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PSY 331

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

Course outline

1. Phenomena of motivation
2. Theories of motivation
3. Development of motives:
a. hunger motivation
b. sexual motivation
4. Emotion
5. Theories of emotion
6. Functions of emotion

INTRODUCTION

we are all familiar with motivation and emotion. Many times people are confronted with such
question like why have you done this or that? What do you expect to gain from doing what you
are doing? When an action is unexpected, someone may be asked: what motivated him/her to
engage in such an action.We have seen athletes who spend years training for Olympics, students
spending long period for reading and preparing for an exam, scientists who spend long hours
searching for a cure for cancer, or entrepreneurs who seek to make their first million before age
thirty. The common denominator in each of these activities is the need, desire, and determination
to strive for a goal or accomplishment. Motivated behavior is often accompanied by strong
emotion. For instance, a person who spends many hours on a single task, such as searching for a
cure for cancer, often experiences feelings of tedium and frustration until the goal is achieved. On
the other hand, feelings of joy and happiness accompany even the partial solution to such a
longstanding goal. This shows that there is interdependence between motivation and emotion and
this gives reason for consideration of the two concept together.
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

Motivation is a term used by Psychologist to describe ‘a goal – directed’ behavior. It is a

phenomenon that gives reason(s) why a particular behavior is emitted – why an assassin kills! Why
a thief steals and why a young rich man committed suicide, to mention but a few cases. Motivation
from the Latin word Movere meaning ‘to move’. Hence, Chauhan (1978) defines motivation as
the process of arousing movement in an organism (including man). The movement produced and
regulated is through the release of energy within the tissue. Andrew B., George R., Robbert D. and
Paul R. (1983) described motivation as desires, needs, and interests that arouse or activated an
organism and direct it toward a specific goal. Iyiola (2000) sees motivation as phenomenon which
determines activity by an individual and directs it towards satisfying a need. According to him,
satisfying a need of course, means ‘tension reduction’ that is, motivation leads the individual to
action in order to satisfy his/her needs. Akinade (2001) defines motivation as something that
propels people to behave the way they do. It arouses, maintains and directs individuals towards
achieving a purposeful goal. Jodai, Hojat; Zafarghandi, Amir Mahda Vi; Tous, Maryam &
Danaye (2013) view that motivation is considered as one of the most important reasons that
inspires a person to move forward. From the definitions above we can conclude that motivation is
something that instigates an individual to behave and sustain such instrumental behavior in order
to meet a particular need or to achieve a specific goal. It involves an individual identifying a
particular need and engaging in instrumental behavior to meet the need or to actualize a particular
goal

Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as:

1. The intensity or need

2. The incentive or reward value of the goal, and
3. Expectations of the individual and his or her peers

These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way. An example is a student that
spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class
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TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation might be extrinsic, whereby a person is inspired by outside forces—other people or

things that transpire. It might also be intrinsic, whereby the inspiration comes from within a person.

1. Intrinsic Motivation:

It is influenced by factors within the individuals. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the
early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to
analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge (Ryan, Richard M.; Deci, & Edward L.
2000). It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual
rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic
motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these
studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity-driven behaviors
in the absence of reward. Ryan et al, (2000) opined that intrinsic motivation is a natural
motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.
According to Deci, Edward L.; Ryan and Richard M. (2013) there are two necessary elements for
intrinsic motivation and these elements are self-determination and an increase in perceived
competence. In short, the cause of the behavior must be internal, known as internal local of
causality, and the individual who engages in the behavior must perceive that the task increases
their competence (Ryan et al, 2000).

Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as
work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be
intrinsically motivated if they...

 attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy
or locus of control
 believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known
as self-efficacy beliefs
 are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

An example of intrinsic motivation according to Root & George (2014) is when an employee
becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact
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with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge. Art
for art's sake is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this kind
of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often focus on
the subject rather than rewards or punishments.

Disadvantages: Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can
require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may
be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one's students
in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one's
students.

2. Extrinsic motivation:

This motivation is basically influenced by external factor(s). Extrinsic motivation comes from
influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where
do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually extrinsic
motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation (Ryan
et al,2000). Common elements of extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or
grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior.
Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat
others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire
to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives (Dewani, &Vijay (2013).

The major distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is the type of reasons or goals that
lead to an action. While intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently
interesting or enjoyable, extrinsic motivation, refers to doing something because it leads to a
separable outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is doing
an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, instead of for its instrumental value
(Ryan et al,2000).

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over-
justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study conducted by Lepper,
Mark R.; Greene, David; Nisbet, and Richard (1973) demonstrated this effect, children who
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expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less
time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were
assigned to an unexpected reward condition. However, another study by Marinak, Barbara A.;
Gambrell and Linda B. (2008) showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed
more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic
motivation. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity,
the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity
has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when
children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat
actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the
child in the absence of threat (Wilson; Lassiter, 1982).

Advantages: Allows individuals to become easily motivated and work towards a goal.

Disadvantages: Motivation will only last as long as the external rewards are satisfying.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, drive

performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of
many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all
affect the motivation that an individual experience. Most psychological theories hold that
motivation exists purely within the individual, butsocio-cultural theories express motivation as an
outcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of social
groups(Rueda, Richard; Moll & Luis, 1994).

Natural theories

The natural system assumes that people have higher order needs, which contrasts with the rational
theory that suggests people dislike work and only respond to rewards and punishment(Dobbin&
Frank, 2012). According to McGregor'sTheory Y, human behavior is based on satisfying a
hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, social, ego, and self-fulfillment(McGregor, D., 1960).
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Physiological needs are the lowest and most important level. These fundamental requirements
include food, rest, shelter, and exercise. After physiological needs according to McGregor (1960)
are satisfied, employees can focus on safety needs, which include “protection against danger,
threat, deprivation.” However, if management makes arbitrary or biased employment decisions,
then an employee's safety needs are unfulfilled. The next set of needs is social, which refers to the
desire for acceptance, affiliation, reciprocal friendships and love. As such, the natural system of
management assumes that close-knit work teams are productive. Accordingly, if an employee's
social needs are unmet, then he will act disobediently McGregor (1960).

After social needs are met then attention shifts to ego needs. There are two types of egoistic needs,
the second-highest order of needs. The first type refers to one's self-esteem, which encompasses
self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge. The second type of
needs deals with reputation, status, recognition, and respect from colleagues McGregor (1960).
Egoistic needs are much more difficult to satisfy.

The highest order of needs is for self-fulfillment, including recognition of one's full potential, areas
for self-improvement, and the opportunity for creativity. Dobbin and Frank (2012) opined that this
differs from the rational system, which assumes that people prefer routine and security to
creativity.Unlike the rational management system, which assumes that humans don’t care about
these higher order needs, the natural system is based on these needs as a means for motivation.

The author of the reductionist motivation model is Sigmund Freud. According to the model,
physiological needs raise tension, thereby forcing an individual to seek an outlet by satisfying
those needs Ziegler, Daniel (1992). Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and
Applications.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Pyramid

Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of

needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed
theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that
individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy
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system, devised by Maslow (1954), is a commonly used scheme for classifying human
motives (Pardee, 1990).The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed
the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are
motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex
(highest-latest) are as follows:[

 Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, sex etc.)

 Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
 Social/Love/Friendship
 Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
 Self actualization/achievement of full potential

The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits
on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept
or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently, we have
the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives
shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level,
while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:

 Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied needs
influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
 Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to the complex.
 The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least
minimally satisfied.
 The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and
psychological health a person will show.

Flow theory

Desirable subjective state a person experiences when completely involved in some challenging
activity that matches the individual skill (Lambert. Deckers (2014). This is a state in which people
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are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that
people will continue to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it. (Csikszentmihalyi,
1990).

Flow theory, the idea of flow theory as first conceptualized by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Flow in
the context of motivation can be seen as an activity that is not too hard, frustrating or madding, or
too easy boring and done too fast.This simply means that one is more motivated to engage in an
activity that is consider too cheap and easy to handle. For instance, any student who is so good at
calculation will like to engage more in courses that have to do with mathematics. If one has
achieved perfect flow, then the activity has reached maximum potential.

Flow is part of something called positive psychology or the psychology of happiness. Positive
psychology looks into what makes a person happy. Flow can be considered as achieving happiness
or at the least positive feelings. A study that was published in the journal Emotion looked at flow
experienced in college students playing Tetris. The students that they were being evaluated on
looks then told to wait and play Tetris. There were three categories; Easy, normal, and hard. The
students that played Tetris on normal level experienced flow and were less stressed about the
evaluation.

Csikszentmihalyi (2016) describes 8 characteristics of flow as a complete concentration on the

task, clarity of goals and reward in mind and immediate feedback, transformation of time (speeding
up/slowing down of time), the experience is intrinsically rewarding, effortlessness and ease, there
is a balance between challenge and skills, actions and awareness are merged, losing self-conscious
rumination, there is a feeling of control over the task.

The activity no longer becomes something seen as a means to an end and it becomes something an
individual wants to do. This can be seen as someone who likes to run for the sheer joy of running
and not because they need to do it for exercise or because they want to brag about it. Peak flow
can be different for each person. It could take an individual years to reach flow or only moments.
If an individual becomes too good at an activity they can become bored. If the challenge becomes
too hard then the individual could become discouraged and want to quit(Cooper, 2007).

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Steven Reiss proposed a theory that found
16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior(Reiss &Steven, 2002).Intrinsic motivation is
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the tendency to find challenges, to push to find out for more, explore, and learn as much as possible.
It is about reaching the most possible potential as a human being. The 16 basic desires that motivate
our actions and define our personalities are:

 Acceptance, the need for approval

 Curiosity, the need to learn
 Eating, the need for food
 Family, the need to raise children
 Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group
 Idealism, the need for social justice
 Independence, the need for individuality
 Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
 Physical activity, the need for exercise
 Power, the need for influence of will
 Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
 Saving, the need to collect
 Socialcontact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
 Socialstatus, the need for social standing/importance
 Tranquility, the need to be safe
 Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete
Psychologists are so interested in the reasons or motivations why individuals engage in
new behaviors, including sexual behavior (Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2005), and the ways in
which these motivations may change over time.

CONFLICT BETWEEN MOTIVATIONS (INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS)

Intrapsychic conflict is the clash of opposing forces within the psyche, such as conflicting drives,
wishes, or agencies. Also called inner conflict; internal conflict; intrapersonal conflict; psychic
conflict. Motives energize and direct our behaviours toward achieving goals. But our goals are not
always compatible with one another and this results in conflict. We must forego one goal in order
to attain other. Generally, when something attracts us, there is tendency of approaching it. When
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something repels or frightens us, there is tendency to avoid it. Different combinations of approach
and avoidance tendencies can produce three basic types of conflicts:
Approach – approach conflict: this is the type of conflict between two attractive alternatives.
The conflict is at its greatest level when both alternatives are equally attractive and both are very
important to us, because the settling with one alternative means the loss of other.
Avoidance – Avoidance conflict: this is the situation when an individual is faced with and is to
choose between unpalatable or undesirable alternatives. When faced with this conflict, there is
tendency is to try to escape from the situation. When we cannot escape the situation, then we tend
to go for one.
Approach – Avoidance conflict: in this case, an individual is both attracted to and repelled by
the same goal. These are sometimes the most difficult of all conflict to resolve. Approach –
Avoidance dilemmas can be resolved in favour of the approach tendency by increasing the
motivation to approach, by decreasing the tendency to avoid. Nonetheless. Sometimes without
realizing it, people behave in a way that resolves the conflict in favour of avoidance.

EMOTION
All of us are faced with certain situations which may be palatable or not palatable. When we are
facing these experiences or situations we do feel either happy or bad, thrilled or depressed, fearful
or angry. When these happen we are exhibiting emotion. Emotion is a complex, subjective
experience accompanied by biological and behavioral changes. Emotion involves feeling,
thinking, activation of the nervous system, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as
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facial expressions. According to Michael C. (2002), the term, emotion, is taken for granted in itself
and, most often, emotion is defined with reference to a list: anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and
surprise.
Feldman (1999) described emotion as feelings that are generally have both physiological, cognitive
elements and that influence behaviour. Enekwechi (2004) defined emotions as subjective feelings
experienced by an organism and usually last for a period of time. This implies that emotions are
transient state that signify how and individual feels at a particular time or event. Enekwechi (2004)
further opined that if feelings persist for several hours, days or weeks, they cannot be regarded as
emotions, but rather mood states.

SIX BASIC TYPES OF EMOTION

There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and interact
with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices we make, the
actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions we are
experiencing at any given moment. Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of
emotions that people experience. People express emotions not only through speech but also
through nonverbal behavior, or body language. Nonverbal behavior includes facial expressions,
postures, and gestures.

During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman identified six basic emotions that he suggested were
universally experienced in all human cultures. The emotions he identified were happiness, sadness,
disgust, fear, surprise, and anger. He later expanded his list of basic emotions to include such things
as pride, shame, embarrassment, and excitement. Let's take a closer look at some of the basic types of
emotions and explore the impact they have on human behavior.

HAPPINESS

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people strive for the most.
Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is characterized by feelings of
contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being. Research on happiness has increased
significantly since the 1960s within a number of disciplines, including the branch of
psychology known as positive psychology.
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This type of emotion is sometimes expressed through:

 Facial expressions such as smiling

 Body language such as a relaxed stance
 An upbeat, pleasant tone of voice

While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things we think will create
happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For example, pop culture influences tend to
emphasize that attaining certain things such as buying a home or having a high-paying job will
result in happiness. The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more
complex and more highly individualized. People have long believed that happiness and health
were connected, and research has supported the idea that happiness can play a role in both physical
and mental health. Happiness has been linked to a variety of outcomes including increased
longevity and increased marital satisfaction. Conversely, unhappiness has been linked to a variety
of poor health outcomes. Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked
to things such as lowered immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life expectancy.

SADNESS

Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state characterized by
feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood. Like other
emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In some cases, people
can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn into depression. Sadness can
be expressed in a number of ways including:

 Dampened mood
 Quietness
 Lethargy
 Withdrawal from others
 Crying

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people cope
with such feelings can also differ. Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms
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such as avoiding other people, self-medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such
behaviors can actually exacerbate feelings of sadness and prolong the duration of the emotion.

FEAR

Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When you face some
sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as the fight or flight response.
Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your mind becomes more
alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or stand and fight. This response helps
ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats in your environment.

Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

 Facial expressions such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
 Attempts to hide or flea from the threat
 Physiological reactions such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more sensitive to
fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.

Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction to
anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we generally
think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of social situations.
Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations. Extreme sports and
other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and even enjoy such feelings.
Repeated exposure to a fear object or situation can lead to familiarity and acclimation, which can
reduce feelings of fear and anxiety. This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are
gradually exposed to the things that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually,
feelings of fear begin to decrease.

DISGUST

Disgust is another of the original basic emotions described by Eckman. Disgust can be displayed
in a number of ways including:
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 Turning away from the object of disgust

 Physical reactions, such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions, such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste, sight,
or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that might be harmful
or fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example, disgust is a typical
reaction. Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response. This
may be the body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable diseases. People can also
experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in behaviors that they find distasteful,
immoral, or evil.

ANGER

Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, agitation,

frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a part in your body's fight or
flight response. When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the
danger and protect yourself.

Anger is often displayed through:

 Facial expressions such as frowning or glaring

 Body language such as taking a strong stance or turning away from someone
 Tone of voice such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses such as sweating or turning red
 Aggressive behaviors such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects

While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It can be
constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate you to take
action and find solutions to things that are bothering you. Anger can become a problem, however,
when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are unhealthy, dangerous, or harmful to others.
Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn to aggression, abuse, or violence. This type of emotion can
have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can make it difficult to make
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rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical health. Anger has been linked to
coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked to behaviors that pose health risks
such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and smoking

SURPRISE

Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally described by Eckman.
Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a physiological startle response following
something unexpected. This type of emotion can be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant
surprise, for example, might involve someone jumping out from behind a tree and scaring you as
you walk to your car at night. An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find
that your closest friends have gathered to celebrate your birthday.

Surprise is often characterized by:

 Facial expressions, such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and opening the mouth
 Physical responses, such as jumping back
 Verbal reactions, such as yelling, screaming, or gasping

Surprise is another type of emotion that can trigger the fight or flight response. When startled,
people may experience a burst of adrenaline that helps prepare the body to either fight or
flee. Surprise can have important effects on human behavior. For example, research has shown
that people tend to disproportionately notice surprising events. This is why surprising and unusual
events in the news tend to stand out in memory more than others. Research has also found that
people tend to be more swayed by surprising arguments and learn more from surprising
information.

Other Types of Emotions

The six basic emotions described by Eckman are just a portion of the many different types of
emotions that people are capable of experiencing. Eckman's theory suggests that these core
emotions are universal throughout cultures all over the world. However, other theories and new
research continue to explore the many different types of emotions and how they are classified.
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Eckman later added a number of other emotions to his list but suggested that unlike his original
six emotions, not all of these could necessarily be encoded through facial expressions. Some of
the emotions he later identified included:

 Amusement
 Contentment
 Excitement
 Contempt
 Embarrassment
 Relief
 Pride in achievement
 Guilt
 Satisfaction
 Shame

THEORIES OF EMOTION
Different theories exist regarding how and why people experience emotion. These include
evolutionary theories, the James-Lange Theory, the Cannon-Bard Theory, Schacter and
Singer’s Two-Factor Theory, and Cognitive Appraisal.

Evolutionary Theories
More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because
they had adaptive value. For example, fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways that
enhanced their chances of survival. Darwin believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate
(hard-wired). He pointed out that facial expressions allow people to quickly judge someone’s
hostility or friendliness and to communicate intentions to others.
Recent evolutionary theories of emotion also consider emotions to be innate responses to stimuli.
Evolutionary theorists tend to downplay the influence of thought and learning on emotion,
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although they acknowledge that both can have an effect. Evolutionary theorists believe that all
human cultures share several primary emotions, including happiness, contempt, surprise, disgust,
anger, fear, and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result from blends and different
intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more intense form of the primary
emotion of fear.

The James-Lange Theory

In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange,
independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea,
which came to be known as the James-Lange Theory, is that people experience emotion because
they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events. According to this theory,
people don’t cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and, likewise,
they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different physiological states
correspond to different experiences of emotion. James-Lange theory posits that emotion is the
sensation of physiological changes in the body. These sensations are therefore interpreted by the
brain as particular kind of emotional experiences. To explain this in consonant with this theory, it
means that we fear because we tremble, we are angry because we strike, we are happy because we
smile and we are sad because we cry. This stance seems meaningless because our common sense
would rather make us feel that it should be other way round.

The Cannon-Bard Theory

The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main
arguments against it:
1. People can experience physiological arousal without experiencing emotion, such as when they
have been running. (The racing heart in this case is not an indication of fear).
2. Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of emotion, which occur very
rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley alone, a sudden sound usually provokes an
immediate experience of fear, while the physical “symptoms” of fear generally follow that feeling.
3. People can experience very different emotions even when they have the same pattern of
physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing heart and rapid breathing both
when he is angry and when he is afraid.
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Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another
physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard Theory states that the
experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Neither one
causes the other. The brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time
that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal.
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain
emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological
arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological
symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people
give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment.
Example: If a person finds herself near an angry mob of people when she is physiologically
aroused, she might label that arousal “anger.” On the other hand, if she experiences the same
pattern of physiological arousal at a music concert, she might label the arousal “excitement.”
Schachter and Singer agree with the James-Lange theory that people infer emotions when they
experience physiological arousal. But they also agree with the Cannon-Bard theory that the same
pattern of physiological arousal can give rise to different emotions.

Cognitive Appraisal
The psychologist Richard Lazarus’s research has shown that people’s experience of emotion
depends on the way they appraise or evaluate the events around them.
Example: If Tracy is driving on a winding road by the edge of a high cliff, she may be concerned
about the danger of the road. Her passenger, on the other hand, thinks about the beauty of the view.
Tracy will probably feel frightened, while her passenger may feel exhilarated.

FUNCTIONS OF EMOTION

Emotions sever different functions in individuals. At a time we feel happy, excited, joy or love,
also at other time we feel angry, sad, anxious, depressed etc. these feelings are often as a result of
reactions to a particular situations or events in our lives and thus, serve certain purposes. Three
major functions of emotion have been identified by Feldman (1999) which are:
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Emotion preparing us for action: emotion serve as behavioural response to demands from our
environment. Emotions have been viewed as stimuli that aid in the development of effective
response to various situations. For instance, an individual suddenly comes in contact a very big
and dangerous snake is expected to react with fear, which in turn stimulates physiological make
up, such as increase in the secretion of adrenalin. This therefore prepares the individual for coping
with the situation, which may include sourcing for defense or fleeing from the situation

Shaping our Future Behaviour: Emotions promote learning of information that will assist us in
making appropriate responses in the future. When we are confronted with a situation that induced
fear in us, we strive to avoid such situation in the future. Also, when a situation evokes pleasant
feelings, such as happiness or joy in us, we also strive to seek similar situations in the future.

Emotion helps us to regulate social interaction: When we experience or display emotions, they
are often noticed by others, whether the exhibition of the emotion is verbal or nonverbal. These
behaviours can enable others to understand us and thus our situations which can help them to
predict future behaviours. When we are happy, people will notice it and will also react by
expressing appropriate emotion. Also when we are sad, people will react by soothing us or by
adjusting their behaviours accordingly.