Parasitology

- the study of the interaction between parasites and their hosts

Parasites

- an organism that lives on or in a host organism and gets its food from or at the expense of its
host

- Three main classes of parasites: protozoa, helminths and ectoparasites

diseases caused by Parasites

How Do You Get Parasites and What Are The Risk Factors?

✔ Eating raw or semi-raw meat or fish.

✔ Being in contact with pets.

✔ Contaminated water or food (poor sanitation).

✔ Poor hygiene.

✔ Unwashed hands.

Parasitism

- Common among children due to poor personal hygiene, frequent contact with friends during
active play, and lack of knowledge on the part of parents about parasites.

statements about parasitism

1. Scotch tape Test = A test for children to identify a pinworm infestation.

 2. Whipworm and Hookworm = examples of soil transmitted helminths.

3. The skin is the portal of entry of hookworms and Plasmodium (specie causing Malaria)

4. Larvae stage of hookworms enters the human host.

5. Human mouth is the portal of entry of amoeba and whipworms.

6. In the human host, most parasites hatch in the small intestines.

7. As long as the head survives, tapeworms will continue to grow and shed segments.

8. Ascaris’ mode of reproduction is sexual.

9. Anemia and distended abdomen are common signs and symptoms of children with helminthic
infestation.

Parasites

1. Definitive host - harbors the adult or sexual stage of the parasite or the sexual phase of the
parasite’s life cycle.

2. Intermediate host - harbors the larval or asexual stage of protozoans and parasites or the
asexual phase of its life cycle.

3. Accidental host - is a living organism that can serve as a host in a particular parasite’s life cycle,
but is not a usual host in that life cycle.

4. Facultative parasite - is an organism that can be parasitic but does not have to live as a parasite.
It is capable of living an independent life, apart from a host.

5. Obligate parasite - has no choice to survive. It must be a parasite. Most parasites that infect
humans are obligate parasites.

Infective Stage

- the stage in the life cycle at which the parasite is able to initiate an infection to its host

- the parasite is capable of entering its host and continue its development within the host

Diagnostic stage

- the stage at which the parasite leaves the host

Protozoa

- From Greek protozoon word meaning “First animal”

- eukaryotic organisms that inhabit water, soil, and from animals
Characteristics of Protozoans

- Unicellular - Single celled, often rely on other organisms for some necessities
- Aerobic heterotroph - Single celled, often rely on other organisms for some necessities

Life Cycle of Protozoans

a. Asexual

- Binary fission: cytoplasmic division follows mitosis

- Budding

- Multiple fission or schizogeny: cells or organism is split into many new cells or
organisms

b. Sexual

- Conjugation - two cells fuse then separates having fertilized cell which then later
divide producing daughter cells with recombined DNA

- Some produce gametes (gametocytes) which are haploid cells which fused during
reproduction producing diploid zygote

Encystment

Cyst

- a protective capsule produces by some protozoa under certain adverse conditions

- permits

- the organism to survive when food, moisture, or oxygen are lacking, when temperatures are
not suitable, or when toxic chemicals are present

- enables a parasitic species to survive outside a host. This is important because parasitic
protozoa may have to be excreted from one host in order to get to a new host

Oocyst

- cyst formed by members of the phylum Apicomplexa used to produce new cells asexually

Nutrition

- All protozoa live in areas with a large supply of water. Some protozoa transport food across the
plasma membrane.
- Ciliates take in food by waving their cilia toward a mouth-like opening called a cytostome.
- Amoebas engulf food by surrounding it with pseudopods and phagocytizing it.
Classification of Protozoans

Mastigophora or Flagellated protozoans:

- They are parasites or free-living.
- They have flagella for locomotion.
- Reproduction is by binary fission (longitudinal division)
- Examples: Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia, Leishmania, etc.

Trichomonas vaginalis

Disease: Treatment Pathogenesis: Symptoms:

Trichomoniasis- Metroni- Destroys epithelial cells and Itching and burning in genital
Sexually dazole cytotoxic substances are released. organs and discharge.
transmitted Vaginal pH increases and the
Mostly asymptomatic in males,
disease (STD) number of leukocytes also
but in females it may lead to
increases in response to the toxic
many complications such as
substance released by the
complication during pregnancy
pathogen
and after birth

Sarcodina or Amoeboids:
- They live in the freshwater, sea or moist soil.
- The movement is by pseudopodia. They capture their prey by pseudopodia
- no definite shape
 - contractile vacuole is present in the amoeboid living in freshwater
- Reproduction is by binary fission and cyst formation
- Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc.

Amoeba
Infective stage: mature cyst

Diagnostic Stage: Cyst and trophozoite

Virulence 1. Lectin – mediates attachment to the galactose part of the plasma

Factor membrane and causes cell lysis

2. Amebapores– used to penetrate

Diseases 1. Amebiais –

2. Amebic Dysentery – severe form of amebiasis associated with

stomach pain, bloody stools (poop), and fever.

3. Amebic Liver Abscess (ALA) - rare

Sign and - Fever, Abdominal cramping and pain

symptoms
- Mucoid stool with blood, Loose bowel movement

Diagnostic - Direct Microscopy of stool

Test
blood test is also available but is only recommended when your
-
healthcare provider thinks that your infection may have spread
1. more common in people who live in tropical areas with poor sanitary conditions
beyond the intestine (gut) to some other organ of your body, such
as the
2. People who liver
have traveled to tropical places that have poor sanitary conditions

3. Immigrants from tropical countries that have poor sanitary conditions

Mode of Fecal-Oral Route
Transmissio4. People who live in institutions that have poor sanitary conditions
- Puts anything into their mouth that has touched the feces (poop) of
n
5. Men whoa have
person
sexwho
withis men
infected with E. histolytica.

Risk Factors

Treatment 1. Metronidazole – for invasive amebiasis

2. Diloxanide furoate – for asymptomatic carriers

 3. Sporozoa or Sporozoans:
- They are endoparasitic.

• They don’t have any specialised organ for locomotion

• The pellicle is present, which has subpellicular microtubules, that help in movement

• Reproduction is by sporozoite formation

• Examples: Plasmodium, Myxidium, Nosema, Globidium, etc.

Causative Plasmodium falciparum (deadliest, most prevalent in Africa), P. vivax (Sub-Saharan Africa),
organism P. malariae, P. ovale, P, knowlesi

Infective stage: sporozoites

Vector Female Anopheles mosquito

Patho- The parasite attacks the liver and RBCs. It multiplies within liver cells, enters the
genesis bloodstream and ruptures RBCs. It releases a toxic substance called ‘hemozoin’, which
causes fever.

Disease Malaria - serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a parasite

Plasmodium

Mode of Trans- 1. Malaria mostly spreads to people through the bites of some infected female Anopheles
mission mosquitoes.

2. Blood transfusion and contaminated needles may also transmit malaria.

Diagnosis Direct Microscopy: Thin and thick smears with Giemsa or Wright’s stain

- Better yield id blood samples are taken during fever or 2-3 hours after peak

Signs and Most common: fever, headache, and chills (usually starts within 10-15 days of getting bitten
Symptoms
 by an infected mosquito)

Severe symptoms include:

- extreme tiredness and fatigue , impaired consciousness, multiple convulsions, difficulty

breathing, dark or bloody urine, jaundice, abnormal bleeding

Treatment Refer to table on the next slide

Prevention Malaria can be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites or by taking medicines. Talk to a doctor
about taking medicines such as chemoprophylaxis before travelling to areas where malaria is
common.

Lower the risk of getting malaria by avoiding mosquito bites:

• Use mosquito nets

• Use mosquito repellents

• Use coils and vaporizers.

• Wear protective clothing.

• Use window screens.

4. Ciliophora or Ciliated protozoans:

-They are aquatic and move actively with the help of thousands of cilia.

• They have fixed shape due to covering of pellicle

• They may have tentacles, e.g. in the sub-class Suctoria

• Contractile vacuoles are present

• Some species have an organ for defence called trichocysts

• They move with the help of cilia and the movement of cilia also helps in taking food inside the
gullet

• They reproduce by transverse division and also form cysts

• Examples: Paramecium, Vorticella, Balantidium, etc.

Balantidium coli
Disease: Source: Patthogenesis: Symptoms:
 Balantidiasis Pigs Excystation occurs in the small Ulcer due to lesion in the colon,
intestine. Sporozoites migrate colitis, blood and mucus in the
to the colon stool,

Helminths
- Helminths are multicellular eukaryotic animals that generally possess digestive, circulatory,
nervous, excretory, and reproductive systems.
- Have hooks for attachment and suckers for sucking nutrients from the hosts.

Difference of parasitic helminths from their free-living relatives

1. May lack a digestive system but can absorb nutrients from the host’s food.

2. No need for extensive nervous system because they do not have to search for food

3. Means of locomotion is reduced because helminths are transferred from host to host and not need to
search actively for a suitable habitat.

4. Reproductive system is often complex. Helminths can produce large numbers of eggs from a suitable
host.

Ascaris lumbricoides
Causative Agent - soil-transmitted helminth

- Considered as major burden of parasitic disease worldwidetogether with

hookworm, and whipworm

- parasites live in the intestine

Disease Ascariasis

Mode of Fecal –oral route

Transmission
- ingestion of food or water that has been contaminated by the fertilized
infected eggs

Risk factors - Poor hand hygiene,

- polluted water and

- unsanitary food preparation

 Signs and • People with ascariasis often show no symptoms.
symptoms
• If symptoms occur they can be light.

• Symptoms include abdominal discomfort or pain.

• Heavy infections can block the intestines and slow growth in children.

• Other symptoms such as cough are due to migration of the worms

through the body.

Diagnosis - standard method : identifying Ascaris eggs in a stool sample using a

microscope

Prevention • Avoid contact with soil that may be contaminated with human feces,
including with human fecal matter (“night soil”) used to fertilize crops.

• Wash your hands with soap and warm water before handling food.

• Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection.

• Wash, peel, or cook all raw vegetables and fruits before eating,
particularly those that have been grown in soil that has been fertilized
with manure.

*** Transmission of infection to others can be prevented by

•not defecating outdoors, and by

•effective sewage disposal systems

Treatment - Antihelminthic: albendazole and mebendazole

Other parasites
ENDOPARASITES (Living inside the host)

Scientific Name Common Name

Enterobius vermicularis Pinworm, seatworm, society worm

Taenia solium/Taenia saginata Pork tapeworm/Beef tapeworm

Ascaris lumbricoides Giant Intestinal Roundworms

Ancyclostoma duodenale Old world hookworm

Trichuris trichuria Whipworm

Paragonimus westermani Paragonimiasis

Wuchereria bancrofti Bancroft’s Filaria

Schistosoma japonicum Oriental blood fluke

ECTOPARASITES (Living outside the Host)

Pediculus humanus capitis Head louse

Pediculus humanus corporis Body louse, clothes louse

Pthirus pubis “crab” louse, pubic louse

Lice
- ectoparasite; lice survive by feeding on human blood

- Types:

• Pediculus humanus capitis (head louse),

• Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse, clothes louse)

• Pthirus pubis (“crab” louse, pubic louse).