NAME: LONDEKA NCAMA

STUDENT NUMBER: ST10123335

MODULE: PUBLIC RELATION 3B

QUESTION 01

Public rela+ons is a dis+nc+ve management func+on which helps establish and maintain mutual lines
of communica+on, understanding, acceptance and coopera+on between an organiza+on and its
publics; involves the management of problems or issues; help management to keep informed on and
responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the
public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effec+vely u+lize change, serving as an early
warning system to help an+cipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communica+on
as its principal tools.

The need for PR research- Research is crucial in the public rela+ons management as it allows for two-
way communica+on, engaging in dialogue with publics, and understanding their beliefs and values.
This approach is more effec+ve in organiza+ons with heavy government regula+on or turbulent
environments. Research makes public rela+ons ac+vi+es strategic by targe+ng specific publics who
want, need, or care about the informa+on. This prevents was+ng money on communica+ons that are
not reaching intended publics or not performing their intended job. Research also allows for showing
of results, measuring impact, and refocusing efforts based on these numbers because by focusing on
more successful elements of public rela+ons ini+a+ves, professionals can ensure effec+ve
communica+on and beDer management of their organiza+on. Public rela+ons professionals can
u+lize applied research, u+lize theore+cal frameworks to understand situa+ons and solve problems.
Both quan+ta+ve and qualita+ve data are crucial in public rela+ons research as they assist in
preparing for change and industry trends, as well as provide proper evalua+on. Con+nuous research,
also known as checkpoint or benchmark research, monitors and tracks the plan, ensuring its
effec+veness. Without a baseline of research, the plan's effec+veness diminishes. Without research,
public rela+ons would not be a true management func+on. It would not be strategic or a part of
execu+ve strategic planning but would regress to the days of simple press agentry, following hunches
and ins+nct to create publicity. As a true management func+on, public rela+ons use research to
iden+fy issues and engage in problem solving, to prevent and manage crises, to make organiza+ons
responsive and responsible to their publics, to create beDer organiza+onal policy, and to build and
maintain long-term rela+onships with publics. To create an effec+ve public rela+ons plan research
must be at the forefront of decision making and must be included throughout the plan. Therefore,
the best public rela+ons prac+ces must involve comple+ng a founda+on of baseline research and
then accommoda+ng for checkpoint research throughout the plan. Doing so will ensure your public
rela+ons plan stays on track, is able to adjust to change, and remains up to date with industry trends.
A thorough knowledge of research methods and extensive analyses of data will also allow public
rela+ons prac++oners a seat in the dominant coali+on and a way to illustrate the value and worth of
their ac+vi+es. In this manner, research is the strategic founda+on of modern public rela+ons
management.

Research approaches in the research process and prac+cal examples for each approach- Research in
public rela+ons helps develop strategies for specific campaigns, strategic management, and
measuring effec+veness. Forma+ve research, conducted before communica+on, allows for
segmenta+on, tailoring, and building rela+onships with publics who are interested in the message.
This approach helps public rela+ons avoid wasteful communica+on with those who do not share the
message. Evalua+on research on the other hand is a form of public rela+ons that helps public
rela+ons professionals demonstrate the impact of their communica+on efforts aPer a campaign.
Forma+ve research determines the percentage of publics aware of an organiza+on's policy, while
benchmarking measures the change in public awareness. These methods help organiza+ons
communicate strategically and demonstrate effec+veness. For example, a survey can determine if
17% of the target public is aware of a policy, and a similar survey can be conducted aPer a
predetermined +me. Using sta+s+cally generalizable research methods allows for accurate
comparisons across various publics, geographic regions, issues, psychographics, and demographic
groups. Research in public rela+ons can be formal or informal.
Formal research normally takes place to generate numbers and sta+s+cs that we can use to both
target communica+ons and measure results. It can also be used to gain a deeper, qualita+ve
understanding of the issue of concern, to ascertain the range of consumer responses, and to elicit in-
depth opinion data. Formal research is planned research of a quan+ta+ve or qualita+ve nature,
normally asking specific ques+ons about topics of concern for the organiza+on. Formal research is
both forma+ve, at the outset of a public rela+ons ini+a+ve, and evalua+ve, to determine the degree
of change aDributable to public rela+ons ac+vi+es.
Informal research is collected on an ongoing basis by most public rela+ons managers, from sources
both inside and outside of their organiza+ons. Informal research usually gathers informa+on and
opinions through conversa+ons. It consists of asking ques+ons, talking to members of publics or
employees in the organiza+on to find out their concerns, reading e-mails from customers or
comment cards, and other informal methods, such as scanning the news and trade press. Informal
research comes from the boundary spanning role of the public rela+ons professional, meaning that
he or she maintains contacts with publics external to the organiza+on, and with internal publics. The
public rela+ons professional spends a great deal of +me communica+ng informally with these
contacts, in an open exchange of ideas and concerns. This is one way that public rela+ons can keep
abreast of changes in an industry, trends affec+ng the compe++ve marketplace, issues of discontent
among the publics, the values and ac+vi+es of ac+vist groups, the innova+ons of compe+tors, and so
on. Informal research methods are usually nonnumerical and are not generalizable to a larger
popula+on, but they yield a great deal of useful informa+on. The data yielded from informal research
can be used to examine or revise organiza+onal policy, to craP messages in the phraseology of
publics, to respond to trends in an industry, to include the values or priori+es of publics in new
ini+a+ves, and numerous other deriva+ons.

The types of data that can be used in research- Public rela+ons management research involves
specialized terminology, with primary research being first-hand, proprietary data relevant to a
specific client or campaign. This type of research is oPen expensive and unique. Secondary research,
typically public domain but applicable to the client or industry, supports the conclusions drawn from
primary research. Secondary research can be accessed online, in libraries, or trade associa+ons.

>Methods of Quan+ta+ve Data Collec+on

*Internet-based surveys

*Content analysis (usually of media coverage)

*Comment cards and feedback forms

*Warranty cards (usually demographic informa+on on buyers)

*Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)

>Methods of Qualita+ve Data Collec+on

*In-depth interviews

*Case studies

*Par+cipant observa+on

*Monitoring toll-free (1-800 #) call transcripts

*Monitoring complaints by e-mail and leDer

The types of research designs and the advantages and disadvantages of each design- Quan+ta+ve
research helps understand publics by segmen+ng them based on demographic variables such as
gender, educa+on, race, profession, and household income. Cross-tabula+ng data with opinion and
a_tude variables helps iden+fy trends and target specific publics. This segmenta+on is common in
public rela+ons management, allowing managers to understand public support and opposi+on, and
to create effec+ve communica+on strategies and helps in decision-making and policy forma+on.
Quan+ta+ve research, including surveys, allows for sta+s+cal generaliza+on and numerical
observa+ons to measure rela+onships with specific publics. It studies the en+re popula+on, including
women over 40, Democrats, Republicans, and compe+tors. Probability samples ensure strong
sta+s+cal measures, while nonprobability samples provide data that answers research ques+ons.
Quan+ta+ve research segments publics based on demographic variables and cross-tabulates data
with opinion variables to iden+fy trends and target specific publics. However, it lacks a human
element, requires careful design, and can be manipulated for subjec+ve results. Large data sets can
be costly, and polling and surveying may not always yield quality results.
Qualita+ve research is a crucial method in the public rela+ons industry, providing in-depth
informa+on about public opinion. It allows for understanding the experiences, values, and
viewpoints of publics, providing quotes for strategy documents, and some+mes resul+ng in slogans.
This research method is par+cularly useful in answering ques+ons like "How?" or "Why?", allowing
researchers to explore complex topics and understand their meanings. This helps in integra+ng
public values into organiza+onal strategy and craPing messages that resonate with different
na+onali+es. Public rela+ons managers oPen use qualita+ve research to support quan+ta+ve
findings by understanding specific public views and elabora+ng on beliefs or values. This approach
allows for a deeper understanding of complex reasoning and dilemmas, providing valuable data that
researchers may not have considered. Qualita+ve research also allows par+cipants to speak for
themselves, resul+ng in more effec+ve messages and respeceul rela+onships with the public.
Research objec+ves may change due to changing contexts, resul+ng in different conclusions based on
the researcher's personal characteris+cs. Inability to inves+gate causality, differences in informa+on
quality and quan+ty, and non-consistent conclusions can also occur. The researcher's experience is
required to obtain targeted informa+on, and different probing techniques can lead to inconsistent
results. The researcher may employ different techniques and respondent stories may choose to
ignore certain stories.

The best-prac+ce model for PR research- The best-prac+ce models of research are a management
concept that suggests a technique, method, process, or ac+vity which is more effec+ve in achieving a
specific outcome. They aim to minimize problems and complica+ons in research projects, enabling
leading companies to achieve top performance and serve as goals for others.
The PR 'Effec+veness Yards+ck' Model, developed by Lindenmann in 1993, outlines a two-step
process for measuring communica+on effec+veness. It focuses on se_ng objec+ves and determining
appropriate levels, addressing the challenges faced by PR professionals. This model aims to reduce
scep+cism and improve accountability within the profession by simplifying the process and
addressing the lack of a logical approach. To measure the effec+veness of the public rela+ons
research project, first determine the goals and objec+ves of the organisa+on’s ac+vity. In public
rela+ons, objec+ves typically fall into four categories: distribu+ng specific messages, targe+ng key
audience groups, distribu+ng messages through specific channels, and achieving short-term or long-
term objec+ves. Assessing the impact of the PR efforts requires iden+fying the organisa+on’s
messages, target audiences, and communica+on channels, and using these as gauges to determine
the effec+veness of these efforts. APer se_ng PR objec+ves, determining what the organisa+on
wants to measure, this can be done by determining the effec+veness of the PR efforts, whether they
were heard or paid aDen+on too, and if they have influenced others' thoughts or ac+ons.
Three levels of measurement are: Level one which measures what the organisa+on did. Level one
evalua+on evaluates outputs, focusing on prac++oner or organiza+on performance and self-
presenta+on. Low-cost, uncomplicated research uses media placements, impressions, exposure,
content analyses, and public opinion polls.
Level two of communica+on measures message recep+on, aDen+on, comprehension, and reten+on.
It introduces outgrowths, or out-takes, which refers to what audiences receive or 'take out' of
communica+on ac+vi+es. Level two measures the impact of PR efforts and outcomes. PR
prac++oners assess "outgrowth" measures using qualita+ve and quan+ta+ve data collec+on
techniques, such as focus groups, depth interviews, and extensive polling.
Level three is the most advanced PR measurement level, focusing on outcomes like opinion, a_tude,
and behaviour change. PR prac++oners use techniques like pre- and post-tests, experimental
research designs, and communica+on audits.

This model offers a ver+cal progression of techniques, focusing on objec+ves and cogni+ve and
behavioural impact. It acknowledges the communica+on process's non- chronological nature and
separates cogni+ve and behavioural impact objec+ves. However, cri+cs argue it omits inputs and
should consider resources needed for communica+on goals. The model is primarily educa+onal
rather than prac+cal.

Public Rela+ons, as the name suggests, is simply rela+ons with the public; where public rela+ons
prac++oners communicate regularly with many different publics, not necessarily the public. Each
public of an organiza+on has its own needs and wants, and this requires different types of
communica+on to address each of them. In the light, one can say that for public rela+ons unit to
func+on as a management tool in the administra+on of an organiza+on, the unit must be seen
iden+fying problems, difficul+es or needs of the publics in and around the organiza+on establishing
channels for informa+on flow and maintaining mutual and cordial rela+ons with the public.
WORDS: 1994

hDps://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/28138/03chapter3.pdf?sequence=4

hDps://saylordotorg.github.io/text_mastering-public-rela+ons/s09-public-rela+ons-research-the-
.html#:

Lindenmann, Walter K. Public Rela+ons Quarterly, Spring 1993; 38, 1; Academic Research Library pg.
7
QUESTION 02

The Ra+onal Decision-Making Model is a method that eliminates emo+on in decision-making by

using logical steps and non-bias research. It's applicable to various aspects like educa+on, business,
career choices, and significant life events, focusing on achieving desired outcomes. It is important
because it provides you with a way to overcome a certain challenge you're facing or a way to
approach a new opportunity by helping you develop an objec+ve viewpoint. It's also valuable
because it lets you maximize the poten+al benefits you can achieve as a professional while
simultaneously minimizing economic costs and valuable +me and resources. XYZ Communica+ons is
experiencing financial distress due to the financial losses it incurred during the Covid-19 pandemic. It
came with op+ons to either retrench, suspend without pay or have salary cuts for employees to
ensure that the company stays afloat.

Explana+on of each step of the Ra+onal Model-

1. Iden+fying a problem or opportunity-The first step is to recognize a problem or to see

opportuni+es that may be worthwhile. This step brings the decision maker’s interests, values, and
personal preferences into the process. A ra+onal decision-making model is best employed where
rela+vely complex decisions must be made.

2. Gathering informa+on- What is relevant and what is not relevant to the decision? What do you
need to know before you can decide, or does that help you make the right one? Also keep in mind
that any factors not iden+fied in this step are considered as irrelevant to the decision maker.

3. Analysing the situa+on- What alterna+ve courses of ac+on may be available to you? What
different interpreta+ons of the data may be possible? Our Problem-Solving Ac+vity uses a set of
structured ques+ons to encourage both broad and deep analysis of your situa+on or problem.

4. Developing op+ons- The decision maker generates possible alterna+ves that could succeed in
resolving the problem. No aDempt is made in this step to appraise these alterna+ves, only to list
them. Be crea+ve and posi+ve. Read The Power of Posi+ve Thinking for our five ques+ons that create
possibili+es.

5. Evalua+ng alterna+ves- The decision maker must cri+cally analyse and evaluate each one of the
criteria's needed to be used to evaluate. Evaluate for feasibility, acceptability, and desirability. Which
alterna+ve will best achieve your objec+ves? The strengths and weakness of each alterna+ve
become evident as they compare the criteria and weights established in the second and third steps.

6. Selec+ng a preferred alterna+ve- While this may not always be necessary and can be a liDle cost-
intensive, it may be worthwhile to have a backup plan if the solu+on doesn’t give you the intended
results. This means that the decision maker should either have another strategy in place, created
using the ra+onal decision-making model. This means that the decision maker will have to explore
the provisional preferred alterna+ve for future possible adverse consequences. What problems
might it create? What are the risks of making this decision?

7. Ac+ng on the decision- Every decision is taken to solve a problem, so once the alterna+ve is put
into effect, the decision maker needs to judge how well to deal with the problem and the results of
the decision are checked for appropriateness. Ques+ons usually followed in this step are: Put a plan
in place to implement the decision. Have you allocated resources to implement? Is the decision
accepted and supported by colleagues?, Are they commiDed to making the decision work?
Applica+on of each step to the scenario-

1.Iden+fying a problem or opportunity- When making a ra+onal decision, it will be important for the
Senior Management Team to first iden+fy the situa+on we are in and dis+nguish it as either an
opportunity to take or a challenge to overcome. For example, XYZ Communica+ons is facing a crisis
of financial distress due to the losses incurred during the Covid-19 pandemic. The management
needs to decide on whether to suspend without pay, salary cuts or retrench its employees. This
ra+onal method of decision making is applicable to simple decisions, yet professionals typically apply
the method to more complex decision making.

2. Gathering informa+on- The next stage will be for the Senior Management Team to gather relevant
informa+on regarding the challenge at hand to ensure they make the most informed decision. They
must try to priori+ze measurable data that applies to their decision. Examples of the various types of
informa+on gathered at this stage of the process are:
*The output of the process- reaching a decision that will be in the best interests of both the company
and its employees.
* The resources required- Ra+onal Model
* The +me you may need or the +me that you spend- 1 week

Once the informa+on is gathered, it is important to analyse it. The analysis aspect of this stage is to
determine how each part might impact the others. For example, if the management decides to
suspend employees without pay for further no+ce, this will cause problems like strikes and issues of
being reported at CCMA for unfair treatment of the employees, whereas giving them salary cuts
would cause them to not perform their du+es fully because they would be demo+vated.

3. Analysing the situa+on- Once XYZ Communica+ons has a more developed understanding of the
various components of their challenge and how they affect each other, the next stage is to develop a
range of op+ons based on what is most op+mal for them. To consider an example, employees would
have op+ons on whether to be retrenched, suspended without pay or accept salary cuts. Employees
would have to consider the following op+ons:
* Choosing to accept the salary cut op+on as a means of s+ll having a job and earning an income.
* Choosing to reject the salary cut op+on would mean that the employees would either get
retrenched or be suspended without pay.
* Choosing to nego+ate. XYZ Communica+ons would have to nego+ate on how many pay cuts would
the employees incur to ensure that it will be beneficial to the company as well as its employees.

4. Developing op+ons- XYZ Communica+ons has considered and narrowed down their poten+al
op+ons to choose from, the next part of the process would now be to examine the different
outcomes that can come of these op+ons. Following the example above, these are the ways in which
the above decisions might significantly affect the company:
* By accep+ng the salary cut op+on, employees would get to keep their jobs.
* Another outcome would be the company would reframe from having issues with CCMA and strikes.
It would focus on moving forward from the financial distress it incurred.
* By nego+a+ng the level of pay decrease with more work responsibility, would ensure that both XYZ
Communica+ons and its employees work together to keep the company afloat and ensure that it
passes that financial distress period.

5. Evalua+ng alterna+ves- XYZ Communica+ons iden+fied their op+ons and thoroughly evaluated
them. Having considered their op+ons and the outcomes of the company's choices, they took all the
informa+on gathered and made a well-informed decision. In many cases, with the ra+onal model,
the most effec+ve choice you can make is the one that provides you with the greatest benefits at
limited costs. For example, by nego+a+ng the level of pay decrease with more work responsibility,
this would ensure that both XYZ Communica+ons and its employees work hand-in-hand to keep the
company afloat and ensure that it passes that financial distress period.

6. Selec+ng a preferred alterna+ve- XYZ Communica+ons determined which course of ac+on would
be most advantageous to them, which meant that the next stage would have to revolve around
turning their decision into ac+on. For example, XYZ Communica+ons would meet with its employees
about the decision reached of nego+a+ng to a level of salary cuts whilst the employees put in more
work responsibili+es. This would mean that employees would have to put in more working hours of
work to ensure that the company makes more revenue and ease the financial distress it’s in.

7. Ac+ng on the decision- The next ac+on the employees can take aPer discussing their decision with
XYZ Communica+ons is to work towards approaching the new role by outlining a plan. As part of this
plan, XYZ Communica+ons will be able to predict any poten+al problems or challenges that may arise
because of their decision, allowing them to solve them before they become an issue.

Making important decisions with complex outcomes is necessary for any workplace. One of the many
ways that professionals approach these decisions is to apply the ra+onal model of decision making.
Understanding this model and how it works will be essen+al to making effec+ve decisions at XYZ
Communica+ons whilst priori+zing our goals and interests.
WORDS: 1520

hDps://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/ra+onal-model-of-decision-making

BIBLIOGRAPHY

hDps://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/28138/03chapter3.pdf?sequence=4

hDps://saylordotorg.github.io/text_mastering-public-rela+ons/s09-public-rela+ons-research-the-
.html#:

Lindenmann, Walter K. Public Rela+ons Quarterly, Spring 1993; 38, 1; Academic Research Library pg.
7
hDps://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/ra+onal-model-of-decision-making