Journal of Earth Science, Vol. xx, No. x, p.

xxx–xxx, online 2018 ISSN 1674-487X

Printed in China
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-018-0846-9

A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism

Hengcong Lei , Haijin Xu *
School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
Hengcong Lei: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5278-1529; Haijin Xu: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7648-6655

ABSTRACT: Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism represents extreme crustal metamorphism

with peak metamorphic temperatures exceeding 900 ºC and pressures ranging from 7 to 13 kbar with or
without partial melting of crusts, which is usually identified in the granulite-facies rocks. UHT rocks are
recognized in all major continents related to both extensional and compressive tectonic environments.
UHT metamorphism spans different geological ages from Archean to Phanerozoic, providing information
of the nature, petrofabric and thermal evolution of crusts. UHT metamorphism is traditionally identified
by the presence of a diagnostic mineral assemblage with an appropriate bulk composition and oxidation
state in Mg-Al-rich metapelite rocks. Unconventional geothermobarometers including Ti-in-zircon (TIZ)
and Zr-in-rutile (ZIR) thermometers and phase equilibria modeling are increasingly being used to esti-
mate UHT metamorphism. Concentrated on the issues about UHT metamorphism, this review presents
the research history about UHT metamorphism, the global distribution of UHT rocks, the current meth-
ods for constraints on the UHT metamorphism, and the heat sources and tectonic settings of UHT meta-
morphism. Some key issues and prospects about the study of UHT metamorphism are discussed, e.g.,
identification of UHT metamorphism for non-supracrustal rocks, robustness of the unconventional geo-
thermometers, tectonic affinity of UHT metamorphic rocks, and methods for the constraints of age and
duration of UHT metamorphism. It is concluded that UHT metamorphism is of great importance to the
understanding of thermal evolution of the lithosphere.
KEY WORDS: ultrahigh-temperature (UHT), granulite-facies, metamorphism, review.

0 INTRODUCTION
Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism is now re-
garded as a key frontier topic following ultrahigh-pressure (UHP)
metamorphism (e.g., Tong et al., 2014; Wei, 2012; Harley, 2004).
The study of UHT metamorphism has significantly enhanced our
understanding of origin and evolution of supercontinents and the
thermal properties of the crust in geodynamic modeling (e.g.,
Kelsey and Hand, 2015; Harley, 2008; Brown, 2006). In particular,
HP-UHT granulite-facies metamorphism is crucial for under-
standing the nature and structure of the deep crust, continental
interfacial interaction and subduction process, evolution and geo-
dynamics of the orogens (e.g., Brown, 2014, 2009; Tong et al.,
2014; Wei, 2012; Harley, 2008; Santosh et al., 2006; O’Brien and
Rötzler, 2003; Zhai and Liu, 2001).
Dallwitz (1968) firstly reported a metamorphic pelite with a
mineral assemblage of sapphirine+quartz in Enderby area, East
Antarctica, unfortunately, its geological significance was not
expounded clearly. Ellis (1980) identified another metamorphic
pelite with the mineral assemblage of sapphirine+cordierite+
sillimanite+garnet in the same area, and estimated the peak
metamorphic temperature over 1 000 °C. This very high meta-
*Corresponding author: xuhaijin@cug.edu.cn
© China University of Geosciences and Springer-Verlag GmbH
Germany, Part of Springer Nature 2018
Manuscript received March 21, 2018.
Manuscript accepted May 29, 2018.
morphic temperature was not widely accepted then until Hensen
and Harley (1990) systematically summarized graphical analysis
of P-T-X relations in granulite-facies metapelites and named it as
“Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism”. Harley (1998a, b, c)
compiled a dataset of granulite localities and demonstrated that
many terranes have experienced metamorphism at temperatures
over 900 °C. Harley (1998a) officially defined that UHT meta-
morphism was a granulite-facies metamorphism with medium
pressure (7–13 kbar) and very high temperature (900–1 100 °C).
And then, the UHT metamorphism was extensively concerned.
Increasing studies have been focused on its petrogenesis and
tectonic significance. Brown (2007a, b, 2006) and Stüwe (2007)
defined a maximum pressure limit of approximately ≥20 °C/km
or 75 °C/kbar, roughly corresponding to the reaction boundary
between kyanite and sillimanite (Fig. 1). Many researchers sug-
gested that UHT metamorphism is a continuum of granulite-
facies metamorphism rather than a thermal anomaly (e.g., Brown,
2007a, b; Pattison et al., 2003).
As summarized by Kelsey (2008) and Harley (2008), sev-
eral diagnostic mineral assemblages have been used to identify
UHT metamorphism with respect to extremely Mg-Al-rich
metapelites, but there is not any diagnostic assemblage for other
rocks. Some trace element thermometers had been proposed to
distinguish UHT metamorphism like TIZ geothermometer (e.g.,
Ferry and Watson, 2007; Watson et al., 2006) and ZIR geother-
mometer (e.g., Ferry and Watson, 2007; Tomkins et al., 2007;
Watson et al., 2006; Zack et al., 2004; Degeling, 2003). Both the
TIZ and ZIR thermometers have been successfully used to esti-

Lei, H. C., Xu, H. J., 2018. A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism. Journal of Earth Science, xx(x): xxx–xxx.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-018-0846-9. http://en.earth-science.net
2 Hengcong Lei and Haijin Xu

mate temperatures for some UHT granulite-facies rocks (e.g., Liu
et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2013; Jiao et al., 2010; Zhang et al.,
2010). However, the relative validity and robustness of these two
thermometers for recording the UHT metamorphism are widely
debated (e.g., Mitchell and Harley, 2017; Pape et al., 2016; Liu et
al., 2015; Taylor-Jones and Powell, 2015; Ewing et al., 2013).
The mineral abbreviations used in this paper are as follows: Ab.
albite; Bi. biotite; Coe. coesite; Cpx. clinopyroxene; Crd. cordier-
ite; Dia. diamond; Gr. graphite; Gt. garnet; Ilm. ilmenite; Kfs.
K-feldspar; Ky. kyanite; Mi. microcline; Ol. olivine; Opx. or-
thopyroxene; Pl. plagioclase; Q. quartz; Ru. rutile; Sil. sillimanite;
Sp. sphalerite.
et al., 2014, 2004; Tong et al., 2014, 2013; Yang and Li, 2013;
Wang et al., 2009). The Darongshan-Shiwandashan Indo-Sinian
S-type granites in South China contain UHT metasedimentary
granulite enclaves (e.g., Zhao et al., 2011; Peng et al., 2006). In
the central Tibetan Plateau of China, the anhydrous metasedi-
mentary and mafic xenoliths entrained in 3-Ma-old shoshonitic
lavas record a thermal gradient reaching UHT condition (e.g.,
Hacker et al., 2000).

1 DISTRIBUTION OF UHT ROCKS

UHT rocks are identified in all the major continents, and
more than 60 localities showing UHT metamorphism have been
reported (Fig. 2, Table S1). The age of the generation of UHT
rocks ranges from Archean to Phanerozoic, but most of them are
closely associated with Precambrian crustal evolution (e.g., Wei,
2012; Kelsey, 2008; Brown, 2007b; Zhai and Liu, 2001). UHT
granulite-facies metamorphic rocks also widely occur in China.
The Paleoproterozoic sapphirine-bearing spinel gneisses in
Daqingshan and Tuguiwula khondalite belt, Inner Mongolia,
North China Craton are the most typical UHT rocks (e.g., Liu et
al., 2012, 2010; Santosh et al., 2012, 2007a, b; Liu and Li, 2007).
Paleoproterozoic UHT granulite-facies metapelites were also
reported in the Sulu orogenic belts. Lenses of Paleoproterozoic
UHT granulite-facies metapelites were found in the gneisses Figure 1. P-T diagram illustrating conditions of selected metamorphic
from the Sulu UHP terrane (Lei et al., 2014; Xiang et al., 2014a). facies and P-T ranges of different types of metamorphism (modified after
Sapphirine-bearing UHT granulites were also discovered in the Brown, 2007a). BS. Blueschist; AEE. amphibole-epidote eclogite facies;
Qinling Group of the Qinling-Tongbai Orogen (e.g., Xiang et al., ALE. amphibole-lawsonite eclogite facies; LE. lawsonite-eclogite facies;
2014b). The Early Paleozoic HP-UHT granulites were reported AE. amphibole-eclogite facies; UHPM. ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism;
in the Bahiwake area of the South Altun (e.g., Yu et al., 2011; E-HPG. eclogite-high-pressure granulite metamorphism; G. granulite facies;
Zhang and Meng, 2005). The Late Paleozoic UHT granulites UHTM. ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism; Ol-Th. olivine tholeiite;
from the Altay Orogen, northwestern China, have typical mineral Q-Th. quartz tholeiite.
assemblages of spinel-sillimanite-garnet-orthopyroxene (e.g., Li

Figure 2. Sketch map showing the localities of the UHT metamorphism in the world (modified after Kelsey and Hand, 2015). See Table S1 for the studies
conducted for each locality.
A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism 3

Table 1 The diagnostic minerals and assemblages of UHT metamorphism

Lithology Minerals and assemblages References

Metapelites Sapphirine+quartz
Al-orthopyroxene+sillimanite±quartz
Osumilite and its assemblages
Spinel+quartz
Al-orthopyroxene+garnet
Mafic granulites Orthopyroxene+plagioclase±
amphibole±ilmenite±spinel
Calc-silicate and Clinopyroxene+wollastonite+
carbonate rocks scapolite±grossular garnet
Other minerals and Metamorphic pyroxenes
assemblages
Mesoperthite and antiperthite
Corundum and assemblages
Bhadra (2016); Tsunogae and Santosh (2011); Kelsey (2008); Harley et al. (1990);
Ellis (1980)
Kelsey et al. (2003a, b); White et al. (2001); Carrington and Harley (1995)
Kelsey and Hand (2015); Sajeev and Osanai (2004); Grew (1982); Ellis (1980)
Ganguly et al. (2018); Ishii et al. (2006); Dasgupta et al. (1995)
Ishii et al. (2006); Brandt et al. (2003); Pattison et al. (2003); Harley (1998c)
Groppo et al. (2007); Haissen et al. (2004); Nakano et al. (2004); Zhao et al. (2000)
Dasgupta and Pal (2005); Sengupta and Raith (2002); Fitzsimons and Harley (1994)
Harley (1987); Sandiford and Powell (1986); Barnicoat and OʼHara (1979)
Lei et al. (2014); Hokada and Suzuki (2006); Prakash et al. (2006); Hokada (2001);
Rötzler and Romer (2001)
Nicoli et al. (2014); Perchuk et al. (1989); Ellis (1980)

2 IDENTIFICATION OF UHT METAMORPHISM
UHT metamorphism is primarily recognized on the basis of
mineral assemblages found in Mg-Al-rich metapelites (e.g., Kel-
sey and Hand, 2015). As the first UHT mineral assemblage rec-
ognized from metapelites, sapphirine+quartz is the most un-
equivocal UHT assemblage (e.g., Bhadra, 2016; Tsunogae and
Santosh, 2011; Kelsey, 2008). Al-orthopyroxene+sillimanite±
quartz mineral assemblage is another diagnostic indicator for
UHT metamorphism, which has been documented from >65% of
the known UHT localities in the world (e.g., Kelsey, 2008 and
references therein). When osumilite is associated with other min-
erals, such as garnet, orthopyroxene+sillimanite, and sapphirine+
orthopyroxene+quartz, it can be considered as an indicator of
UHT metamorphism too (e.g., Harley, 2008). Other diagnostic
minerals and assemblages of UHT metamorphism are displayed
in Table 1. Caution needs to be exercised when these assem-
blages are used as the indicators for UHT metamorphism in some
situations (e.g., Kelsey and Hand, 2015 and references therein).
Besides above-mentioned assemblages, there are many other
assemblages which are helpful to indicate UHT metamorphism,
such as orthopyroxene+corundum (e.g., Kelly and Harley, 2004;
Bertrand et al., 1992; Kihle and Bucher-Nurminen, 1992),
garnet+corundum (e.g., Kelsey et al., 2006; Shimpo et al., 2006;
Scrimgeour et al., 2005) and so on. Some sapphirine-bearing
assemblages as coronas around garnet, sillimanite or orthopy-
roxene are also indicative of UHT metamorphism (e.g., Sajeev et
al., 2004; Harley, 1998c). Some of them are not definitive diag-
nosis of UHT condition. Until now, there are no typically diag-
nostic mineral assemblages of UHT metamorphism for non-
supracrustal rocks.
3 P-T CONDITIONS CONSTRAINTS OF UHT META-
MORPHISM
3.1 Geothermobarometers
The UHT metamorphism was not widely accepted as a
common type of metamorphism until the end of the last century
(e.g., Kelsey, 2008). Two-pyroxene, two-oxide, and garnet-
clinopyroxene thermometers were used to T-estimate by Frost and
Chacko (1989), finding that these conventional thermobarometry
may not be capable of routinely recovering peak metamorphic
temperature from granulite terrains and that special steps must be
taken to maximize the chances of obtaining these peak conditions,
which is called granulite uncertainty principle.
In recent years, unconventional geothermobarometers have
increasingly been applied to estimate temperatures of metamor-
phic rocks. The most popular thermometers are TIZ (Ti-in-zircon,
e.g., Ferry and Watson, 2007; Watson et al., 2006) and ZIR (Zr-
in-rutile, e.g., Ferry and Watson, 2007; Tomkins et al., 2007;
Watson et al., 2006; Zack et al., 2004; Degeling, 2003). These two
thermometers are based on the incorporation of Ti into zircon
coexisting with rutile and quartz and Zr into rutile coexisting with
zircon and quartz, respectively. In general, when the content of Ti
in zircon is more than 50 ppm (e.g., Ferry and Watson, 2007;
Watson et al., 2006) and/or the content of Zr in rutile exceeds
1 500 ppm (e.g., Ferry and Watson, 2007; Tomkins et al., 2007;
Watson et al., 2006; Zack et al., 2004; Degeling, 2003), these two
thermometers can be used to identify UHT metamorphism. TIZ
thermometry has been applied to evaluate the temperatures of
metamorphism for two UHT granulite localities by Baldwin et al.
(2007). They obtained two phases of growth temperatures of
878–1 024 and 839–936 C, respectively. ZIR thermometry was
applied to UHT granulites from three localities of the khondalite
belt in North China Craton, yielding temperature results which are
higher than 900 C, even surpass 1 000 C (e.g., Jiao et al., 2011).
And these two thermometers have been more and more success-
fully used to estimate the peak and post-peak temperatures of
UHT rocks (e.g., Mitchell and Harley, 2017; Chen et al., 2013;
Ewing et al., 2013; Meyer et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2010; Zhang et
al., 2010). Furthermore, Ferry and Watson (2007) confirmed an
equilibrium between TIZ and ZIR in the case of the rocks con-
taining both zircon and rutile.
3.2 Phase Equilibria Modeling
Since the establishment and improvement of thermody-
namic database (e.g., Diener and Powell, 2012; Holland and
Powell, 2011, 1998; White and Powell, 2010; White et al., 2007;
4 Hengcong Lei and Haijin Xu
Wei et al., 2004; Berman, 1988), P-T pseudosection modeling
has become one of the most effective means to constrain P-T
conditions and P-T paths for metamorphism. Compared with
conventional geothermobarometers, phase equilibria modeling,
based on the stability of mineral assemblages, mineral chemistry,
mineral proportion and thermodynamic data, focuses on con-
tinuous and discontinuous mineral reactions rather than only on
the mineral compositions. The quantitative study of phase equi-
libria can not only calculate P-T projection, pseudosection, and
component symbiotic diagrams (e.g., Wei and Zhou, 2003), but
also quantitatively simulate the re-melting, changing in the com-
position of the melt and the effect of melt behavior on mineral
composition during the metamorphism (e.g., Wei et al., 2017).
The success of phase equilibria modeling has led to some
complacency that UHT metamorphism is now fully quantified
in terms of P-T and mineral assemblages in metapelites (Fig. 3)
(e.g., Wei, 2016; Wei and Zhu, 2016; Lei et al., 2014; Xiang et
al., 2014a; White and Powell, 2010; White et al., 2001). How-
ever, the former a–x models used in the pseudosection calcula-
tions of clinopyroxene and amphibole are based on phase equi-
librium calculations of eclogite-facies and amphibolite-facies
(e.g., Wei et al., 2017; Diener et al., 2007; Green et al., 2007).
Since Ti end-members in amphibole and (Mg,Fe)2Si2O6 com-
ponents in clinopyroxene are not included, a–x models are not
suitable for the phase equilibrium calculations of granulite-
facies. In addition, the former melts models are intended to
calculate equilibria of metapelites but not appropriate for mafic
metamorphic rocks. Until Green et al. (2016) presented a set of
thermodynamic models consisting of new activity-composition
relations, the calculation of partial melting equilibria for
metabasic rocks has not been allowed. Calibration of the new
activity-composition relations was carried out aiming to repro-
duce major experimental phase-in/phase-out boundaries that
define the amphibolite-granulite transition, across a range of
bulk compositions, at ≤13 kbar.
4 GENESIS OF UHT METAMORPHISM
4.1 Heat Source
UHT metamorphism suggests that the crust has achieved
an anormal geothermal gradient with approximately 20 °C/km
or 75 °C/kbar (e.g., Brown, 2007a, b, 2006; Stüwe, 2007). The
achievement of the temperature for UHT metamorphism is very
difficult without a large amount of heat generation (e.g., Na-
belek et al., 2010; Nabelek and Liu, 2004; Thompson and
Connolly, 1995; Royden, 1993). Heating sources for UHT
metamorphism are probably from radiogenic heat, strain heat,
heat of magma and/or mantle.
The radiogenic heat generated from elements U, Th, and K
within the lithosphere plays an important role in the distribution
of crustal temperature (e.g., Sandiford and McLaren, 2006).
The radiogenic heat can produce noticeable temperature up to
300 °C and 25 mWm-2 (e.g., Vilà et al., 2010). Clark et al.
(2011) suggesed that radiogenic heat is closely related to UHT
metamorphism, at least to a certain extent, and can provide a
certain heat source to UHT metamorphism. Ferrero et al. (2017)
suggested that radiogenic heat may be one of the reasons for
the UHT metamorphism of felsic granulites from northeastern
Connecticut of US.
Strain heating in ductile shear zone dominantly depends on
the stresses imposed on the lithosphere and the rate of heat trans-
fer from the deforming region (e.g., Nabelek et al., 2010). With
the increase of temperature, the decrease of thermal diffusivity
helps the heating of the deformed region to reach higher tem-
peratures (e.g., Whittington et al., 2009). When a shear zone is
infertile or has lost all melt and became anhydrous, the deforma-
tion may potentially lead to granulite and UHT metamorphism in
the proximity of the shear zone, in which the maximal tempera-
ture reaches ~940–1 040 °C (e.g., Nabelek et al., 2010). Infiltra-
tion metasomatism under granulite-facies conditions of 870–924
°C and 10.1–10.2 kbar exists in shear zones of the Lapland
granulite belt (e.g., Lebedeva et al., 2010; Bushmin et al., 2007).
High-heat flow from magmas could induce contact UHT
metamorphism of the wall-rocks, which is an important heat
source for UHT metamorphism. They include high-temperature
intrusions such as anorthosite (e.g., McFarlane et al., 2003),
charnockite (e.g., Barbosa et al., 2006), or gabbronorite (e.g.,
Guo et al., 2012; Arima and Gower, 1991). Based on Al solu-
bility in orthopyroxene, thermometry can record a temperature
gradient ranging from 700 to 900 °C at distances between 5 750
and 20 m from the intrusion of the Makhavinekh Lake pluton
(e.g., McFarlane et al., 2003). Samples of aluminous-
magnesian granulites collected close to the Brejões Dome re-
cord the temperatures of 900–1 000 °C (e.g., Barbosa et al.,
2006). Barbosa et al. (2006) suggested that the intrusion of the
Brejões charnockite diaper was responsible for a local increase
in temperature above the peak temperature of regional granulite
metamorphism. Meanwhile, the temperature of peak UHT
metamorphism in Daqingshan sapphirine granulites is in the
range of 910–980 °C, and is ascribed to contact metamorphism
induced by gabbronorite intrusions (e.g., Guo et al., 2012).
The additional thermal energy derived from the mantle can
also generate high-heat flow which can promote UHT meta-
morphism. This is one of the most important heat sources
which result in UHT metamorphism. In some cases, coeval
mantle magmatism is directly linked to granulite formation
(e.g., Maidment et al., 2013; Kemp et al., 2007; Yoshino and
Okudaira, 2004). If thickening is extreme, the high-heat flow
transfers through delamination of the sub-crustal lithosphere or
perhaps from crustal self-heating (e.g., McKenzie and Priestley,
2008). Within the continental lithosphere, many processes in-
cluding UHT metamorphism may be driven by the transfer of
the high-heat flow from the mantle (e.g., Brown, 2006). UHT
metamorphism generated by the heat flow in the mantle ap-
pears in many locations like South Altay belt of NW China
(e.g., Yang and Wei, 2017; Yang et al., 2014; Wan et al., 2013;
Peng et al., 2010), Palghat Cauvery tectonic zone of India (e.g.,
Tsunogae and Santosh, 2011), Kerala khondalite belt of India
(e.g., Gou et al., 2015; Pattison et al., 2003), and In Ouzzal of
Algeria (e.g., Adjerid et al., 2013).
4.2 Tectonic Settings of UHT Metamorphism
4.2.1 Continental collisional orogenic system
The occurrence of UHT metamorphism throughout Earth
history is closely associated with the generation of supercontinent
A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism 5

Figure 3. P-T pseudosection (a) and the compositional isopleths of the garnet (b) for the UHT granulite of Sulu orogenic belt (e.g., Lei et al., 2014). The red and
black dashes lines represent isopleths of Mg# and XCa for garnet respectively. Mg#=Mg/(Fe+Mg) and XCa=Ca/(Fe+Mg+Ca+Mn).
6 Hengcong Lei and Haijin Xu
(e.g., Brown, 2007a, b, 2006). In many cases, the extreme UHT
crustal metamorphism is distributed in the collisional environ-
ments (e.g., Santosh and Sajeev, 2006; Tsunogae and Santosh,
2006). Here are the possible circumstances.
(1) Post-collisional slab break-off and delamination (Fig.
4a); in this case, the addition thermal energy may derive from
the asthenospheric mantle, so the lower part of overlying crust
experiences UHT metamorphism (e.g., Harley, 2008). In the
Korean Peninsula, the southwestern Odaesan gneiss complex
underwent UHT metamorphism (902–950 °C, 8.8–9.4 kbar)
due to the heat supplied by the uplifted asthenospheric mantle
through the opening formed by the slab break-off during the
initial post-collision stage (e.g., Lee et al., 2016). (2) The iso-
thermal exhumation in the final stage of a continental colli-
sional orogenic belt (e.g., Tsunogae et al., 2008) (Fig. 4b);
Tsunogae et al. (2008) supposed that UHT metamorphism
(880–1 040 °C, 9.8–12.5 kbar) of the Komateri northern
Madurai Block of southern India has a close correlation with
the continent-continent collision during the final stage of
amalgamation of Gondwana supercontinent. (3) Magmatic
underplating in a thickened crust that the orogen underwent a
post extension with an anticlockwise P-T path (e.g., Sajeev and
Osanai, 2004; Harley, 1989) (Fig. 4c); UHT metamorphism
(1 150 °C, 12 kbar) of Mg-Al-rich granulites from the Central
Highland complex of Sri Lanka is a typical case (e.g., Sajeev et
al., 2004). (4) Continental lower crustal delamination and
extensional collapse of orogen (e.g., Santosh and Omori, 2008a)
(Fig. 4d); the extreme temperatures suggest a convective thin-
ning or detachment of the lithospheric thermal boundary layer
during or after crustal thickening (e.g., Santosh and Sajeev,
2006). The peak P-T conditions of 930–980 °C and 8.5–9.0
kbar (e.g., Adjerid et al., 2013) suggest a delamination of the
lithospheric mantle underneath the In Ouzzal crust.
In addition, self-heating of the orogen such as viscous dis-
sipation or mechanical heating is another heat source in the
collision-style tectonic systems (e.g., Kelsey, 2008), which can
quickly and efficiently provide heat transfer between the litho-
sphere and overlying crust (e.g., Kincaid and Silver, 1996). In
Figure 4. Schematic diagrams deciphering continental collisional orogen related possible sites of UHT.
the continental collisional orogenic system, an in-situ heat
source from deformed lithospheric mantle provides immediate
feedback to metamorphic temperatures in the overlying crust
(e.g., Burg and Gerya, 2005; Stüwe, 1998). Viscous heating has
potential influence on both temperature distribution and
large-scale structural patterns within the deformed crust, nota-
bly the exhumation of lower crustal rocks would speed up (e.g.,
Burg and Gerya, 2005). Moreover, the lower crust has a lower
thermal diffusivity than one which has been previously em-
ployed to geodynamic models (e.g., Whittington et al., 2009),
which implies that the lower crust can retain heat for a longer
time and the underlying mantle has a higher mean temperature
(e.g., Santosh et al., 2012). Thus, UHT metamorphism may be a
function of the inherent properties and characteristics of the
continental collisional orogenic crust.
4.2.2 Accretionary orogenic system
A hot part involved in HT-UHT metamorphism can form
within the accretionary orogen during tectonic switching in pro-
longed lithospheric extension interrupted by intermittent and tran-
sient contraction (e.g., Collins, 2002a, b). The following condi-
tions provide favorable environments for UHT metamorphism
(Fig. 5). (1) Asthenosphere upwelling as the deep subduction
oceanic slab stagnancy, rollback and break-off (e.g., Collins,
2002a, b); extension and slab rollback lead to the UHT metamor-
phism at 1 000 °C and 7–8 kbar (e.g., Gorczyk et al., 2016). (2)
Input of mantle material into upper crust since the mantle delami-
nation is caused by the crust thickened (e.g., Guo et al., 2012;
Collins, 2002a, b); granulite-facies metapelitic rocks from the
Archean Pikwitonei granulite domain record P-T conditions at
~910 °C and 9 kbar in this stage (e.g., Kooijman et al., 2012). (3)
The emplacement of magmas in the roots of arcs and subsequent
granulite-facies metamorphism (e.g., Santosh et al., 2012; Jagoutz
et al., 2007). (4) A back-arc basin of an active accretionary-
extensional margin or orogen (e.g., Santosh et al., 2012; Brown,
2009, 2007a, b, 2006; Harley, 2008, 1989; Collins, 2002a, b); it
may be one of the commonly invoked settings for the UHT-
metamorphism, on the basis of the observation that many back-
A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism
Figure 5. Cartoon cross-section depicting subduction related possible sites
of UHT metamorphism in the accretionary orogenic system (modified after
Santosh and Omori, 2008a).
arc basins are recognized to be regions of thin, weak crust and
high heat flow (e.g., Hyndman et al., 2005). UHT metamorphism
in the Schirmacher Hills of East Antarctic is such an example
(e.g., Baba et al., 2010, 2006).
In addition, ridge subduction and slab window are candi-
dates for UHT metamorphism (Fig. 6) (e.g., Santosh et al., 2012;
Santosh and Kusky, 2010; Bradley et al., 2003). During the evo-
lution of ocean basins, spreading ridges usually interact with the
convergent margin, causing the ridge to be subducted beneath the
convergent margin in the subduction zone (e.g., Bradley et al.,
2003). The upwelling mantle material that fills the slab window
would normally trigger partial melting, and once the slab window
opens beneath the convergent margin, a switch over occurs with
increasing depth (e.g., Santosh and Kusky, 2010). In shallow
levels of the accretionary prism, melt still rises, mixes with, and
partially melts the accretionary wedge material, forming hybrid
magmas (e.g., Kusky and Li, 2003), together with a medium-
ultrahigh temperature near-trench metamorphism (e.g., Sisson et
al., 2003). UHT mafic granulites in the East Hebei of North
China Craton possibly formed under this tectonic setting (e.g.,
Yang and Wei, 2017).
4.2.3 Post-collisional extension, intracontinental rifting
and mantle plume
The extensional tectonics are usually associated with the
UHT metamorphism, such as post-collisional extension, intra-
continental rifting and mantle plume. In these extensional envi-
ronments, high-temperature intrusions generate an extreme tem-
perature for UHT metamorphism (Fig. 7). The Gondwana suture
in southern India and the Inner Mongolia suture zone in the
North China Craton, are associated with post-collisional
extension of the paleo-subduction zones (e.g., Santosh et al.,
2012). In the African rift valley, the heat and volatiles supplied by
rising plumes might contribute to the generation of dry ultrahigh-
temperature assemblages in the lower crust (e.g., Santosh and
Omori, 2008b). Such UHT metamorphism also occurs in the
Altai orogenic belt, China. (e.g., Tong et al., 2014, 2013).
5 KEY SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS ON UHT METAMOR-
PHISM
5.1 Identification of UHT Metamorphism in the Non-
Supracrustal Rocks
The diagnostic mineral assemblages of UHT metamorphism
7
are sapphirine+quartz, Al-orthopyroxene+sillimanite±quartz,
spinel+quartz and so forth. All of them occur in high-Mg-Al
supracrustal rocks. However, there are no typically diagnostic
assemblages or methods which can be applied to identify UHT
metamorphism in other types of rocks like metabasite. The de-
termination of UHT conditions for the non-supracrustal rocks is
still difficult due to the absence of an appropriate activity-
composition model. Green et al. (2016) presented a set of ther-
modynamic models including new activity-composition model
which can be employed for mafic melts, however, it takes time to
get good grades. Although Harley (2008) suggested that pi-
geonite can exist in the mafic UHT rocks, whether it can only be
stabilized under UHT condition is still relatively uncertain (e.g.,
Wei et al., 2017). Fortunately, a successful application of Ti-in-
zircon thermometer to UHT metamorphism in the Anápolis-
Itauçu complex has been reported by Baldwin et al. (2007). In-
creasing works use TIZ and ZIR to constrain UHT granulite-
facies metamorphism for the non-supracrustal rocks (e.g., Jiao et
al., 2011; Liu et al., 2010). Thus, the unconventional geothermo-
barometers might be a viable approach to identify UHT meta-
morphism for the non-supracrustal rocks.
5.2 Applications of TIZ and ZIR in UHT Metamorphism
TIZ and ZIR as unconventional geothermobarometers are
effective methods on the recognition of UHT metamorphism.
The results of these two tools should be coupled in theory when
there is a balance between zircon and rutile (e.g., Ferry and Wat-
son, 2007). However, the results of TIZ and ZIR usually show a
decoupled feature when they are employed for the natural sam-
ples, especially for the estimation of P-T conditions of UHT
metamorphism (e.g., Mitchell and Harley, 2017; Pape et al., 2016;
Liu et al., 2015; Taylor-Jones and Powell, 2015; Ewing et al.,
2013). Ewing et al. (2013) investigated the behavior of the ZIR
and TIZ thermometers in granulite-facies metapelites from the
Ivrea-Verbano zone lower crustal section. They found that the
temperatures recorded by rutiles are higher than those recorded
by zircons for 100–200 °C, suggesting that ZIR thermometer can
robustly record peak temperatures in the high-grade metamorphic
terranes. On the contrary, Harley (2016) found that the tempera-
tures recorded by zircons are higher than those recorded by
rutiles for 140–200 °C in the UHT Napier complex. To evaluate
the usefulness and reliability of ZIR geothermometer in the
granulite-facies rocks, Pape et al. (2016) investigated the rutile in
UHT rocks and suggested that different Zr concentrations in
rutile crystals from the same sample provide a record of prograde
metamorphic reactions and distinct equilibration textures. This
work forcefully suggests that Zr contents in rutile can be
affected by the retrograde adjustment (Pape et al., 2016). Fur-
thermore, Mitchell and Harley (2017) presented an integrated
petrological approach to testify ZIR thermometry which fo-
cused on high-pressure rutile bearing UHT granulites from
Napier complex, considering that the ZIR thermometer may be
not as reliable as it was thought before. As effective ways to
study UHT metamorphism, it is urgent to understand their
limitations, results and range of applications. Besides, the de-
coupled circumstances of these two thermometers and the rea-
sons why the decouple is caused should be settled urgently.
8 Hengcong Lei and Haijin Xu

Figure 6. Ridge subduction and slab window model about UHT metamorphism (modified after Santosh and Kusky, 2010).

Figure 7. Cartoon sketch illustrating UHT metamorphism in the case of intracontinental rifting and mantle plume (modified after Santosh and Omori, 2008b).
When rising plume hits the subcontinental mantle, then small amounts of melts from plume and heat recrystallize the lower crust to yield UHT rocks.

5.3 Tectonic Affinity of UHT Metamorphic Rocks
Characterized by elevated thermal gradients, as the main
source on which the gradients are established, UHT metamor-
phism is closely associated with deep crustal structure and geo-
dynamical features of the orogenic belt (e.g., Kelsey and Hand,
2015; Brown, 2007b). Brown (2007a, b) put forward that there
are mainly two types of orogenic system, namely accretionary
and collisional orogenic system respectively. Numerous tectonic
models proposed for HT granulite generation are based on the
two orogenic systems (e.g., Gorczyk et al., 2016; Sizova et al.,
2014; Jamieson and Beaumont, 2013; Wan et al., 2013; Stüwe,
2007). All of them are related to the major Earth recycling and
crust-generation process of subduction, showing an apparent
temporal relationship to supercontinent assembly (e.g., Kelsey
and Hand, 2015). However, the tectonic affinity of those UHT
metamorphic rocks is still poorly understood. Especially in the
collisional orogenic belt, the overlying and subduction slabs re-
spectively experience different metamorphism with different
geological significance. The identification of the slab from which
the UHT rocks derive is significant in the study of the thermal
structure and evolution of the deep crust of the orogen, which can
provide essential information for the study of geodynamics.
5.4 Ages and Duration of UHT Metamorphism
The ages and duration over which the UHT metamorphism
occurs have not been well constrained for a long time (e.g.,
Baldwin and Brown, 2008). But it is necessary that they should
be acquired to integrate metamorphic data such as P-T paths
into tectonic setting of metamorphism. The petrological
framework and P-T evolution have been adequately determined
in many UHT terranes which can be linked to P-T point and
P-T path segment information (e.g., Kelsey and Hand, 2015;
A Review of Ultrahigh Temperature Metamorphism
Bhowmik et al., 2014). Zircon and monazite are the most
commonly used chronometers for dating geologic processes as
well as UHT metamorphism (e.g., Rubatto and Hermann, 2007;
Rubatto, 2002; Rubatto et al., 2001; Rubatto and Gebauer,
2000). Some information about the timescale of metamorphism
at the scale of the orogeny can be provided by them, such as the
duration of the heat source baking orogenic belt and the dura-
tion of metamorphism recorded by a specific hand specimen-
sized rock sample (e.g., Mitchell and Harley, 2017; Harley,
2016; Ewing et al., 2013; Rubatto et al., 2001). Indeed, TIZ and
ZIR thermometers combined with zircon in situ dating and
trace element thermometry offer an effective way to the study
of the age and duration of UHT metamorphism, which are of
great scientific significance to understand the nature, mecha-
nism and tectonic setting of UHT metamorphism and even
geodynamics of the orogenic belt.
6 CONCLUSION
UHT metamorphism has been a focus of frontier study of
metamorphic geology. Many advances have been made in the
past decades. The available results from the petrological and
geochemical studies of UHT metamorphic terranes indicate that:
(1) UHT metamorphism is accepted as a relatively common re-
gional metamorphism; (2) more and more diagnostic mineral
assemblages can be used to identify UHT metamorphism; (3)
trace element thermometry has become new approach to recog-
nize UHT metamorphism for non-supracrustal rocks; (4) the P-T
path and mineral assemblage evolution of UHT metamorphism
can be fully quantified based on phase equilibria modeling. UHT
metamorphism can reveal the geodynamics in deep crust al-
though there are still some important issues which have not been
solved. To shed an insight on the nature, identification and gene-
sis of UHT metamorphism, further studies need to address the
following aspects: (1) the identification of UHT metamorphism
for the non-supracrustal rocks; (2) robustness of the trace element
geothermometers; (3) tectonic affinity of UHT metamorphic
rocks; (4) nature and genesis of UHT metamorphism.
ACKNOWLDGMENTS
This research was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Nos. 41772054, 41572039 and 41372076)
and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,
China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) (No. CUGQYZX1704).
We thank Prof. Jingbo Liu and other two anonymous reviewers
for offering constructive comments, which have helped us to im-
prove the manuscript greatly. The final publication is available at
Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-018-0846-9.
Electronic Supplementary Materials: Supplementary materi-
als (Table S1 and REFERENCES CITED therein) are available
in the online version of this article at
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-018-0846-9.
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