%. These values are similar to those re-
RCWI kg × min/m2 0.91 ± 0.41 0.83 to 0.99 ported for normal dogs (2, 3, 5, 11, 17, 19, 22, 28, 33, 42-45, 56).
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 2353 ± 981 2156 to 2551 Arterial and mixed-venous oxygen are each assessed by a differ-
RVSWI g × min/m2 10.4 ± 3.9 9.6 to 11.2
mm Hg/ml/min/kg 27.1 ± 9.1 25.2 to 28.9
ent set of criteria. paO2 and SaO2 reflect the ability of the pulmo-
RVRPP beats/min × mm Hg 1247 ± 510 1144 to 1350 nary system to deliver oxygen to the blood. pmvO2 and SmvO2
DO2 ml/min/m2 790 ± 259 737 to 842
reflect the relationship between DO2 and VO2. We generally at-
ml/min/kg 29.5 ± 8.8 27.7 to 31.3 tribute decreases in paO2 and SaO2 to a low inspired oxygen
VO2 ml/min/m2 164 ± 71 148 to 181 concentration, hypoventilation, or venous admixture. Decreases
ml/min/kg 6.0 ± 2.6 5.5 to 6.5
in PmvO2 and SmvO2, we generally attribute to low DO2, but
O2 extrac % 20.5 ± 5.7 19.4 to 21.7 could be caused by a high VO2.
VCO2 ml/min/m2 128 ± 46 104 to 126
The average pAO2 was 105.8, mean A-aPO2 was 6.3 mm Hg,
Abbreviations as defined for Table 1. and average venous admixture was 3.6%. These values corre-
spond well with published values for the dog (4, 5, 12, 28, 33,
ed for normal humans (Table 3), except that pmvO2, heart rate, 51). The formula used to calculate pAO2 (Table 1) incorporates
aBPm, CI, RCWI, RVSWI, and DO2 were slightly higher in dogs. a value for respiratory quotient that usually is not measured
158

and typically is assigned a value between 0.8 to 1.0. We used 0.9
for the purposes of calculations in this report. The use of either
0.8 or 1.0 values, at a paCO2 of 40 mm Hg, would decrease or
increase, respectively the calculated pAO2 by 4 mm Hg, thereby
decreasing or increasing, respectively, the A-a pO2 calculation by
4 mm Hg. These differences would be greater with higher paCO2
values. The formula used to calculate a parameter may vary be-
tween studies. These formulaic differences are not so important
within a study but could induce apparent differences between
studies when, in fact, none exist.
Both A-a pO2 and venous admixture are measures of lung oxy-
genating efficiency and usually are increased with pulmonary
parenchymal disease. The formula for calculating pAO2 can be
used to assess lung function at any barometric pressure and in-
spired oxygen, and it accommodates for the effect that variations
in alveolar carbon dioxide have on alveolar oxygen. It is not a
calculation of the actual pAO2 as might be measured in an end-
tidal gas sample, but it is an estimate of an idealized, functional
pAO2. This formula does not account for variations in body tem-
perature and assumes a steady state respiratory quotient that
does not change over time. The A-a pO2 formula calculates the
gradient between a calculated, idealized pAO2 and the measured
paO2. An increased A-a pO2 gradient usually is attributed to im-
paired transfer of oxygen from alveoli to blood. An increased A-a
pO2 gradient also can be caused by a low venous oxygen which
can decrease paO2 even though lung function is normal. At an
inspired oxygen concentration of 21% (a fractional inspired oxy-
gen [FiO2] of 0.21), at sea level, the normal A-a pO2 might range
up to about 10 mm Hg; calculated values above 15 mm Hg, we
generally consider to represent decreased pulmonary oxygenat-
ing efficiency. However, during breathing of an enriched oxygen
mixture, the A-a pO2 normally will be higher and may be as high
as 100 mm Hg with an FiO2 of 1.0.
The formula for venous admixture includes pAO2 (which is
needed to calculate capillary blood oxygen content) and includes
venous and arterial pO2 values (which are needed to calculate
venous and arterial blood oxygen content). It presumes a two-
compartment model for the lung: 1) venous blood that is arterial-
ized fully during its transit through the pulmonary capillaries;
and 2) venous blood that is not oxygenated at all. Venous ad-
mixture is the percentage of cardiac output that would have to
traverse the lung as unoxygenated venous blood, assuming that
the rest is perfectly arterialized, in order to account for the ob-
served venous, capillary, and arterial oxygen values. The venous
admixture formula contains the least number of assumed vari-
ables and is the preferred method of assessing lung oxygenating
efficiency (37).
The calculated values of CaO2, CmvO2, and Ca-mvO2 were
18.5, 14.7, and 3.8 ml/dl, respectively, in the present study. These
values are, in general, consistent with previously reported values
(1, 33, 35, 42, 47), however, content calculations depend greatly
upon the hemoglobin concentration, and this parameter may
vary between reports. The factor in the content formula used
to estimate hemoglobin oxygen content when it is 100% satu-
rated varies between 1.31 and 1.36 ml of oxygen per gram of he-
moglobin (25, 26, 49). A factor of 1.34 was used for the content
calculations in the present experiment because it represented a
reasonable mid-point of the range of recommended values. The
calculation of oxygen content is necessary for the calculation of
venous admixture, DO2, VO2, and O2 extr. Ca-mvO2, in contrast
Cardiopulmonary values in normal dogs
Figure 1. The inter-relationship of important cardiopulmonary pa-
rameters.
to Pa-mvO2 or Sa-mvO2, bears a linear correlation to oxygen con-
sumption by the tissues and uptake by the lungs.
The calculated CaCO2 and CmvCO2 were 45.8 and 48.5 ml/dl,
respectively. These are similar to values reported for humans at
pCO2 values ranging between 40 and 45 mm Hg (10) and slightly
higher than CmvCO2 reported for awake Beagle dogs (38 ml/dl;
PmvCO2 not reported; 33). The CCO2 can be used as a metabolic
marker in much the same way that CO2 is used, as the utiliza-
tion of oxygen is associated with the production of carbon dioxide
at a rate that is represented by respiratory quotient (RQ) (52).
The average VCO2 was 128 ml/min/m2, a value similar to that
previously reported for dogs (1, 29, 38, 55).
Heart rate, aBP, CVP, PaP, PaOP, and CI values were, in gen-
eral, consistent with previously reported values in normal dogs
(2, 3, 5, 9, 23, 27, 31-34, 42, 44). DO2, VO2, and oxygen extraction
averaged 823 and 166 ml/min/m2 and 20.5%, respectively, in the
present study. These values also are consistent with previously
reported values for the normal dog (1, 6, 7, 13, 30, 33, 35, 36,
42, 45-48, 50, 54, 55). DO2 is an important parameter because
it represents an overview of cardiopulmonary performance. Its
determinants are oxygen content (which, in turn, is primarily
affected by hemoglobin concentration) and cardiac index. Any
disease process that diminishes blood oxygenation, hemoglobin
concentration, or cardiac output tends to diminish DO2. DO2 can
be maintained in the face of a decrease in one of these determi-
nants by an increase in the other determinants. Local or regional
blood flow is not addressed by global DO2 calculations; local or
regional blood flow can be grossly deficient even though global
DO2 is normal. Oxygen consumption is important because it rep-
resents global metabolic activity. The “adequacy” of DO2, in fact,
can only be defined in the context of its ability to meet the VO2
needs of the animal. Oxygen extraction reflects the balance be-
tween DO2 and VO2, and an increased oxygen extraction is the
first compensatory change associated with a decrease in DO2.
An increased oxygen extraction is associated with a decreased
PmvO2 and SmvO2.
Table 3 compares some of the values from the present study
with those reported for healthy humans. Most of the values from
the present study fall within the range of the human values.
The notable exceptions are that these dogs had increased pmvO2
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(49 versus 40 mm Hg), CI (4.4 versus 3.2 liters/min/m 2), and
DO2 (790 versus 620 ml/min/m2). Heart rate was also higher in
these canine subjects (87 versus 70 beats/min), as was aBPm
(103 versus 88 mm Hg), RCWI (0.91 versus 0.60 kg·min/m2), and
RVSWI 1.4 versus 6 g·min/m2). These higher values could be
real or could be related to the body surface area indexing, which
does not totally neutralize the size difference between the two
species. The difference also could be related to anxiety in these
animals despite their acclimation to the laboratory environment
and outward calm demeanor.
The values reported herein represent a large number of pa-
rameters from a large number of dogs from a single laboratory
using the same measurement techniques. These values can be
used to compare measurements in future research and clinical
endeavors. It is also apparent that many of these parameters
are interactive (Fig. 1). Except in extreme examples, it would be
difficult to evaluate or to assess the importance to the patient
of a single abnormal parameter in isolation of consideration of
other, related parameters. An integrated approach is necessary
to obtain a comprehensive perspective of the animal’s condition
or to properly assess response to a therapy.
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